Natural Modulation of Near-Surface

Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Level Through

Acacia auriculiformis

Pritam Mukherjee and Abhijit Mitra

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Description of the Study Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Materials and Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Selection of the Study Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Estimation of Mean Population Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Estimation of Near-Surface Atmospheric CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Estimation of Mean Above-Ground Biomass (AGB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Estimation of Mean Above-Ground Carbon (AGC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Estimation of CO2 Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Estimation of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Correlation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
CO2 and AGB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
CO2 and AGC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CO2 and CO2 Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
CO2 and SOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
AGB and AGC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
AGB and CO2 Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
AGC and CO2 Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
SOC and Atmospheric CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
SOC and CO2 Equivalent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

P. Mukherjee (✉)
Department of Oceanography, Techno India University, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
A. Mitra
Department of Marine Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2025 1

W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Handbook of Nature-Based Solutions to Mitigation and
Adaptation to Climate Change, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-98067-2_33-1
2 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

Abstract
Forest and urban vegetations play a vital role in regulating the carbon cycle as a
source or sink of carbon dioxide (CO2), primarily through processes like photo-
synthesis and respiration. This ecosystem service can be enhanced by planting
more trees as a part of the afforestation program or ecorestoration. The underlying
soil compartment of the vegetation also serves as a unique sink of carbon. We
present in this paper the stored carbon in the above-ground biomass (AGB) of
Acacia auriculiformis sampled from ten different locations in the maritime state
of West Bengal, India, during 2024. The CO2 level of the near-surface atmosphere
was also measured simultaneously to evaluate the ambient air quality in terms of
CO2 level. We observe significant positive correlations between stored carbon
and the soil organic carbon (SOC), indicating an appreciable contribution of the
trees’ carbon to the underlying soil compartment through litters and detritus. The
significant negative relationship between the stored carbon of A. auriculiformis
and the near-surface atmospheric CO2 confirms the species’ potential as a unique
sink of carbon. We infer that the stored carbon in the species is drawn from the
CO2 reservoir of the ambient atmosphere, due to which the negative correlation
has been generated as the output. We suggest mass plantation of the species as a
cost-effective nature-based solution (NbS) to modulate the atmospheric CO2 level
at the local scale.

Keywords
Acacia auriculiformis · Above-ground biomass (AGB) · Stored carbon ·
Near-surface atmospheric CO2 · Nature-based solution (NbS)

Introduction

The global carbon cycle (Fig. 1) is intricately regulated by various natural systems,
among which terrestrial vegetation—both forested and urban—plays an integral
role. These natural infrastructures not only support biodiversity and provide numer-
ous ecological services but are also pivotal in the regulation and sequestration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse gas driving anthropogenic
climate change (Lal 2009; Ussiri and Lal 2017; Filonchyk et al. 2024). The increas-
ing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere due to industrialization, fossil fuel
combustion, and deforestation has prompted an urgent need to explore nature-
based solutions that can sustainably mitigate the climate crisis. In this context,
understanding the carbon sequestration potential of vegetation, particularly trees
and associated soils, has become an area of growing scientific and policy interest.
Forest ecosystems, whether situated in remote landscapes or integrated within
urban settings, function simultaneously as both sources and sinks of carbon.
Through the process of photosynthesis, trees absorb atmospheric CO2 and convert
it into organic compounds, storing it in their biomass. This stored carbon remains
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 3

Fig. 1 A pictorial representation of the carbon cycle. The cartoon shows the accumulation of
atmospheric carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2) within the vegetative plant parts, including
the stems, branches, and leaves (i.e., the above-ground biomass) and within the ambient soil as plant
litters and detritus fall and decompose/accumulate in the soil constitutes the soil organic carbon
(SOC). The soil beneath vegetation acts as a vital carbon sink, often storing more carbon than
above-ground biomass through the accumulation of SOC. Processes like plant respiration, micro-
bial respiration and decomposition of organic matter, and burning of fossil fuels release CO2 back
into the atmosphere

locked away for years to decades, depending on the longevity of the species, thereby
acting as a temporary but significant carbon sink. Conversely, processes such as
respiration, decomposition, and disturbances like logging or forest fires can release
this stored carbon back into the atmosphere (Fig. 1). Therefore, a comprehensive
understanding of the net carbon balance of vegetative systems is essential for
gauging their effectiveness in climate mitigation strategies.
Among the various climate mitigation techniques, afforestation and ecological
restoration—collectively referred to as nature-based solutions—stand out due to
their relatively low cost, additional co-benefits, and public acceptance. These initia-
tives primarily involve planting trees in deforested, degraded, or barren landscapes
to restore ecosystem functionality and enhance carbon capture. Additionally, they
improve air quality, water retention, and soil fertility while providing habitats for
wildlife. Ecological restoration, in particular, focuses on reinstating native vegeta-
tion and rehabilitating damaged ecosystems to promote self-sustaining biodiversity.
Both approaches contribute to enhancing the carbon sequestration capacity of an
ecosystem, not only by increasing above-ground biomass but also by augmenting
soil organic carbon (SOC) pools, which are often underestimated in conventional
carbon accounting.
The soil component beneath vegetative cover plays a crucial yet often underap-
preciated role in carbon cycling. Soils act as long-term carbon sinks by accumulating
4 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

organic matter from decomposing plant residues, root exudates, and microbial
biomass. Unlike above-ground biomass (AGB), which is subjected to rapid turnover
and disturbances, SOC is relatively stable and can remain sequestered for decades to
centuries under favorable conditions. The storage of carbon in soils depends on a
multitude of factors, including vegetation type, land-use history, climate, topogra-
phy, and soil management practices (Swift 2001; Gerke 2022). As such, assessing
soil carbon content alongside above-ground carbon (AGC) metrics offers a more
holistic understanding of an ecosystem’s total carbon sequestration potential.
Against this backdrop, the present study focuses on the carbon sequestration
potential of Acacia auriculiformis, locally known as Akashmoni, a fast-growing,
nitrogen-fixing tree species widely planted in India for afforestation, fuelwood, and
timber purposes. Native to Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia,
A. auriculiformis has been extensively introduced in tropical and subtropical regions
due to its adaptability to poor soils, resistance to drought, and rapid growth rate. The
species is particularly valued for its ability to improve soil fertility through biological
nitrogen fixation, enhance soil organic matter, and stabilize degraded landscapes.
These characteristics make it an ideal candidate for afforestation programs, partic-
ularly in regions like West Bengal, a maritime state in the eastern part of India, where
degraded lands and urban sprawl challenge sustainable land management.
In the Indian context, A. auriculiformis has been employed in a variety of
ecological and economic roles. Its use in mixed plantation systems, agroforestry,
and roadside greening projects has contributed significantly to carbon sequestration
and environmental amelioration. Previous studies have highlighted its ability to
produce substantial biomass in a relatively short period, with a high capacity to
absorb and store atmospheric CO2. Moreover, its leaf litter and root biomass
contribute significantly to the accumulation of SOC, thereby enhancing soil health
and long-term carbon storage.
This study was carried out in ten different locations across Durgapur and Birbhum
districts of West Bengal—two regions that typify the interface between industrial
activity, rural agriculture, and forested landscapes. Durgapur, a major industrial hub,
and Birbhum, known for its red lateritic soils and semiarid conditions, offer a unique
juxtaposition of environmental contexts for assessing the carbon dynamics of
A. auriculiformis plantations. The selection of these sites allows for a broader
understanding of the species’ performance in varied ecological and anthropogenic
settings.
To comprehensively assess the carbon sequestration potential of
A. auriculiformis, the present study examines multiple carbon-related parameters.
These include the estimation of AGB, which reflects the total dry matter stored in the
stem, branches, and leaves of the trees; AGC, which is derived as a proportion of the
AGB; and CO2-equivalent sequestration, which translates the AGC into potential
CO2 removed from the atmosphere. Additionally, the study quantifies SOC at each
site to account for below-ground sequestration processes. The interplay between
these parameters offers crucial insights into how efficiently A. auriculiformis plan-
tations can serve as carbon sinks.
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 5

Moreover, ambient CO2 concentrations were measured simultaneously at each of

the ten locations to evaluate near-surface air quality and relate it to vegetation density
and carbon capture potential. Elevated CO2 levels in urban and peri-urban areas can
serve as indicators of anthropogenic emissions, while reduced levels in vegetated
areas may reflect effective carbon uptake by photosynthetically active biomass. By
correlating atmospheric CO2 levels with carbon stocks in trees and soils, the study
attempts to elucidate the feedback mechanisms that govern carbon dynamics at local
scale.
The correlation analysis of AGB, AGC, CO2-equivalent, SOC, and ambient CO2
concentrations provides a multifaceted understanding of the carbon sequestration
efficiency of A. auriculiformis. Such integrated studies are crucial for designing
region-specific climate action plans that incorporate afforestation as a viable carbon
offset mechanism. Furthermore, by establishing baseline data on carbon storage
across different plantation sites, this study contributes to the growing body of
literature on carbon accounting and ecosystem services in tropical tree species.
Understanding the carbon dynamics of A. auriculiformis plantations is also
relevant from a policy and implementation standpoint. As India continues to strive
toward its nationally determined contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement,
including the target of creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tons of
CO2 equivalent through forest and tree cover by 2030, studies like this provide
empirical evidence for prioritizing certain species and plantation strategies
(Sukumaran 2020). Moreover, the integration of such data into carbon offset
schemes, such as REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation), carbon credit trading, and corporate sustainability programs, can
help monetize ecosystem services and promote community-based forestry
initiatives.
In addition to its ecological benefits, A. auriculiformis offers economic opportu-
nities for rural and peri-urban populations. Its wood is used for furniture, fuel, and
construction, while the tree also supports beekeeping, medicinal applications, and
small-scale industries. When cultivated under sustainable management practices, the
species can support livelihoods while simultaneously sequestering carbon, thus
aligning with the goals of climate-resilient development and green economy models
(Haque et al. 2021).
The present investigation, therefore, aims to generate a comprehensive under-
standing of how A. auriculiformis contributes to carbon sequestration in both its
above-ground and below-ground components. By examining ten distinct locations
across varying environmental gradients, the study not only evaluates the species’
carbon storage capacity but also identifies site-specific variations that can inform
future plantation and land-use planning. The synthesis of biometric data with
atmospheric CO2 measurements provides a novel framework for assessing the
effectiveness of tree-based interventions in climate mitigation.
Thus, the role of vegetation—particularly fast-growing, multipurpose tree species
like A. auriculiformis—in moderating atmospheric CO2 levels cannot be overstated.
As the world grapples with the multifaceted challenges of climate change, urban
expansion, and land degradation, nature-based solutions like afforestation and
6 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

ecological restoration emerge as powerful tools for building ecological resilience and
fostering sustainable development. This study contributes to this global discourse by
offering empirical data and critical analysis of carbon storage dynamics in a key tree
species within a climatically and ecologically sensitive region of India.
Akashmoni, a fast-growing, nitrogen-fixing species, is recognized for its excep-
tional carbon sequestration abilities, making it a valuable component in forest
management and agroforestry systems. Understanding the carbon dynamics in
these trees—specifically their AGB, AGC, CO2-equivalent sequestration, and
SOC—provides key insights into the species’ role in mitigating climate change.
This paper presents a comprehensive correlation analysis of CO2 fluxes, AGB, AGC,
CO2-equivalent, and SOC across multiple Akashmoni plantation sites. Data col-
lected from ten distinct locations underscore the species’ capacity for carbon seques-
tration and its potential contribution to carbon offset initiatives.

Description of the Study Sites

The present study was conducted in selected locations within the districts of
Durgapur (Paschim Bardhaman) and Birbhum, both situated in the state of West
Bengal, India (Fig. 2). These two regions, though geographically proximate, offer
contrasting ecological and environmental settings that provide a broad spectrum for
analyzing the carbon sequestration potential of A. auriculiformis under varying
conditions of land use, soil type, and anthropogenic influence.
Durgapur, located in the Paschim Bardhaman district, lies approximately between
23.5°N to 23.6°N latitude and 87.3°E to 87.5°E longitude and is one of the most
prominent industrial zones in eastern India. The city forms part of the Asansol-
Durgapur industrial belt, which is marked by significant steel, power, and chemical

Fig. 2 Map of the two study districts of West Bengal, India. (a) Durgapur. (b) Birbhum
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 7

industries. This industrial development has had a considerable impact on the region’s
air quality, soil conditions, and overall environmental health. Despite its industrial
character, Durgapur retains patches of green cover, especially in suburban and
reclaimed areas where afforestation drives have introduced fast-growing species
like A. auriculiformis. The plantation sites within Durgapur selected for this study
are primarily located on degraded lands and roadside margins, which have been the
focus of ecological restoration programs over the past decade. The soil in this region
is generally alluvial with patches of laterite, moderately fertile, and has been
subjected to chemical leaching due to industrial activities.
The climate of Durgapur is classified as tropical savanna according to the Köppen
classification, with hot summers, a distinct monsoon season, and mild winters. The
average annual rainfall is around 1300 mm, primarily concentrated between June
and September. Average temperatures range from 10 °C in winter to 40 °C in
summer. The climatic conditions, combined with the anthropogenic emissions,
make Durgapur an important area for studying vegetation-based carbon sequestra-
tion in urban-industrial interfaces.
In contrast, Birbhum district, situated to the north-west of Durgapur and roughly
bounded between 23.8°N to 24.5°N latitude and 87.2°E to 88.0°E longitude, repre-
sents a more rural and semiarid landscape. The district is known for its undulating
lateritic terrain, with red soils that are relatively less fertile and prone to erosion.
Agriculture is the predominant livelihood, although the land is often challenged by
low moisture retention and seasonal droughts. The introduction of A. auriculiformis
in this region has been part of soil conservation and afforestation programs, espe-
cially on fallow and degraded lands, to improve soil stability and ecological
resilience.
The climate of Birbhum is similar to Durgapur but slightly drier, with annual
rainfall averaging 1200 mm and a higher incidence of dry spells. The temperature
extremes are also similar, ranging from 9 °C in winter to 42 °C in summer. The
relatively low canopy cover and exposed soil surfaces make Birbhum an ideal
location for evaluating the performance of nitrogen-fixing, drought-resistant species
like A. auriculiformis in terms of both biomass productivity and soil carbon
enhancement.
Together, the selection of Durgapur and Birbhum as study sites allows for a
comparative analysis of A. auriculiformis plantations under urban-industrial and
rural-degraded environmental gradients, offering insights into their ecological role
and carbon sequestration potential in diverse terrestrial ecosystems.

Materials and Methods

Selection of the Study Sites

For the present study, two study zones were selected in two districts of the maritime
state of West Bengal, namely, Durgapur and Birbhum, each with five study sites (see
Table 1 for more details).
8 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

Table 1 Description, geographical coordinates, and plantation details of the selective study sites
No. of
Site Plantation Plantation study
Districts Site no. description Coordinates year age (year) plots
Durgapur Site 1 Mouza 23°34′05.15″N; 2021 3 6
Bishnupur, 87°25′47.32″E
Rakhitpur
Site 2 Paranganj 23°33′17.70″N; 2009 15 3
Mouza 87°21′08.56″E
Site 3 Chotkar 23°48′47.17″N; 2011 13 5
Mouza 86°57′49.97″E
Site 4 Aliganj Mouza 23°49′51.24″N; 2021 3 4
86°59′52.31″E
Site 5 Kataberia 23°33′18.0″N; 2019 5 6
Mouza, 87°21′09.6″E
Kataberia
(felling site)
Birbhum Site 6 Kariya- 23°59′50.90″N; 2009 15 2
Nimdaspur, 87°29′14.17″E
Rashpur Beat,
Md. Bazar
range
Site 7 Chandpur 24°11′43.06″N; 2009 15 1
Mouza, 87°40′35.81″E
Tumbani Beat,
Rampurhat
range
Site 8 Vatina, 24°10′20.70″N; 2006 18 1
Tumbani Beat, 87°43′02.06″E
Rampurhat
range
Site 9 Darikanathpur 23°40′08.72″N; 2021 12 1
Mouza, Bolpur 87°44′15.96″E
Site 10 Birupur, 23°59′42.4″N; 2009 15 1
Rashpur Beat, 87°30′53.0″E
Md. Bazar
range

The study zones were chosen because of their contrasting carbon footprints, viz.,
(1) urban development (maximum in Durgapur compared to Birbhum), (2) transpor-
tation, and (3) industrial units (higher in Durgapur with cluster of steel industries
compared to Birbhum where rice mills are more predominant).

Estimation of Mean Population Density

Mean population density was estimated considering the total number of individual
Akashmoni trees in all the 15 sampling quadrants (the dimension of each quadrant is
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 9

10 m × 10 m = 100 m2). It is to be noted that trees greater than 15 cm diameter at

breast height (DBH) were considered for sampling.
For tree density across quadrants, the minimum number of trees per quadrant was
3, and the maximum number of trees per quadrant was 15.

Estimation of Near-Surface Atmospheric CO2

The near-surface atmospheric CO2 concentration in the ambient air at the selected
sites was measured at a height of 18 meters above-ground level on a fixed tower
using a nondispersive infrared (NDIR) gas analyzer (Model: LI6262, LI-COR Inc.,
USA). An air intake was installed 1 meter above the tower, and air was drawn
through a ¼-inch Teflon tube at a rate of 10 liters per minute using a diaphragm
pump, with most of the air being vented. Water vapor was removed from the air
sample before it was introduced into the NDIR analyzer’s sample cell. The output
voltage from the NDIR analyzer was integrated at 5-minute intervals. Calibration of
the analyzer was performed every 4 hours by introducing four calibrated working
gas mixtures (containing 340, 380, 410, and 450 ppm of CO2 in dry air) into the
NDIR analyzer cell for 5 minutes each. This experiment was conducted for 20 con-
secutive days (6 hours during day and 6 hours during night), and the mean CO2
concentration was calculated as the result following Agarwal et al. (2018).

Estimation of Mean Above-Ground Biomass (AGB)

AGB of trees refers to the summation of stem, branch, and leaf biomass, which are
exposed above the soil.

Estimation of Stem Biomass

The stem volume of Akashmoni in each plot (10 m × 10 m) of all mouzas/sites was
estimated following Newton’s formula (Eq. 1) (Husch et al. 1982).

V = h=6 ðAb þ 4Am þ AtÞ ð1Þ

where “V” denotes the volume of the stem (in m3), “h” denotes the height of the tree
measured using laser beam (BOSCH DLE 70 Professional model), and “Ab,” “Am,”
and “At” denote the cross-sectional areas at base, middle, and top of the stem,
respectively. Estimation of specific gravity (G) of the wood was done taking the
stem cores by boring 4.5 cm deep, which was converted into stem biomass
(BS) based on the expression (Eq. 2):

BS = G × V ð2Þ

Finally, the stem biomass of individual tree was multiplied by the number of
trees in all selected mouzas, and the average values are expressed in tons per
hectare (t ha-1).
10 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

In this study, a drone camera (Phantom 3 Professional, Djibouti) was used to

capture the aerial images of Akashmoni trees. The drone is equipped with a camera,
four propellers, a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, and a gimbal. Further-
more, it contains an exclusive remote controller. The camera can take 1.2-megapixel
images and video with 4 K (3840 × 2160) images. This parallel system was used to
assess the exact height of the trees in meters (m).

Estimation of Branch Biomass

The total number of branches (irrespective of their sizes) was counted for each of the
sample trees. Based on basal diameter, these branches were categorized into three
size groups, viz., <6 cm, 6–10 cm, and >10 cm. The leaves on the branches were
removed gently by hand. Then, the branches were oven-dried at 70 °C overnight in a
hot-air oven for removing moisture content in the branches (if any present). The dry
weight of two branches from each size group was recorded separately following the
equation of Chidumaya (1990) (Eq. 3).

Bdb = n1 bw1 þ n2 bw2 þ n3 bw3 = Σðni × bwi Þ ð 3Þ

where “Bdb” refers to the dry branch biomass per tree, “ni” refers to the number of
branches in the ith branch group, “bwi” refers to the average dry weight of branches
in the ith group, and i = 1, 2, 3, …..n are the branch groups. Finally, the average
branch biomass of individual tree was multiplied with the total number of trees in all
the plots for each site and expressed in t ha-1.

Estimation of Leaf Biomass

For estimation of leaf biomass, one tree per plot was chosen randomly. All the leaves
from nine branches (three from each size group) of individual trees were gently
removed by hand, oven-dried at 70 °C, and dry weight was estimated. Then, the leaf
biomass of each tree was measured by multiplying the mean biomass of the leaves
per branch with the number of branches in that tree. Finally, the dry leaf biomass of
the selected species (for each plot) was recorded as per the expression (Eq. 4):

Ldb = n1 Lw1 N 1 þ n2 Lw2 N 2 þ n3 Lw3 N 3 = Σðni × Lwi × N i Þ ð 4Þ

where “Ldb” is the dry leaf biomass of selected Acacia species per plot, “n1”..….“ni”
are the number of branches of each Acacia tree, “Lw1”.…….“Lwi” are the mean dry
weight of leaves removed from the branches, and “N1”.…..“Ni” are the number of
Acacia trees in the plots. This exercise was done for all mouzas and finally, the
average results were expressed in t ha-1.

Estimation of Mean Above-Ground Carbon (AGC)

Mean AGC was estimated by randomly selecting eight trees per quadrant.
For direct estimation of percent carbon in the AGB (referred to as AGC), a
portion of fresh stem, branch, and leaf samples from trees was dried in an oven at
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 11

70 °C, mixed randomly, and grounded to pass through a 0.5-mm sieve (1.0-mm sieve
for leaves). The % carbon content was finally assessed for each part of tree species
through a Vario MACRO CHN analyzer. The average carbon values of stems,
branches, and leaves (expressed in %) were considered as the stored carbon in the
AGB of trees.

Estimation of CO2 Equivalent

The molecular weight of CO2 is C + 2 × O = 43.99915, where “O” denotes

oxygen. The CO2-to-C ratio is calculated as 43.99915/12.001118 = 3.6663.
Hence, for determining the weight of CO2 sequestered within the plant body
(i.e., CO2 equivalent) of three different age groups, the carbon weight in the
vegetative parts of the tree species (AGC) is multiplied by 3.6663 i.e., Eq. (5):

CO2 equivalent = AGC × 3:6663 ð5Þ

Estimation of Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)

For estimation of SOC from soil samples, the upper 5 cm of the top soil were
collected from all the selected plots of all mouzas and oven dried at 60 °C for
48 hours. For the analysis, visible plant parts were handpicked and removed from
the collected soil. Then, the soil samples were sieved through a 2-mm sieve, and
50 gm of the bulk soil from each plot were finely grounded in a ball mill. Random
mixing of the finely dried sample was done to obtain a representative picture of the
study site. Finally, %SOC was determined by following the modified version of
Walkley and Black method (1934) (Eq. 6).

%SOC = ð3:951=gÞ × ð1=B=SÞ ð6Þ

where g = weight of sample in grams

B = volume of Mohr salt solution used for blank
S = volume of Mohr salt solution used for sample

Correlation Analysis

A Pearson correlation matrix was constructed to examine relationships among five

ecological indicators: AGB, AGC, CO2-equivalent sequestration, near-surface atmo-
spheric CO2, and SOC.
Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was used to assess the strength and direction
of relationships:
12 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

• r = 1: Perfect positive correlation

• r = -1: Perfect negative correlation
• r = 0: No correlation

All statistical calculations were performed with SPSS 9.0 for Windows.

Results

The data collected from ten different sites provides information on five key parameters:
near-surface atmospheric CO2 concentration, AGB, AGC, CO2 equivalent, and SOC.
The population density of Akashmoni is more in sites 1–5 compared to sites
6–10. The near-surface atmospheric CO2 also showed similar trends. However, a
reverse trend was observed for total AGB and total AGC (t ha-1). Similarly, the CO2
equivalent and SOC followed this reverse trend (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Further, a

25
No. of trees / 100 m2 (n)

20

15

10

0
1

10
9
8
3
2

6
4

7
te

te
te
te
te

te
te

te

te

te
Si

Si
Si
Si
Si

Si
Si

Si

Si

Si

Fig. 3 Population density of trees (Akashmoni) (number of trees per 100 m2) across ten study sites
in 2024
atmospheric CO2
Near-surface

410
400
390
380
370
360
10
1

9
3
2

8
4
te

te

te

te

te
te
te

te
te

te
Si

Si

Si

Si

Si
Si
Si

Si
Si

Si

Fig. 4 Near-surface atmospheric CO2 across ten study sites in 2024

Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 13

300

250
Total AGB (t/ ha)

200

150

100

50

0
1

10
9
8
2

6
4

7
te

te
te
te

te

te
te

te

te

te
Si

Si
Si
Si

Si

Si
Si

Si

Si

Si
Fig. 5 Total AGB (in tons per hectare) across ten study sites in 2024

140

120

100
Total AGC (t / ha)

80

60

40

20

0
1

10
9
8
2

6
4

7
te

te
te
te

te

te
te

te

te

te
Si

Si
Si
Si

Si

Si
Si

Si

Si

Si

Fig. 6 Total AGC (in tons per hectare) across ten study sites in 2024

500
CO2 equivalent

400
300
200
100
0
1

10
5
2

8
te

te
te
te

te

te

te

te

te

te
Si

Si
Si
Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Si

Fig. 7 CO2 equivalent across ten study sites in 2024

14 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

2.5

1.5
SOC

0.5

0
1

10
9
8
2

6
4

7
te

te
te
te

te

te
te

te

te

te
Si

Si
Si
Si

Si

Si
Si

Si

Si

Si
Fig. 8 SOC across ten study sites in 2024

Table 2 Correlation analysis between near-surface atmospheric CO2, AGB, AGC, CO2 equiva-
lent, and SOC
CO2 AGB AGC CO2 equivalent SOC
CO2 1
AGB -0.7106796 1
AGC -0.7117653 0.99980024 1
CO2 equivalent -0.7117668 0.99979913 1 1
SOC -0.8780805 0.79747032 0.80094302 0.800976145 1

correlation analysis was done to assess the inter-relationships between these five key
parameters (Table 2).
The correlation analysis investigates the relationship between five ecological
parameters: atmospheric CO2 concentration, AGB, AGC, CO2 equivalent, and
SOC across ten different sites. These parameters play crucial roles in understanding
carbon sequestration and its environmental impacts. The correlation matrix was
computed to understand how these factors interact, providing insights into how
one might influence another. Here are the computed correlation values (Table 2).

CO2 and AGB

The AGB represents the total mass of living plants, excluding roots, and is a vital
indicator of carbon sequestration potential. A general trend observed is that as CO2
decreases across the sites, AGB tends to increase. For instance, Site 9 has the lowest
CO2 concentration (380) but exhibits the highest AGB value (260.21). This inverse
relationship suggests that trees with greater biomass might be more effective at
reducing atmospheric CO2 levels through sequestration.
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 15

Correlation coefficient (CO2 and AGB): A negative correlation is evident

(r = -0.711; p<0.01), implying that an increase in AGB is associated with a
reduction in CO2 levels. This observation reinforces the role of Akashmoni trees
in carbon sequestration.

CO2 and AGC

AGC is derived from AGB and represents the carbon stored in the biomass of trees.
Like AGB, AGC shows a similar trend concerning CO2 levels. For example, Site
9 has the lowest CO2 concentration and the highest AGC value (118.08). Con-
versely, Site 1, with a CO2 level of 406, has the lowest AGC (18.56). This suggests
that sites with higher biomass store more carbon, leading to lower CO2 levels.
Correlation coefficient (CO2 and AGC): The inverse relationship between CO2
and AGC is statistically significant (r = -0.712; p<0.01). Sites with lower CO2
concentrations tend to have higher AGC values, underscoring the importance of
trees in absorbing carbon.

CO2 and CO2 Equivalent

The CO2 equivalent is a critical measure of the total greenhouse gases sequestered by
the trees, expressed in terms of CO2. As the CO2 concentration decreases, the CO2
equivalent value increases across the sites. For instance, Site 9, with a CO2 concen-
tration of 380, has the highest CO2 equivalent value of 433.34. This relationship
confirms the significant role of Akashmoni trees in mitigating the greenhouse effect
by absorbing and storing large quantities of CO2.
Correlation coefficient (CO2 and CO2 equivalent): A strong negative correlation
exists between CO2 and CO2 equivalent (r = -0.712; p<0.01), demonstrating that trees
in areas with lower CO2 concentrations are more effective at sequestering greenhouse
gases.

CO2 and SOC

SOC is an important component of soil health, representing carbon stored in soil

organic matter. The data indicates a weak correlation between CO2 levels and SOC
values. For example, Site 9, with the lowest CO2 concentration, has an SOC value of
2.15, while Site 6, with a CO2 concentration of 390, has an SOC value of 1.98. The
variation in SOC values appears less dependent on CO2 levels compared to other
parameters like AGB and AGC.
Correlation coefficient (CO2 and SOC): The correlation between CO2 and SOC is
weak (r = -0.878; p<0.01), indicating that soil carbon storage is not as directly
influenced by atmospheric CO2 levels as the biomass-related parameters.
16 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

AGB and AGC

Since AGC is derived from AGB, the two are strongly correlated. Larger AGB
values correspond to higher AGC values. For instance, Site 9, with the highest
AGB value (260.21), also has the highest AGC value (118.08). This direct
relationship is expected, as AGC represents the carbon content within the
biomass.
Correlation coefficient (AGB and AGC): A perfect positive correlation exists
between AGB and AGC (r = 0.9998; p<0.01), reflecting the direct calculation of
AGC from AGB.

AGB and CO2 Equivalent

The CO2 equivalent is strongly correlated with AGB, as sites with higher biomass
tend to sequester more CO2. For example, Site 9 has the highest AGB value
(260.21) and the highest CO2 equivalent value (433.34). This relationship high-
lights the capacity of larger trees to store more carbon and mitigate greenhouse
gas emissions.
Correlation coefficient (AGB and CO2 equivalent): A strong positive correla-
tion is observed between AGB and CO2 equivalent (r = 0.9998; p<0.01),
showing that larger biomass is directly related to higher carbon sequestration
potential.

AGC and CO2 Equivalent

The relationship between AGC and CO2 equivalent is also perfect (r = 1.000;
p<0.01). These near-perfect correlations indicate that biomass directly influences
carbon content and, consequently, the CO2 equivalent value.

SOC and Atmospheric CO2

The SOC parameter shows a strong negative correlation with CO2 (r = -0.878;
p<0.01), indicating that as SOC increases, the CO2 concentration decreases signif-
icantly. This suggests that higher levels of carbon storage in the ecosystem are
associated with lower CO2 levels, reflecting the ecosystem’s ability to act as
carbon sink.

SOC and CO2 Equivalent

Correlation coefficient (SOC and CO2 equivalent): There is a high positive correla-
tion between SOC and CO2 equivalent (r = 0.801; p<0.01), indicating that soil
carbon storage may complement AGC sequestration to some extent.
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 17

Strong relationships among biomass, carbon storage, and CO2 sequestration:

The relationships between AGB, AGC, CO2 equivalent, and SOC (AGB vs SOC:
r = 0.797; AGC vs SOC: r = 0.801; for all p<0.01) suggest that ecosystems with
higher biomass have greater potential to sequester carbon. The perfect correlation
between AGC and CO2 equivalent reflects that carbon storage in biomass is directly
linked to the ecosystem’s ability to offset atmospheric CO2. This connection empha-
sizes the role of forests and other biomass-rich ecosystems in mitigating climate
change through carbon sequestration.

Discussion

A. auriculiformis, commonly known as Akashmoni, plays a pivotal role in mitigat-

ing atmospheric CO2 levels, particularly in near-surface environments where anthro-
pogenic emissions tend to accumulate. As a fast-growing, evergreen, and nitrogen-
fixing species, it exhibits remarkable physiological and ecological traits that con-
tribute significantly to carbon sequestration—the long-term storage of atmospheric
carbon in biomass and soil.
One of the most critical attributes of A. auriculiformis is its high photosynthetic
efficiency. Through the process of photosynthesis, the species actively captures
atmospheric CO2 and converts it into organic carbon, which is stored in the form
of AGB (stems, branches, and leaves) and below-ground components. The high
canopy density and expansive foliage allow for substantial light interception and
CO2 assimilation, even under suboptimal growing conditions.
In this study, plantations of A. auriculiformis across different mouzas in Durgapur
and Birbhum districts demonstrated a clear inverse relationship between vegetation
density and near-surface CO2 concentrations. Measurement of ambient CO2 at a
height of 18 meters using an NDIR analyzer revealed that areas with dense
A. auriculiformis cover had notably lower atmospheric CO2 levels compared to
adjacent non-vegetated or sparsely vegetated sites. This reduction is attributed to the
cumulative effect of CO2 uptake by trees, particularly those with large biomass and
vigorous growth characteristics like A. auriculiformis.
The correlation analysis between CO2 levels, biomass (AGB), carbon content
(AGC), CO2 equivalent, and SOC in Akashmoni trees reveals several important
insights into the tree’s carbon sequestration capacity. As mentioned above, strong
inverse or negative relationships exist between CO2 levels and both AGB and AGC,
indicating that trees with larger biomass store more carbon and reduce atmospheric
CO2. Higher biomass and soil carbon content are associated with lower atmospheric
CO2, highlighting the importance of conserving and restoring ecosystems to mitigate
the effects of climate change.
The CO2 equivalent is similarly correlated with AGB, AGC, and CO2 levels,
highlighting the overall contribution of Akashmoni trees to mitigating greenhouse
gases. Although SOC shows a weaker correlation with CO2 and biomass parameters,
it still plays a role in the ecosystem’s carbon dynamics. The nearly perfect correla-
tions among AGB, AGC, and CO2 equivalent suggest that enhancing biomass can
18 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

significantly contribute to carbon storage. These findings reinforce the ecological

value of maintaining biomass-rich environments and their role in the global carbon
cycle. Effective management of these ecosystems can thus be an essential strategy in
reducing atmospheric CO2 and combating global warming.
Furthermore, the species contributes to long-term carbon storage not only in its
AGB but also through the accumulation of SOC. Leaf litter, fine roots, and decaying
organic matter derived from A. auriculiformis plantations enrich the topsoil with
carbon-rich material (Kachaka et al. 2023). This not only improves soil fertility but
also acts as a stable reservoir for carbon, significantly reducing the re-emission of
CO2 into the atmosphere.
The suitability of A. auriculiformis for degraded and low-nutrient soils, along with its
adaptability to a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions, further enhances its
potential for large-scale afforestation and ecological restoration programs. When planted
in urban-industrial landscapes, such as Durgapur, the species contributes to urban
greening and air quality improvement, functioning as a biological buffer against CO2
emissions from vehicles, industries, and other anthropogenic sources.
In essence, A. auriculiformis serves as an effective natural tool for reducing near-
surface atmospheric CO2 through rapid carbon assimilation, biomass accumulation,
and long-term soil carbon retention. Its deployment in afforestation strategies,
particularly in areas with high emission loads and ecological degradation, can play
a transformative role in regional climate action and carbon offset programs.

Conclusions

The correlation analysis conducted in this study between near-surface atmospheric CO2
levels and the key ecological parameters—namely, AGB, AGC, CO2 equivalent, and
SOC—in A. auriculiformis (Akashmoni) plantations offers vital insights into the carbon
sequestration potential of this species across different environmental settings. The
findings highlight the integral role that Akashmoni plays in mitigating climate change
through its biomass productivity, carbon assimilation, and influence on ambient CO2
levels.
A particularly noteworthy result from the study is the strong negative correlation
between atmospheric CO2 concentration and both AGB and AGC. This indicates
that plots with higher tree biomass consistently correspond to lower levels of
atmospheric CO2. Such an inverse relationship underscores the importance of
biomass accumulation in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing
it in vegetative tissues. Trees with greater girth and height, indicative of more
extensive growth and age, tend to have more substantial carbon storage capacity,
thereby contributing more effectively to the reduction of CO2 concentration in the
local atmosphere.
Further, the correlation between AGC and AGB demonstrates a direct and nearly
perfect relationship, reflecting that increases in biomass directly translate into propor-
tional increases in carbon content. This close association suggests that enhancing tree
biomass—through afforestation, reforestation, or ecological restoration strategies—
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 19

would result in measurable gains in carbon storage. Additionally, the strong correlation
of CO2 equivalent with both AGB and AGC emphasizes the role of Akashmoni
plantations not only in capturing and storing carbon but also in offsetting greenhouse
gas emissions on a quantifiable scale. These relationships form the scientific foundation
for recognizing biomass-rich ecosystems as viable carbon sinks.
While SOC displayed a weaker yet positive correlation with the other parameters,
it nonetheless remains an important component of the overall carbon pool. The soil
compartment, though more stable and slower to respond to ecological interventions,
plays a crucial long-term role in carbon sequestration. The observed variability in
SOC across different sites may be influenced by multiple factors, including soil
texture, microclimate, land use history, microbial activity, and litter decomposition
rates. Despite its lower correlation strength, the presence of SOC as a consistent
contributor to the ecosystem’s carbon balance highlights the value of including
below-ground carbon pools in total carbon accounting.
The synergistic interplay of above-ground and below-ground components reveals
that carbon sequestration is a multidimensional process, reliant on both living
biomass and soil systems. The Akashmoni plantations examined in Durgapur and
Birbhum illustrate this interaction vividly. The contrasting conditions of industrial
(Durgapur) and semiarid rural (Birbhum) landscapes allow for a nuanced under-
standing of how site-specific variables influence carbon capture efficiency. In both
environments, the species demonstrated resilience and adaptability, confirming its
suitability for a wide range of restoration initiatives.
These results also reinforce the importance of maintaining and expanding
biomass-rich green cover in both urban and rural landscapes. Increasing tree cover
not only enhances biodiversity and ecological integrity but also provides a practical,
low-cost strategy for reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. In urban and peri-
urban environments, where anthropogenic emissions are high, planting fast-growing
species like A. auriculiformis can serve as a biological filter for CO2, thereby
improving air quality and contributing to urban climate resilience.
From a policy and climate action perspective, the findings provide a compelling
argument for integrating such afforestation models into national and sub-national
carbon offset strategies. India’s commitment under the Paris Agreement to create an
additional carbon sink of 2.5–3 billion tons of CO2-equivalent through forest and
tree cover by 2030 can be supported by scaling up the plantation of high biomass
species like akashmoni. Furthermore, these findings can feed into carbon credit
markets, reforestation incentive schemes, and REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation) mechanisms, where accurate carbon quanti-
fication is essential for valuing ecosystem services.
Another key implication lies in the role of ecological monitoring and precision
assessment tools. The use of remote sensing (via drone technology) and advanced
analytical methods (e.g., CHN analyzers and NDIR sensors) in this study enabled
accurate measurements of biomass, carbon content, and atmospheric CO2, thereby
providing robust, verifiable data. Incorporating such technologies into large-scale
carbon monitoring programs could improve transparency and efficiency, particularly
in forest management and urban planning.
20 P. Mukherjee and A. Mitra

Recommendations

Based on the results of this study, several actionable recommendations can be

proposed to effectively utilize A. auriculiformis as a nature-based solution for
climate mitigation and ecosystem restoration. The observed strong correlations
between tree biomass (AGB), carbon content (AGC), CO2-equivalent sequestration,
and reduced atmospheric CO2 levels point toward the species’ high potential as a
strategic asset in both urban and rural landscape management. The following
recommendations are targeted at key stakeholders including policy makers,
researchers, and conservation practitioners.

1. For policymakers: Promote large-scale plantation of carbon-efficient species: Gov-

ernment agencies at national and state levels should prioritize A. auriculiformis in
afforestation, reforestation, and urban greening programs, particularly in ecologically
degraded and emission-intensive zones. The strong inverse correlation between
atmospheric CO2 and AGB/AGC suggests that expanding such plantations can
directly support India’s commitment to enhancing carbon sinks under the Paris
Agreement. Policies encouraging carbon farming and the establishment of
community-managed plantations of high biomass species can also provide
co-benefits like employment, soil conservation, and improved air quality.
2. Integrate carbon sequestration goals into urban planning: Urban development
authorities should incorporate A. auriculiformis in city planning strategies, road-
side plantations, buffer zones near industrial areas, and green belts. Since the
species has demonstrated the capacity to reduce near-surface atmospheric CO2,
especially in polluted environments like Durgapur, its inclusion in urban forestry
schemes can contribute to local climate regulation and public health
improvement.
3. For researchers: Standardize carbon-accounting methodologies: Further research
should be directed toward standardizing protocols for carbon assessment in
A. auriculiformis plantations using nondestructive and remote sensing tech-
niques. The integration of drone-based imaging and CO2 flux measurements
offers promising avenues for precision monitoring. Long-term studies are also
needed to explore seasonal variation, root biomass contribution, and carbon
stabilization in soil to capture the complete carbon dynamics of the species.
4. For conservation practitioners: Promote ecosystem-based restoration: Restoration
projects should incorporate A. auriculiformis not only for its rapid growth and
nitrogen-fixing ability but also for its capacity to improve soil organic carbon
content over time. While SOC showed a weaker correlation with CO2 levels, it
remains a vital component of the carbon cycle. Mixed-species plantations,
including A. auriculiformis as a dominant species, can be developed to enhance
biodiversity and long-term ecosystem resilience.
5. Encourage carbon offset programs and incentives: Given the quantifiable carbon
sequestration potential of A. auriculiformis, carbon offset programs under mech-
anisms like REDD+ or voluntary carbon markets should include this species in
their protocols. Policymakers should explore mechanisms to link local
Natural Modulation of Near-Surface Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide… 21

communities with carbon credit revenues, incentivizing them to protect and

manage forest resources sustainably.

Competing Interest Declaration The author(s) has no competing interests to declare that are
relevant to the content of this manuscript.

References
Agarwal SK, Fazli P, Zaman S, Mitra A (2018) Near surface air temperature and carbon dioxide in
Indian Sundarbans: a time series analysis. Parana J Sci Educ 4(1):10–15
Chidumaya EN (1990) Above ground woody biomass structure and productivity in a Zambezian
woodland. For Ecol Manag 36:33–46
Filonchyk M, Peterson MP, Zhang L, Hurynovich V, He Y (2024) Greenhouse gases emissions and
global climate change: examining the influence of CO2, CH4, and N2O. Sci Total Environ
935:173359
Gerke J (2022) The central role of soil organic matter in soil fertility and carbon storage. Soil Syst
6(2):33
Haque MM, Ni Y, Akon AJU, Quaiyyum MA, Jahan MS (2021) A review on Acacia
auriculiformis: importance as pulpwood planted in social forestry. Int Wood Prod J 12(3):
194–205
Husch B, Miller CI, Beers TW (1982) Forest mensuration, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York. 402 p
Kachaka EY, Poirier V, Munson AD, Khasa DP (2023) Acacia auriculiformis agroforestry fallows
of different ages improve soil physico-chemical properties and carbon stocks on the Batéké
plateau, Democratic Republic of Congo. Geoderma Reg 34:e00691
Lal R (2009) Sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide. Crit Rev Plant Sci 28(3):90–96
Sukumaran N (2020) Paris agreement and India: challenges and opportunities. Cochin University
Law Rev XLIV:228–256
Swift RS (2001) Sequestration of carbon by soil. Soil Sci 166(11):858–871
Ussiri DA, Lal R (2017) Carbon sequestration for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 287–325
Walkley A, Black IA (1934) An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic
matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci 37:29–38