DEPARTMENT

OF
ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

I B.Tech I Sem (R23)

STUDENT LAB MANUAL

Student Name:

Roll Number:

Pragati Engineering College

(Autonomous)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU Kakinada)
1-378, ADB Road, Surampalem-533437
Pragati Engineering College, EEE Department
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(Autonomous)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGIINEERING

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Vision of the Institution:

To Emerge as a Premier Institution for Technical Education in the Country through Academic
Excellence and to be recognized as a Centre for Excellence in Research & Development,
catering to the needs of our Country”.
Mission of the Institution:
To realize a strong Institution by consistently maintaining State-of-art- infrastructure and
building acohesive, World Class Team and provide need based Technical Education, Research
and Development through enhanced Industry Interaction”.
Vision of the Department:
To excel in Engineering Education and Research, inculcating professional and social ethics
among the students through academic excellence in the field of Electrical & Electronics
Engineering.
Mission of the Department:
M1: To impart quality Technical Education with good infrastructure for students to make them
globally competent and technically strong.
M2: To collaborate with industries and academic institutions to enhance creativity and
innovation with professional and ethical values.
M3: To motivate faculty and students to do impactful research on societal needs and to build
team workamongthem.
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)
PEO1:
To produce graduates with a strong foundation in the Basic Sciences, Mathematics, Computing
and core knowledge in Electrical and Electronics Engineering through high quality Technical
Education.
PEO2:
To prepare graduates for successful and productive engineering careers, with emphasison
technical competency and with an attention to serve the needs of both private and public sectors
by developing novel products and solutions for the real-time problems in a socio-economic way.
PEO3:
To inculcate ethical attitude, honing effective communication skills and managerial skills to
work in a multidisciplinary environment as a technocrat/ administrator/ entrepreneur and to
acquire the knowledge for pursuing advanced degrees in Engineering, Science, Management,
Research and Development.
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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGIINEERING

Program Outcomes(POs)
1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of Mathematics, Science, Engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of Mathematics, Natural
Sciences, and Engineering Sciences.
3. Design/Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Useresearch-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern Tool Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.

6. The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assesssocietal, health, safety, legaland cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of and need for
sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and committee professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.

9. Individual and TeamWork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader

in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, suchas, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGIINEERING

12. Life-long Learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs) Engineering Students will be able to:

PSO1: Apply the concepts of Power systems, Power Electronics and Utilization of Renewable
Energy in implementation of interdisciplinary projects.

PSO2: Acquire the knowledge of Electrical and Electronics Engineering to participate in

national and international competitive examinations for successful higher studies and
employment.
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGIINEERING

Name: Roll No:

Electrical & Electronics Engineering Workshop

List of experiments to be done by B-Tech I Year I Semester R-23 Regulation

(Academic Year 2025-2026)

Exp.No CONTENT

1 Verification of Kirchhoff's Circuit laws.

2 Verification of Superposition theorem.

3 Measurement of Resistance using Wheatstone bridge.

4 Measurement of Three Phase Power in Three Phase Induction Motor

using Two Wattmeter method.
5 Speed control of DC shunt motor.

6 Calculation of Electrical Energy for Domestic Premises.

7 Introduction to Active and Passive devices (includes Resistors, Capacitors,

Inductors, Diodes, Transistors, Power supplies, Ammeter(s), Voltmeter(s),
necessary devices)

8 Plot V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode A) Forward bias B) Reverse

bias.
9 Plot V – I characteristics of Zener Diode and its application as voltage
Regulator.

10 Determine ripple factor of full wave rectifier.

11 Verification of Truth Table of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, Ex-OR, Ex-
NOR gates using ICs.

12 Verification of Truth Tables of S-R, J-K& D flip-flops using respective ICs

 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(Autonomous)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGIINEERING

ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

INDEX

S.No Description of the Experiment Date Page.No Marks Sign

Average

LAB INCHARGE HOD

 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Exp.No. Date:

Verification of Kirchoff’s Laws

AIM: To verify the Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Kirchhoff’s current law for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the equipment Range Type Quantity

1 RPS 0-30V - 1
2 Voltmeter 0-20 V Digital 4
3 Ammeter 0-20mA Digital 4
4 Breadboard - - 1
5 Connecting wires - - Required
number.
R1=5Ω 1

6 Resistors R2=10Ω 1

R3=15KΩ 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

THEORY:

a) Kirchhoff’s Voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the voltage around any closed path
in a given circuit is always zero. In any circuit, voltage drops across the resistors always have
polarities opposite to the source polarity. When the current passes through the resistor, there is a
loss in energy and therefore a voltage drop. In any element, the current flows from a higher
potential to lower potential. Consider the fig (1.1) shown above in which there are 3 resistors are
in series.
According to Kirchhoff’s voltage law…
V=V1+V2+V3
b) Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering a node equal to the sum
of the currents leaving the same node. Consider the fig (1.2) shown above in which there are 3
parallel paths. According to Kirchhoff’s current law...

c) Kirchhoff’s current law states that the sum of the currents entering anode equal to the
sum of the currents

PROCEDURE:

a) Kirchhoff’s Voltage law:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (1.1).
2. Measure the voltages across the resistors.
3. Observe that the algebraic sum of voltages in a closed loop is zero.
b) Kirchhoff’s current law:
1. Connect the circuits shown in fig (1.2).
2. Measure the currents through the resistors.
3. Observe that the algebraic sum of the currents at anode is zero.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

KVL:

S.NO VOLTAGE THEORETICAL PRACTICAL

KCL:

S.NO CURRENT THEORETICAL PRACTICAL

 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Avoid loose connections.

2. Keep all the knobs in minimum position while switch on and off of the supply.

RESULT:

QUESTIONS:

1. Define network and circuit?

2. What is the property of inductor and capacitor?
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Exp.No. Date:

Verification of Superposition Theorem

AIM: To verify the superposition theorem experimentally.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Resistors – 1.2KΩ-1No.
2. Resistor – 1KΩ-1No.
3. Resistor – 4.64KΩ-1No.
4. Resistor – 0.815KΩ-1No.
5. Resistor – 1.19KΩ-1No.
6. Resistor – 0.467KΩ-1No.
7. Digital Multimeter – 1No.
8. Variable Resistor – (0-2KΩ)–1No.
9. Patch Cards – Required.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

0-10mA 1.2K 0-10mA 

1K



0-10mA I2
 
5VDC 12VDCSupply
Supply 4.64K

THEORY:

Superposition theorem:
The superposition theorem is the fundamental theorem valid for all linear systems including networks.
Linear networks are networks, which contain only linear elements. The elements like R, L, C and Mare all
assumed to be operating in their linear ranges. The V-I relationships of these elements are linear. This theorem
is stated as below. “In a linear network the overall response in any part of the network is equal to the sum of the
individual response due to each independent source considered separately with another independent sources
reduced to zero.”

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

2. Switch ON the experimental unit by connecting the power card to the AC mains. The two DC
voltage sourcesV1 and V2 are obtained from a transformer connected to bridge rectifiers.
3.Keep the voltage source V1at zero volts and1 adjust the voltage of these and source
V2 to 12V. Measure the readings of ammeters I1, I2, I3 Tabulate the results as in
tabular form.
4. Switch on both the sources V1and V2 simultaneously and adjust the voltages of each source to 5 and12V.
5. No t e the readings of ammeters I1, I2&I3when both the sources are simultaneously
present. Tabulate the results in tabular form.

TABULAR FORMS:

Values Source I11 I21 I31 Source I111 I211 I311

Voltag (mA) Voltag (mA)
(mA) (mA)
e (5V) e (mA) (mA)
(12V)
Theoretical
Practical

Values When two voltage sources acting (5V&12V) I1(m I2(mA) I3(mA)
A)
Theoretical
Practical

RESULT:

QUESTIONS:

1. What is Superposition theorem?

2. What is linear circuit?
3. What are the applications of superposition theorem?
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Exp.No. Date:

Wheatstone’s bridge

AIM: To study and performance experiment to measure the unknown Resistance by Wheatstone’s bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. DC Galvanometer.
2. Various Medium Resistors.
3. Multi meter.
4. Breadboard
5. Decade resistance box
6. Connecting wires

THEORY:

A bridge circuit in its simplest form consists of network of four resistance arms forming a closed c
circuit, with a dc source of current applied to two opposite junctions and a current detector connected
to the other two junctions. Wheatstone’s bridge is used for accurate measurement of resistance.
The circuit diagram of a typical Wheatstone bridge is given infig.1.1

Fig1.1WheatstoneBridge
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

When SW1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point A, i.e., I1and I2. The bridge
is balanced when
There is no current through the galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C and D is
equal, i.e., the potential across the galvanometer is zero. To obtain the bridge balance equation, we
have from the fig. 1.1,
I1R1=I2R2 (1.1)
For the galvanometer current to be zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.

I1=I3=E/(R1+R3) I2
=I4=E/(R2+R4)

Substituting in Eq (1.1)

(E*R1)/(R1+R3) = (E*R2)/(R2+R4) R4 = (R2*R3)/R1

This is the equation for bridge to be balanced.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
WORKSHOP
PROCEDURE:
1) Take The Trainer kit. Measure resistors A, B, C, D, E, F, R1 and the variable pot R3 by adjusting “ADJ R3”
Note down the values of each resistor.
2) Now insert its mains cord in mains 230 V supply plug and switch it ‘ON’. Measure the DC supply volt age.
(It should be 12V DC)
3) Select the unknown resistor and measure its resistance Rx and note it down.
4) Connect the resistor to the terminal (Rx), and connect the power supply into the circuit. Connect the
galvanometer to M of the bridge with the help of jumper.
5) Connect the S1 terminal to any resistor A, B, C, D, E, F. Adjust pot “R3” to get a null reading on the
galvanometer.
6) Once the ‘Null’, reading is found, remove all the jumpers and measure the value of R3. Put the value of R3 in
the formula given be low and calculate Rx practically.

Rx=R2*R3/R1(R2=A or B or C…..or F)
7) Match the practical “Rx” with that of the Rx directly measured on multimeter.
8) Take four to five reading to find the unknown resistance i.e. Rx with different resistors.

Note: Use unknown resistors of values between10Ω to 10KΩfor the better sensitivity.

Resistor R2 Rx Range which can be measured

A-10 Ω 10 Ω to 100 Ω
B-100 Ω 100 Ω to 1 KΩ
C-1 KΩ 1 KΩ to 10 KΩ
D-10 KΩ 10 KΩ to 100 KΩ
E-100 KΩ 100 KΩ to 500 KΩ
F-500 KΩ 500 KΩ to 1 MΩ

RESULT:

QUESTIONS:

1. What is measuring instrument?

2. What Is Resistor?
3. What Is galvanometer?
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Exp.No. Date:

Measurement of Three Phase Power in Three Phase Induction Motor Using Two
Wattmeter method

AIM: To Measurement of Three Phase Power in Three Phase Induction Motor Using Two Wattmeter
method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
S.No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity
1 Ammeter (0-10A) MI 1
2 Voltmeter (0-600V) MI 1
3 wattmeter 10A, 600V, 1500W 2

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The brake test in a direct method of testing. It consists of applying a brake to a water– cooled pulley
mounted on the shaft of the motor. A rope is wound round the pulley and its two ends are attached to two
spring balances S1and S2. The tension of the rope can be adjusted with the help of wires. Then The force
acting tangentially on the pulley= (S1–S2) Kgs.

If R is the pulley radius, the torque at the pulley, Tsh= (S1–S2) R kg. Met.
If “ω” is the angular velocity of the motor ω=2N/60, Where N is the speed in RPM.
Motor output=Tsh x ω
=2N(S1–S2) R
60
=9.81 x 2N (s1–S2) R watts
The motor input can be measured directly by addition of wattmeter readings. For finding the performance
characteristics, the speed of the motor can also be measured by a tachometer.
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

PROCEDURE:

1. Make the connections as per the circuit diagram

2. Loosen the rope of the break drum such at S1=S2=0.
3. Close the switch S and apply the rated 3-phase a.c supply to the motor. Note the
readings of all meters.
4. Gradually increase the load by tightening the rope and note down the readings of all
meters and tabulate the results as shown below.
5. Starting from no-load, take the readings as the line current isincreasedfrom¼, ½, ¾, 1and
1¼ of its full value.

TABULAR FORM:

Input Output
S.No S1 S2 W1 W2 IL N S=Slip Torque
Power Power

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. What are the types of starters generally used for squirrel cage induction motors?
2. How is the supply voltage related to the starting Torque?
3. In what respects slipping I.M. superior to squirrel cage?
 ELECTRICAL &ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Exp.No. Date:
SPEED CONTROL OF DC SHUNT MOTOR
AIM: To Perform the speed control of D.C shunt motor

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the equipment Type Range Quantity

1 Ammeter MC 0-2A 2
2 Voltmeter MC 0-300V 1
3 Rheostat Wire 100Ω/5A 1
wound
4 Rheostat Wire 300Ω/1.7A 1
wound
5 Tachometer 1

Name plate Details:

 ELECTRICAL &ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

THEORY:
The formula for the speed of a d.c motor is given by

From the above formula, it can be seen that given motor speed is controlled by

(1) Varying the applied voltage V.

(2) Variation Flux produced or “field current”
(3) Variation of Armature resistance, Ra

In the above three methods, the first method is expensive since it requires the variation of the
applied voltage. The other two methods are simple. These are studied in this experiment.

1. Variation of flux or field current. It is seen from equation(a), the factors remaining same. N α 1.
This is, speed is inversely proportional to the flux. The speed variation is very simple since, we
need only a rheostat in the field circuit. Since field current is usually small, the loss of power due
to this resistance is negligible. But in this method, speed can only be increased above the normal
value (Rsh= 0).

V
V

a) Field control b) Armature control

2. Variation of armature resistance: Formula for the speed of the motor given in equation can be written as
 ELECTRICAL &ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Where Rt is the resistance connected in series with the armature. Evidently, When Rt is
increased the speed decreases. Thus, in this method of speed control, speed can only be
decreased than the speed when Rt = 0. The armature current is nearly equal to the load
current. Hence for speed control, the current losses are quite high. Therefore, this
method of speed control is efficient.

PROCEDURE:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Start the motor with the help of the starter and adjust the speed to its rated value at no-load.
3. Gradually vary the field current insteps and at each field current measure the speed.
4. Plot the variation of speed vs field current curve.
5. Keeping the field current constant corresponding to the rated value, vary Rt.
6. Plot the variation of speed vs Rt.

MODELGRAPHS:
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Flux Control Method:

S.No Speed in RPM (N) Field current in Amps (If)

Armature Control Method:

S.No N (rpm) V(V) I(A) Ra in ohms

RESULT:

QUIZ:

1. What is the function of D.C machine?

2. What type of D.C motors need compensating winding. How is
the compensating winding connected?
3. What Is the principle used in the speed control?
 ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

Exp. No. Date:

CALCULATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY FOR DOMESTIC PREMISES

AIM: To calculate the electrical energy for domestic loads.

APPARATUS:

S.No Name Range Type Quantity

1 Dimmerstat or Variac 0-230V 1-Phase 1

2 Voltmeter 0-300V MI 1

3 Ammeter 0-10A MI 1

4 Wattmeter 300V, 5A UPF 1

5 Energy meter Induction 3200 Rev/KWh 1

6 Bulb 200W 1

7 Stop watch Digital 1

8 Connecting wires Required

THOERY:

An instrument that is used to measure either quantity of electricity or energy, over a period of
time is known as energy meter or watt-hour meter. In other words, energy is the total power
delivered or consumed over an interval of time t may be expressed as:

If v(t) is expressed in volts, i(t) in amperes and t in seconds, the unit of energy is joule or watt
second. The commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour (KWh). For measurement of
energy in A.C. circuit, the meter used is based on “electro-magnetic induction” principle. They
are known as induction type instruments. The measurement of energy is based on the induction
principle is particularly suitable for industrial or domestic meters on the account of lightness and
robustness of the rotating element. Moreover, because of smallness of the variations of voltage
and frequency in supply voltage. The accuracy of the induction meter is unaffected by such
variations. If the waveform of the supply is badly distorted, the accuracy, however, is affected.
Basically, the induction energy meter may be derived from the induction watt-meter by
substituting for the spring control and pointer an eddy current brake and a counting train,
respectively. For the meter to read correctly, the speed of the moving system must be
proportional to the power in the circuit in which the meter is connected.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep the single phase varic at zero volt position.

3. Now switch on the power supply.

4. Gradually vary the variac to apply the rated voltage(230 volts).

5. For different values of load, note down the readings of the ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and
time taken for 8 revolutions.

6. Gradually vary the variac to minimum or zero volt position.

 7. Switch off the power supply.

8. Calculate observed reading, actual reading, % error.

TABULAR FORM:

S.No Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter Time(t) for ‘8’ Thoeretical Practical % Error =
(V) (A) (W) Rev (sec) Energy Energy (E1-E2)/E2 *
(E1) (E2) 100

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Meter constant

In case of Single phase induction type Energy meter is in terms of Revolutions / Kwh

In case of single phase digital Energy meter constant is in terms of pulses / Kwh

Meter constant for this digital energy meter is 3200 pulses / Kwh of energy consumption

Energy consumption for 3200 pulses is -- 1000W × 3200Sec = 3200 × 1000 Watt-Sec

Energy consumption for 32 pulses is -------- 1000W × 3600Sec/100 = 36000 Watt-Sec

So for 32 pulses it should actually consumed 36,000watt-sec (A) of Energy.

Energy meter theoretical reading (E1) = 36000 Watt-Sec

Practical reading E2= W*t

% Error = [(E1-E2)/E2] * 100

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Measure the readings without parallax error.

2. Calculate the error at different loads.

RESULT:
 INTRODUCTION TO ACTIVE AND PASSIVE DEVICES

RESISTOR

A Resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a

circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law. Where ‘I’ is the current throughthe
conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the conductor in units of
volts, and R is the resistance of the conductor in units of ohms.

COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR

Color Codes are used to identify the value of resistor. The numbers to the Color are identified in the
following sequence which is remembered as BBROY GREAT BRITAN VERY GOOD WIFE
(BBROYGBVGW) and their assignment is listed in following table.

Figure: Procedure to find the value of Resistor using Color codes

The use of color bands on the body of a resistor is the most common system for indicating the value
of a resistor. Color-coding is standardized by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA). Use the
Resistor Color Code Chart (above) to understand how to use the color code system.
Definitions of color bands: The color of the multiplier band represents multiples of 10, or the
placement of the decimal point. For example: ORANGE (3) represents 10 to the third power or 1,000.
The tolerance indicates, in a percentage, how much a resistor can vary above or below its value. A
gold band stands for +/- 5%, a silver band stands for +/- 10%, and if there is no fourth band it is
assumed to be +/- 20%.

CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used

to store energy electro statically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries store energy via chemical
reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical
conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical
circuits in many common electrical devices.

Fig Electrolytic capacitors of different voltages and

capacitors
 Capacitors
Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
Capacitor
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.

A capacitor stores electric charge. This type must be

Capacitor , connected the correct wayround. A capacitor is used
polarised with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can also be used as
a filter, to block DC signals but pass AC signals.

A variable capacitor is used in a radiotuner.

Variable
Capacitor

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is operated

with a small screwdriver or similar tool. It is designed
Trimmer
to be set when the circuit is made and then left without
Capacitor
further adjustment.

INDUCTOR

FIG: Inductor

An inductor, also called a coil, choke, or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores
energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. An inductor typically consists of an
insulated wire wound into a coil.

Units of Inductor is Henry(H).

 Diodes

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A device which only allows current to flow

Diode
in one direction.

LED
A transducer which converts electrical
Light Emitting
energy tolight.
Diode

A special diode which is used to maintain a

Zener Diode
fixed voltage across its terminals.

Photodiode A light-sensitive diode.

Transistors

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor NPN components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other

Transistor PNP components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.

Phototransistor A light-sensitive transistor.

STUDY &OPERATION

MULTIMETER
A multimeter is a device used to measure multiple parameters of an electric circuit like voltage, current,
and resistance. The device is made up of a digital or analog meter, batteries, resistors, and other
circuitry, which ensure the measurement of several electrical quantities with very high accuracy and

speed.

FUNCTIONGENERATOR
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety of frequencies
and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common input signals. The electrical leads
from the device are attached to the ground and signal input terminals of the device under test.

Function Generator
Features and controls:

Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small
number of options.

Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.
Square wave
The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a
square wave signal.

Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.

Sine wave
Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.

Triangular Wave
How to use a function generator:

After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the desired shape.
Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an oscilloscope to check the controls.

REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC mainselectricity
to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A power supply can by broken
down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a particular function. For example a 5V regulated
supply:
 Block Diagram of Regulated power supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer: Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.
 Rectifier: Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing: Smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator: Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

DUAL SUPPLIES: Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and negative
outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is like two ordinary supplies
connected together as shown in the diagram.

Dual Power Supplies

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:
Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to emit electrons
and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly down the tube to the screen.
This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also contains electrodes to deflect the electron
beam up/down and left/right.

The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this gives the
oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO. A dual trace oscilloscope can display
two traces on the screen, allowing us to easily compare the input and output of an amplifier for example.
It is well worth paying the modest extra cost to have this facility.
 Dual Trace CRO

The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no input
signal connected.

Absence of input signal

Measuring voltage and time period:

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph is
determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the graph, there
is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine wave but these
properties apply to any signal with a constant shape

Fig: Properties of Trace

Resistance measurement:

Result:
 PN - JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:

a) To Plot V-I characteristics of PN junction diode both in Forward Bias and Reverse Bias.
b) To calculate the Forward Static and dynamic resistance of the diode at a particular operating
point.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
S.No Number/range Quantity
Equipment/ Component
1 Diode IN4007 1
2 Resistor 100Ω 1
Transistor regulated power
3 (0-30)V,1A 1
Supply
5 Voltmeter (0-2)V, (0-20)V 1
6 Ammeter (0-100)mA,( 0-100)μA 1
7 Connecting wires ---
8 Bread board 1

Specifications:

For silicon diode IN4007:

Max. Forward current = 1A
Max. Reverse current = 30µA
Max. Forward voltage = 0.8V
Max. Reverse voltage = 1000V
Max. Power Dissipation = 30mW
Temperature = -65 to 2000 c
Circuit Diagrams:

Fig.a .PN junction diode forward bias

Fig.b. PN junction diode reverse bias

Model Graph:
Procedure:

a) Forward Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig A.
2. Apply the supply voltage, VIN in steps of 0.2V from 0V to 1V, after then vary VIN in steps
of 1v and note down the voltage at which current starts. Also note the exact voltage at which
current starts .ie cut-in voltage.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode (Vd) from voltmeter and current through the diode
(Id) from ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, Vin.
4. Tabulate the voltage and current.

b) Reverse Bias:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig ‘B’.
2. Apply the supply voltage, Vin in steps of 2V from 0V to 20V.
3. Measure the voltage across the diode (Vd) from voltmeter and current through the
diode (Id) from ammeter for different steps of applied voltage, Vin.
4. Tabulate the voltage and current
5. Draw a graph between the voltage and current for both forward bias and reverse bias.
6. Identify the linear region of the forward bias curve and fix the operating point at the
center, calculate the static, dynamic resistances of the diode. Also find reverse resistance
from the reverse bias curve.
Tabular Forms: a) Forward Bias:
S. No. Diode Voltage Vd (Volts) Diode Current Id (mA )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

b) Reverse Bias:

S.NO Diode Voltage Vd (Volts) Diode Current Id(µA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Calculations:

1. Static Forward Resistance ,R =Vf/If=

2. Dynamic Forward Resistance, r =Vf/If=

3. Reverse Resistance=Vr/Ir=

4. Cut-in Voltage of diode=

Result:
 ZENER DIODE
AIM:

a). To study the V-I and load characteristics of given Zener diode.
b). To determine Zener break down voltage and reverse resistance.

Apparatus Required:

Name of the
S.No Number/range Quantity
Equipment/ Component

1 Zener Diode (12V/1Watts) 1

2 Resistor 100Ω & 220,2W 1
3 Ammeter (0-100)mA 1
5 Voltmeter (0-20)V 1
6 Rheostat (0-500Ω 1
7 TRPS (0-30)V,1A 1
8 Connecting wires
9 Bread board 1

Symbol of Zener diode:

Circuit Diagram:
Reverse Bias:

Fig.a Reverse Bias

Load Characteristics:

Fig.b. Load Characteristics

Model Graphs:

Reverse Characteristics Load Characteristics

Procedure:

Reverse Bias:

1) To determine V-I characteristics built up the circuit as shown in the fig.a

2) Increase source voltage Vs in steps of 2V to 30V and find the exact firing potential where current
starts.
3) Note the corresponding ammeter reading Iz for every incremental value of Vz.
4) Draw the graph between Vz and Iz

Load Characteristics:

1) To determine load characteristics built up the circuit as shown in fig.b

2) Fix the source voltage V at 30V and vary the load resistance in steps.

3) Note the corresponding ammeter reading IL and VL.

4) Plot the graph between VL and IL

Tabular Forms: Reverse Bias

S. No. Zener Voltage Vz(Volts) Zener Current Iz(mA )

1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
11
12
13
Load Characteristics:
Load Current
S. No. IL (mA ) Load Voltage VL(Volts)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Result:
 RECTIFIERS
FULL WAVE
AIM:

1. To study the performance of Full-wave rectifier with and without filters.

2. To calculate ripple factor and % of regulation of Full-wave rectifier with and without filters.

APPARATUS:

Name of the
S.No Number/range Quantity
Equipment/ Component
1 Step down transformer (30-0-30/500mA) 1
2 Diode (IN4007) 2
3 Rheostat (0-500)  1
4 Ammeter (0-500 mA) 1
5 Digital multimeter (0- 30) V 1
6 Capacitor 2.5 F 1
7 AC voltmeter 1

SPECIFICATIONS:

For silicon diode IN4007:

Max. Forward current = 1A
Max. Reverse current = 30µA
Max. Forward voltage = 0.8V
Max. Reverse voltage = 1000V
Max. Power Dissipation = 30mW
Temperature = -65 to 2000 c
CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

Fig a) Full wave Rectifier with Filter

Fig b) Full wave Rectifier without Filter

Procedure:
Full wave rectifier with filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure (a).

2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the transformer.
3. Now vary RL note down corresponding current in the ammeter,Vdc in multimeter,Vac from AC
voltmeter
4. Calculate the ripple factor and %regulation by using theoretical formulae = [ [(Vrms / Vdc )2 – 1]]1/2
and %Regulation = (VdcNL- VdcFL/VdcFL) * 100
Full wave rectifier with filter

1. Connect the circuit as shown in Figure (b)

2. Apply the supply voltage 230V, 50Hz at the primary winding of the transformer.
3. Now vary RL note down corresponding current in the ammeter,Vdc in multimeter,Vac from AC
voltmeter
4. Calculate the ripple factor and %regulation by using theoretical formulae = [ [(Vrms / Vdc )2 – 1]]1/2
and %Regulation = (VdcNL- VdcFL/VdcFL) * 100

Observations: VdcNL = 2Vmax/,

Ripple factor (r) = Vac/ Vdc

%Regulation = (VdcNL- VdcFL/VdcFL) * 100

OBSERVATIONS:
Full wave rectifier

Sl.no Idc(mA) Vdc (v) Vac (v) r = Vac/Vdc %Regulation

10

Full wave rectifier with out filter

Sl.no Idc(mA) Vdc (v) Vac (v) r = Vac/Vdc %Regulation

10

Result:
 Verification of truth tables of Logic gates.

Aim: Verification of truth tables of Logic gates.

Two input:(i) OR(ii) AND(iii) NOR (iv)NAND(v) Exclusive OR (vi) Exclusive NOR
vii)NOT
Apparatus: Digital TrainerKit,IC-7408,7432,7404,7400, 7402,7486, patchcards

Theory:
Logic gates are the physical devices for implementing the Boolean function, which it performs a
logical operation on more than one input and produces single output .The logic gates are classified
three types:
1. Basic gates(AND,OR,NOT)
2. Universal gates(NAND,NOR)
3. Special gates(Ex-OR, Ex-NOR)

BASICGATES:

AND Gate: AND gate performs multiplication operation .The the gate gets the output high
when both inputs are high,in remaining cases the output will below. The following truth table will
justifies the statement,

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y=A.B
0 0 0
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Figure.1.Logic Symbol of AND Gate

OR Gate: OR gate performs addition operation and the gate gets the output low when both inputs are
low, in remaining cases the output will be high. The following truth table will justifies the statement,

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y=A+B
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 1

Figure.2. Logic Symbol of OR Gate

NOT Gate: It acts as invertor. They will be given only two inputs as shown in the truth table.

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A A′
0 1
1 0

Figure.3. Logic Symbol of NOT Gate

UNIVERSALGATES:
NAND Gate: NAND gate performs reverse operation of AND gate .The output is HIGH.
When one of the inputs is LOW. The following truth table will justifies the statement,

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y=
0 0 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

Figure.4. Logic Symbol of NAND Gate

NOR Gate: NAND gate performs reverse operation of AND gate and the ouput is HIGH.
when all the inputs are LOW. The following truth table will justifies the statement,

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B

0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 0

Figure.5. Logic Symbol of NOR Gate

 SPECIALGATES:
EX-OR Gate: The output is HIGH only when odd number of one’s are HIGH as
shown in the truth table

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y=A′B+AB′
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

Figure.6. Logic Symbol of EX-OR Gate

EX-NOR Gate: The output is HIGH only when even number of one’s are HIGH as
shown in the truth table.

INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B Y= +AB
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
1 1 1

Figure.7. Logic Symbol of EX-NOR Gate

 PROCEDURE:
1. Place the trainer kit gently on the table.
2. Connect the patch cards into the holes of the particular logic gate, for checking the
output of the particular gate, connect the output of the particular logic gate in to the indicator.
3. While checking the output of the particular gate using the indicator we should know
the truth table of the particular gate which we are going to verify.
4. Switch on the power supply
5. At logic inputs based on the truth table on varying of the inputs If the led glows it
indicates as the inputs are high, if not glowing it indicates as low and at the logic indicator id
the led glows it indicates that the output is true if not false

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Digital lab kits and the IC’s should behand led with care.
2. While making connections main voltages should be kept switched off.

RESULT:
 Verification of truth tables of S-R, J-K & D flipflops using respective IC s.
AIM: To Implement and verify the working of the
(i) S-R Flip –Flop (ii) J K Flip – Flop (iii) D Flip–Flop
Apparatus: Digital trainer kit, IC-7404,7476,7473

Theory:
A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can beused to store binary data.
The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs. Flip-flops and latches are
fundamental building blocks of digital electronics.
(i) S-R Flipflop
The SR flip-flop is one of the fundamental parts of the sequential circuit logic. SR flip-flop is
a memory device and a binary data of 1 – bit can be stored in it. SR flip-flop has two stable
states in which it can store data in the form of either binary zero or binary one. Like all flip-
flops, an SR flip-flop is also an edge sensitive device. SR flip–flop is one of the most vital
components in digital logic and it is also the most basic sequential circuit that is possible. The
S and R in SR flip-flop means ‘SET’ and ‘RESET’ respectively. Hence it is also called Set–
Reset flipflop. The symbolic representation of the SR Flip Flop is shown below.

SR flipflop circuit diagram

 SR flip flop truth table

(ii). JK Flip Flop- The JK flip flop work in the same way as the SR flip flop work. The JK
flipflop has 'J' and 'K' flip flop instead of 'S' and 'R'. The only difference between JK flip flop
and SR flip flop is that when both inputs of SR flip flop is set to 1, the circuit produces the
invalid states as outputs, but incase of JK flip flop, there are no invalid states even if both 'J'
a nd 'K' flip flops are set to 1.

The JK Flip Flop is a gated SR flip-flop having the addition of a clock input circuitry. The
invalid or illegal output condition occurs when both of the inputs aresetto1and are prevented
by the addition of a clock input circuit. So, the JK flip-flop has four possible input
combinations, i.e., 1, 0, "no change" and "toggle".

Fig.2. Symbol of JK Flip Flop

Fig. Circuit Diagram of JK Flip Flop

Truth Table-

CLK J K Q Qbar
0 x x 0 0
1 0 0 0 1(M.S)
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1(toggling)

Fig. Pin Diagram of JK Flip Flop

Pin Description

Pin Number Description

1 Clock1Input
2 Preset1 Input
3 Clear1Input
4 J1Input
5 Vcc-Positive Power Supply
6 Clock2Input
7 Preset1 Input
8 Clear2Input
9 J2Input
10 ComplementQ2Output
11 Q2Output
12 K2Input
13 Ground
14 ComplementQ1Output
15 Q1Output
16 K1Input
(iii). D Flip Flop-The "CLOCK" or "ENABLE" input is used to avoid this for isolating the
data input from the flip flop's latching circuitry. When the clock input is set to true, the D
input condition is only copied to the output Q. This forms the basis of another sequential
devicere fer red to as D Flip Flop.

Fig. Symbol of D Flip Flop

Fig. Pin Diagram of D Flip Flop

Pin Number Description

1 Clear1Input
2 D1Input
3 Clock1Input
4 Preset1 Input
5 Q1Output
6 ComplementQ1Output
7 Ground
8 ComplementQ2Output
9 Q2Output
10 Preset2 Input
11 Clock2Input
12 D2Input
13 Clear2Input
14 PositiveSupply
 Fig. Circuit Diagram of DFlip Flop
Truth Table-

CLK D Q Qbar
0 x 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per pin diagram
2. Verify the truth table
3. Connect Always Vcc, ground and then perform the experiment

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Digital lab kits and the IC’s should be handled with care.
2. While making connections main voltage should be kept switched off.

RESULT