BONDING

Atoms rarely exist by themselves. Instead most bond with other atoms to form small molecules or
large lattices. There are three types of bonding: metallic, ionic and covalent. Most atoms join with
other atoms to form small groupings called molecules or large, regular arrangements called
lattices. The links between these atoms are called chemical bonds.

However, one group of atoms tends not to bond. These are the atoms of elements in group 18,
commonly called the noble or inert gases. The atoms of noble gases are extremely stable and
rarely bond with other atoms. Instead, they are monatomic, existing as single atoms. This stability
is because of their electron configuration. Helium (He) atoms have two electrons filling their outer
shells, while neon (Ne) atoms have eight electrons filling their outer-shells. Argon (Ar), krypton (Kr),
xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn) also have eight electrons in their outer shells.

All other atoms in the periodic table react, gaining, losing or sharing electrons as they do so. The
electrons react with each other to become more stable and to have less energy. Reactions involve
the interaction between the outermost electrons of the elements involved. When the outermost
electrons of atoms interact and cause atoms to join together a new chemical bond is formed. In
most cases, after reacting the atoms have eight electrons in their outer most energy level. This is
referred to as the octet rule. Hydrogen is an important exception to the octet rule as it achieves
only a maximum of two electrons, which is the noble gas configuration of helium.

The three ways in which atoms can achieve noble gas configurations is by:

1. Releasing outer-shell electrons (metallic bonds)

2. Transferring electrons between atoms (ionic bonds).
3. Sharing electrons between atoms (covalent bonds).

BONDING TYPES

The types of bonds formed depend on the type of atoms that are bonding. Metallic bonding occurs
between metal atoms, ionic bonding occurs between metal and non-metal atoms and covalent
bonding occurs between atoms of non-metals. To understand metallic and ionic bonding, you must
first understand what ions are.

IONS

Ions are atoms (or groups of atoms) that have become charged because they have had electrons
removed from them or because they have removed electrons from other atoms. Atoms are neutral
(no charge) because they have equal numbers of protons and electrons. The transfer of electrons
destroys this balance. This imbalance gives ions a charge.

 Positively charged ions (+) have more protons than electrons. They form when metal
atoms lose their outer-shell electrons. Positive ions are known as cations.
 Negatively charged ions (–) have more electrons than protons. They form when atoms of
non-metals gain electrons. Negative ions are known as anions.

The ions now have the same electron configuration and stability of noble gases.
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METALLIC BONDS

Metals are usually hard and they all have a metallic lustre. In other words, they shine or can be
polished to a shine. Most metals can be beaten into many shapes; that is, they are malleable. Most
metals can be drawn into wires; that is, they are ductile. Metals also conduct electricity. It is these
properties that make metals so versatile. Metallic bonding explains these properties of metals.

Metal atoms have a weak hold on their outer-shell electrons. This gives the outer-shell electrons
the freedom to move throughout the metal without being bound to any one atom. Each metal atom
becomes a positively charged ion. Opposite charges attract, and this electrostatic force provides
multidirectional bonding between the positive ions and the ‘sea’ of loose electrons surround them.
This bonding holds the metal together and is known as metallic bonding. Metallic bonding explains
all the physical properties characteristic of metals.
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IONIC BONDS

Ionic bonding occurs when metallic elements bond with non-metallic elements. Metal atoms have
only a weak hold on their outer-shell electrons. In contrast, non-metallic atoms have a strong hold
on their own electrons and tend to remove outer-shell electrons from any metal atoms nearby. This
causes ions to form.

Electrostatic forces pull the positive and negative ions together to form a strong ionic bond. Each
ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite charge, building up a three-dimensional structure called a
lattice. The process is shown below.

The ionic bonding model explains all the important properties of ionic substances, including how
they conduct electricity. When solid, ionic substances don’t conduct because the ions are bonded
within their lattice. When molten or dissolved in water, these ions separate from one another. This
allows the ions to conduct an electric current. Ionic substances conduct electricity when molten or
dissolved in water.

IONS

Ions form when atoms gain or lose electrons. Positive ions (CATIONS) form when atoms lose
electrons. The number of electrons the atom loses gives the amount of positive charge.

Al 3+: Aluminium ion. It forms when the aluminium atom loses 3 electrons and now has 3 more
protons than electrons.
Au +: Gold ion. It forms when the gold atom loses 1 electron and now has one more proton than
electrons.

Negative ions (ANIONS) form when atoms gain electrons. The number of electrons the atom gains
gives the amount of negative charge.

F –: Fluoride ion. It forms when a fluorine atom gains one electron and now has one more electron
than protons.
O 2 –: Oxide ion. It forms when an oxygen atom gains two electrons and now has two more
electrons than protons.

IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT IONS

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1. Metal ions keep the name of the metal atom.
2. When non-metal atoms form negative ions the name changes to end in ‘ide’.
3. Ions never occur alone in a substance. In any substance containing ions, the total positive
charge always equals the total negative charge so that the substance is neutral.
4. Ions have a charge because the number of electrons no longer equals the number of
protons.
5. The charge on an ion is called its valency.
VALENCY TABLE
The valency of some common ions are shown below.
POSITIVE IONS NEGATIVE IONS
NAME ION NAME ION
Ammonium NH4 + Bromide Br –
Copper (I) Cu + Chloride Cl –
Hydrogen H+ Ethanoate CH3COO –
Lithium Li + Fluoride F–
Potassium K+ Hydrogencarbonate HCO3 –
Silver Ag + Hydrogensulfate HSO4 –
Sodium Na + Hydroxide OH –
Barium Ba 2+ Iodide I–
Calcium Ca 2+ Nitrate NO3 –
Cobalt (II) Co 2+ Nitrite NO2 –
Copper (II) Cu 2+ Permanganate MnO4 –
Iron (II) Fe 2+ Carbonate CO3 2 –
Lead (II) Pb 2+ Chromate CrO4 2 –
Magnesium Mg 2+ Dichromate Cr2O7 2 –
Manganese (II) Mn 2+ Oxide O2–
Nickel (II) Ni 2+ Sulfate SO4 2 –
Tin (II) Sn 2+ Sulfide S2–
Zinc Zn 2+ Sulfite SO3 2 –
Aluminium Al 3+ Nitride N3–
Chromium (III) Cr 3+ Phosphide P3–
Iron (III) Fe 3+ Phosphate PO4 3 –
Lead (IV) Pb 4+
Tin (IV) Sn 4+
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COVALENT BONDS

Covalent bonding happens when non-metallic atoms bond with each other. Non-metals have the
ability to remove electrons from metals, but they can’t do this to other non-metals. Instead, they
share some of their outer-shell electrons. Covalent bonds happen when two non-metals share one
or more pairs of outer-shell electrons. If one pair is shared, then one electron from each atom
forms the bond. The shared grip on these electrons holds the two atoms together.

Non-metals only share enough electrons to fill their outer shell or to have eight electrons in it. For
example, three additional electrons would fill the outer-shell of nitrogen (electron configuration 2,
5). Therefore, a nitrogen atom must pair up three of its electrons with three electrons from other
non-metallic atoms. This results in three covalent bonds.

Pairs of non – metal atoms form covalent bonds by sharing 2, 4 or 6 electrons. An electron dot
diagram clearly shows this. Shared pairs of valence electrons are placed between bonded atoms
and are known as bond pairs. Unshared pairs of valence electrons are known as lone pairs.

Covalent bonding usually results in the formation of discrete groupings of atoms known as
molecules. Covalent bonds are directional, unlike ionic and metallic bonds. A single covalent bond
is aligned along an axis through the two atoms that share electrons. The bonding electrons are
localised along this axis and between the two bonded atoms. The bond arises from the mutual
attraction of two atomic nuclei (+ charge) for the same localised shared pair of electrons (–
charge).

Covalent molecular substances include most non-metal elements e.g. hydrogen (H 2), nitrogen (N2),
oxygen (O2), fluorine (F2), phosphorus (P4), sulfur (S8), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), iodine (I2) and
most compounds formed from a combination of only non-metal elements e.g. methane (CH 4),
water (H2O), hydrogen bromide (HBr), ammonia (NH3), nitric acid (HNO3) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
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Covalent compounds are non-conductors of electricity in solid, liquid or aqueous phase because
there are no electrons free to move independently. The absence of any mobile charge particles
means these substances are non-conductors of electricity. Some acids are good conductors in
aqueous solutions because they form ions that are able to move through the solution carrying
charge and hence conducting an electric charge.

Strong covalent bonds form only between the atoms within molecules. Forces between molecules
are limited to a variety of weak attractions. Consequently, molecules can be easily separated from
each other. Hence these substances are weak and soft. Also, unlike metals and ionic substances,
these weak forces between molecules means they have low melting and boiling points.

QUESTIONS

1. Use a periodic table to classify the following elements as metals (M) or non-metals (NM).

(a) Na: M (b) Xe: NM (c) W: M (d) Fe: M

(e) Se: NM (f) Ca: M (g) O: NM (h) H: NM

(i) F: NM (j) Mg: M (k) V: M (l) At: NM

2. For each of the following substances name the type of bonding involved (metallic, ionic or
covalent bonding):

(a) NaCl (sodium chloride): ionic

(b) SO2 (sulfur dioxide): covalent

(c) Pb (lead): metallic

(d) HNO3 (nitric acid): covalent

(e) PbCl2 (lead chloride): ionic

(f) N2O4 (dinitrogen tetroxide): covalent

(g) C3H8 (propane): covalent

(h) ZnS (zinc sulfide): ionic

3. Name the ions formed from the following atoms.

(a) sodium: sodium ion (Na+)

(b) chlorine: chloride ion (Cl-)

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2-
(c) oxygen: oxide ion (O )

4. Why does the magnesium ion have a +2 charge after the electrons are transferred? Why does
the oxygen atom have a – 2 charge after it gains electrons and forms an oxide ion? How many
electrons are in the outer energy level of both the magnesium and oxide ions? What is so special
about this number of electrons?

Magnesium ions have a +2 charge as it loses 2 electrons, since there are now two more protons
than electrons a charge of positive two is produced. In an oxygen ion that has gained 2 electrons a
-2 charge is produced as there is more negatively charged electrons than positively charged
protons. There are 8 electrons in the outer energy level of both ions, this is special as this amount
of electrons allows the ion to become stable and inert.

5. Name the following positive ions.

Positive Ion Name Positive Ion Name

Al 3+ Aluminium ion Zn 2+ Zinc ion
Pb 2+ Lead (II) ion Ba 2+ Barium ion
Ag + Silver ion Fe 3+ Iron (III) ion
Mn 2+ Manganese ion H+ Hydrogen ion
Sn 4+ Tin (IV) ion Cu 2+ Copper (II) ion

6. Name the following negative ions.

Negative Ion Name Negative Ion Name

O2– Oxide ion P3– Phosphide ion
Cl – Chloride ion S2– Sulfide ion
N3– Nitride ion F– Fluoride ion
I– Iodide ion Br – Bromide ion

7. Write the formula showing the valency of the following ions.

Name Ion Symbol Name Ion Symbol

& Charge & Charge
Silver Ag + Manganese (II) Mn 2+
Nitride N 3- Sulfite SO3-2
Phosphate K- Nickel (II) Ni 2+
Ammonium NH4+ Potassium K+
Chromate CrO2- Hydrogencarbonate HCO3-
Iron (II) Fe+2 Nitrite NO2-
Sulfide S-2 Phosphide K 3-
Lithium Li+ Dichromate Cr2O72-
Hydrogen H+ Aluminium Al3+
Nitrate Ni-3 Hydroxide OH-
Permanganate MnO42- Ethanoate CH3COO-
Sodium Na+ Iron (III) Fe+3
Chloride Cl- Zinc Zn2+
Sulfate SO42- Magnesium Mg2+
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Chromium (III) Cr+3 Calcium Ca2+
Lead (IV) Pb 4+ Tin (IV) Sn 4+
Copper (II) Cu+2 Barium Ba2+

8. Complete the following table to determine the type of bonding between the atoms (or ions).

Formula of Substance Element Types Bonding Type

(metals or non – metals)
O2 Non – Metals only Covalent
Na2O Metal with non - metal Ionic
Fe Metal Metallic
Cr2O3 Metal with non-metal Ionic
AlP Metal with non-metal Ionic
NH3 Non-metals only Covalent
OCl2 Non-metals only Covalent
BaI2 Metal with non-metal Ionic

9. State whether the following elements have a high or low attraction for outer shell electrons.

(a) Metals:

Low attraction

(b) Non-metals:

High attraction

10. Recall the different types of bonding by matching them with the correct combination of
elements (metal/non-metal, non-metal/non-metal, metal/metal).

Metallic:
Metal/metal

Ionic:
Metal/non-metal

Covalent:
Non-metal/non-metal

11. Recall the different types of bonding by matching them with the term that best identifies them
(shared electrons, electron sea, charged atoms).
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Metallic:
Electron sea
Ionic:
Charged atoms

Covalent:
Shared electrons

12. Define the term monatomic.

Consisting of one atom

13. Explain why noble gases tend not to form bonds.

Their outer shells are filled up

14. Identify the missing information to complete the following table.

Number of Number of Number of Overall Atom or Ion? Symbol

Protons Neutrons Electrons Charge
8 6 10 -2 Ion O2-
10 10 10 0 Atom Ne
13 15 10 +3 Ion Al3+
17 18 18 –1 Ion Cl-
19 20 18 +1 ion K+

15. Use the periodic table and group number to predict the number of covalent bonds formed by
the following:

(a) O

1 covalent bond

(b) N

3 covalent bonds

(c) Cl

1 covalent bond

(d) Si

4 covalent bonds

16. Explain why sodium chloride is neutral with no overall charge despite it being constructed of
charged ions.
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The positive sodium ions and negative chlorine ions are balanced making the overall charge
neutral

17. Use the following electron configurations to predict the likely charges of ions formed from the
following atoms.

(a) Magnesium (2, 8, 2)

+2

(b) Fluorine (2, 7)

-1

(c) Lithium (2, 1)

-1

(d) Phosphorus (2, 8, 5)

+3

18. Use the periodic table to predict the likely charges of ions formed by the atoms of the following
elements.

(a) Bromine (Br)

-1

(b) Strontium (Sr)

+2

(c) Selenium (Se)

-2

(d) Francium (Fr)

+1

19. Why are metals good conductors of electricity and heat?

They have a delocalised sea of electrons that are free to move which

20. Explain why ionic substances conduct electricity when molten but not when solid.
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When solid, ionic substances don’t conduct because the ions are bonded within their lattice. When
molten or dissolved in water, these ions separate from one another. This allows the ions to conduct
an electric current.