In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC) system

A crushing system that can be a fully mobile unit or a permanently fixed unit
at the point of mining so that the mined material can be transported out of the
pit by a conveyor system.
In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC) is an alternative transport system which
requires a higher initial investment but gives substantial saving in operating
cost. IPCC is the superior technology for large open pit mines with high outputs
In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC) system is a continuous processing system that
includes the shovel, crusher, spreader and all appropriate conveyors that reduces
rock of mine (ROM) to a conveyable size. In fact, IPCC is the use of fully mobile,
semi-mobile or fixed in-pit crushers coupled with conveyors and spreaders (for
waste) or stackers (for ore) to remove material from an open-pit mine. Following
figures make a good view of In-Pit crushing system [3,4].

Fig 1: Different parts of IPCC system [3].

1. Hopper 4. Electrical Control 7. Twin roll crusher
2. Apron Feeder 5. Discharge Conveyors 8. Electromagnet
3. Propel system 6. Hydraulic boom & breaker 9. Cab
Fig 2: Crushing arrangement of IPCC system [5].

4. In-pit crushing and conveying system

In-pit crushing and conveying is an alternative system for transport in open pit
mines. Depending on individual parameters, it can achieve full or partial
replacement of trucks for material transport within and out of a mine. If a mine
provides two conveyors, both ore and waste are conveyed out of the pit. By this way,
the truck transport on long uphill distance is eliminated. When the mine supplies
only one conveyor, it conveys ore and waste on different shifts, or all the waste is
transported by trucks to the surface. The in-pit crusher is moved down every one or
two years, to keep the truck haulage to a minimum. The relocation takes 2-3 days.
For short moving times the processing plant can be fed from a stockpile. In longer
stoppages, usually in European operations, the move coincides with a general mine
holiday period. The crusher is located next to an embankment, so that trucks are able
to dump the material directly from the embankment into the hopper/feeder above the
crusher. Under an alternative arrangement, the crusher is located closer to the center
and has a separate feeder with the feeder tail-end located in the recess in the pit floor.
The trucks dump the material from the pit floor into the hopper on the feeder. Belt
conveyors can be one of the most efficient means of transporting material out of the
pit [4].
3-1. Types of in-pit crushing systems
I. Fixed or semi-fixed systems
Fixed systems are typically ex-pit and are designed to reduce haulage distance to the
waste dump.
Semi-fixed systems may be in-pit but fixed within a pit stage [6]. These are mounted
on a steel platform, which reduces the need for a concrete foundation. Any planned
relocation would not be for less than 10 years [2].

Fig 3: Fixed In-Pit system [3].

Semi-mobile systems
This unit works close to the mine face but is moved less frequently than a mobile
crusher. The transport mechanism may be a permanent part of the crusher frame [2].
Semi-mobile systems are suited to harder rocks and higher capacities (up to
10000tph) [6]. In this method, trucks are used to transport material from the mine
face to the in-pit crusher, often moving between levels. As mining advances, the
hauling distance to the crusher increase, eventually requiring the crusher and
conveyors to be relocated [7].
Fig 4: Semi-mobile system [6].

Fully mobile systems

Fully mobile systems are based on sizers and limited to softer rocks and the shovel
capacity ( ̴ 5000 tph) [6]. These type of crushers work at the mine face, are directly
fed by an excavator, and move in unison with the excavator on them own transport
mechanism as mining progresses [2]. High-angle conveyors can be used to avoid
overly long mine conveyors to transport material from the pit [7].

Fig 5: Fully mobile system [5].

Fig 6: High-angle conveyors [7].

Fig 7: Comparison slope of ramps in conventional & in-pit system [3].

Relocatable systems
This term is used in Europe for crushers with temporary support foundations. The
crusher plant is moved in sections. In the United States, this term refers to units that
can be moved on a highway with a minimum amount of dismantling [2].

Movable systems
A movable crusher is centrally located in a mine near the same level as the mine’s
working face. It is relocated every 1 to 2 years, as required, to maintain the
relationship between distance and elevation from the face [2]. 3-2. Comparison of
in-pit crushing system types Conveyor transport requires a smaller size distribution
than truck haulage. While some marginal ores may be processed by dump leaching
without crushing, the majority of ore mined for conventional processing generally
requires crushing. On the basis, it is logical to consider that the primary crusher may
be located in the pit in order to condition ore for conveyor transport. Waste, on the
other hand, does not require crushing for truck transport, but does require a size
reduction for conveyor transport, and this is an additional cost burden of waste
conveying [8]. Comparison of different in-pit crushing system are as following
tables:
Table.1.A: Comparison of different in-pit crushing system [8]
IPCC Crushing Fully Mobile Semi Mobile Fixed
Options
Throughput < 10,000 t/h < 12,000 t/h < 12,000 t/h
Truck Quantity None low Intermidate
Crusher Sizer, Jaw/double Any Any
roller crusher
Unit Crushng cost Higher Intermedate Lower

Table 1.B: Comparison of different in-pit crushing system [8]

Type Specification
Fixed High Capacity
Typical Gyratory/Jaw Crusher
Rarely Relocated
Commonly Associated With Transport Tunnel
 Semi-Fixed High Capacity
Typical Gyratory/Jaw Crusher
Relocated Every 3-5 Years
Commonly Associated With Transport Tunnel Or Wide Truck Ramp
Relocatable Medium Capacity
Typical Twin Roll Crusher Or Sizer
Relocated Every 6-18 Months
Multiple Crushing Station With Conveyor Ramp And Conveyor Distribution Point
Not Common In Deep Hard Rock Mine
Movable Medium-Low Capacity
Typical Twin Roll Crusher Or Sizer
Relocated As Required To Follow Shovel
Commonly Feeds Onto Bench Conveyor Or Conveyor Bridge
Multiple Crushing Station With Conveyor Ramp And Conveyor Distribution Point
To Date, No Application In Large Scale, Hard Rock Min

4. Conveyor systems
The size, weight, and physical characteristics of the material, transport rate, and
horizontal and vertical distances the material must be carried determine the type of
conveying system to be used to handle the material [2].
4-1. Types of conveyor systems
For each of the IPCC system options there are ways the conveyor can exit the pit:
I. A tunnel
II. A dedicated (generally steep) conveyor ramp
III. An existing haul road [6].
4-1. Comparison of conveyor system types
The conveying system has most impact within the open pit environment due t the
space required for installation, its performance, low mobility and its impact on other
unit operations. While fixed conveying systems are frequently with fixed crusher
installations, more mobile systems have found limited application in large hard rock
open pits, and a greater emphasis is put on this type of system in this analysis [8].
Comparison of different conveying system are as following tables:
Table 2. A. Comparison of conveying system [8]
IPCC Conveying Dedicated Ramp Conveyor Tunnel Conveyor on Haul Road
System
Conveyor Angle <180 <100 <60
Capital cost Intermediate Highest Lowest
Flexibility Intermediate Lowest Highest
Table 2. B. Comparison of conveying system [8]
Type Typical Typical Typical Comments
capacity, speed, width,
Kt/hr m/s mm
Fixed 5-12 4-6 1800-2400 Tunnel covered or open, Not flexibility
Relocatable 5-12 4-6 1800-2400 Poor flexibility, high relocatation cost,
stoppage of month for relocation
Shiftable 5-12 4-6 1800-2400 Pontoon or crawler mounted drive stations,
medium flexibilty but impact on other unit
operations, frequent downtime for conveyor
shifting
Crawler 2-4 3-4 1200-1800 Slow relocation time, multiple systems,
Mounted interruptions at transfers, common in leach
Piggy-Back operations
Tyre Mounted 0.5-2 3-4 1200-1800 Application in quarries, good floor conditions
Piggy-Back required
Crawler 5-12 4-6 1800-2400 Used with shiftable conveyors, high cost,
Mounted Belt short length (60-80 m)
Wagon

5. IPCC system advantages

 Energy efficiency - conveying is more efficient than other forms of
material transport.
 Mine life, up to 50-60 years of operation - need at least four years to pay
back capital and +10 is ideal.
 Material movements - need at least 10 Mt/y (prefer 25 Mt) per stage.
 Electricity cost versus diesel cost – electricity costs ($/kWh) less than
25% of diesel price ($/litre).
 Number of material types - co-disposal makes dump development
difficult but not impossible.
 Rock strengths - if < 70 MPa then use of sizers or double rolls crushers
(DRC) makes IPCC cheaper in both capital and operating costs but new
hybrid DRC can process up to 150 MPa.
 Space for operation - at least 100 m needed for IPCC.
 Dumping restrictions - any height restrictions? (IPCC dumps can
otherwise be formed much higher in a single pass, with less ancillary
equipment needs).
 IPCC lends itself to easy automation.
 Timing - IPCC is ideally suited to new operations or an expansion, rather
than steady state operation. It is also, generally, capex neutral compared
 to trucks when taking into account replacement schedule and operating
expenditure is less.
 Vertical advance rates - moving crushers more than say twice a year
creates a lot of system downtime at seven days per move.
 Gravity - conveyors can generate power on downhill runs.
 Truck cycle times - in a mining operation IPCC may not work well below
25 min cycle times. In a quarry where IPCC is processing ‘ore’ this can
be much lower [9].
 Minimal dependency on weather.
 Ability to adjust to economic changes quickly.
 Lower maintenance cost.
 Highly reduced road preparation.
 Major environmental advantages due to: - Electrically driven motrs versus
burned fuel.
o Prevention of dust on the haulage route.
o In total less consumption of energy and consumables [10].
 Substantial saving in civil works.
 Lower installation cost than stationary crushing plants.
 Flexibility to alter the primary crusher location and conveying scheme
as the mine develops.
 Safe mine operation due to less moving equipment [5].
6. IPCC system disadvantages
I. The initial cost of system is normally higher than that of the truck
haulage system, because the complete conveyor and crusher are
bought to start production whereas the truck fleet can be bought in
stages to set up production.
II. The mining operation is completely dependent on availability of the
conveyors. This availability is over 95% but a shutdown of one belt
can stop the entire production [3].
III. Relocation of the crusher and extension of the conveyor is expensive
and requires a shutdown of the mining operation for a period from 2-
3 days.
IV. Material must be crushed to a size of minus 250 mm before loading
onto the conveyor [4].
V. IPCC and shovel do not operate together [3].
VI. In-pit crushing required for conveying (hard rock) even if not needed
(overburden).
 VII. Less flexible in mining layout.
VIII. Less flexible in capacity [11].
7. Reasons for applying
a. Size of mines getting larger.
b. Labour shortages and need to keep manning levels low.
c. Strip ration increasing.
d. Fluctuating fuel cost.
e. New environmental regulations.
f. Greater Pressure to reduce operating cost.
g. Need to quickly respond to changing market demand [3].
h. Maintain flexibility.
i. Ore may go to number of destinations.
j. Ore blending and priorities may change.
k. Higher mineral prices support and justify the development of larger,
deeper pits with higher waste and/or material movements.
l. Soaring oil prices drive shift to less expensive electric power.
m. The supply of large truck tires remains difficult.
n. Carbon emissions will result in increased mining costs and create an
environmental impact.
o. There is an opportunity to improve safety with fewer moving vehicles.
p. Mining costs are currently escalating rapidly.
q. Mine production per man hour can increase dramatically.
r. IPCC realizes fully integrated automation processes.
s. Less logistics and handling of fuel, oil and parts result in lower costs
[2, 4].
8. Is IPCC right for a special case?
IPCC could work at such operation if at least some of the following apply:
I. Have a long mine life (more than 10 years).
II. You have laden uphill hauls or long distances. Large and steady
tonnages of material are being moved.
III. Electricity price ($/KWh) is less than 40% of diesel net price ($/liter).
IV. No more than three material types.
V. Your cutbacks can be reasonably wide (>150m/164 yards).
VI. Manpower issues prevail.
VII. Reducing carbon and dust emissions is important.
VIII. Lower operating costs! [2, 3, 4].
10. Conclusion
While each mining situation needs to be independently evaluated, in-pit crushing
and conveying systems are increasingly cost effective in the following
circumstances:
 High capacity
 Long mine life
 Deeper pits
 Longer haulage distance
 High fuel cost
 High labour cost
 Remote controlled operation.
11. Refrence
[1] In-pit crushing and conveying-gathering momentum, 2011, International Mining.
[2] Frizzell, E.M. & Martin,T.W. 1990, In-pit crushing and conveying, Chapter 13.5.
[3] Scot Szalanski, P.E., 2009, Optimizing in-pit crusher conveyor performance,
P&H Mining Equipment. [4] Radlowski, J.K., 1988, In-pit crushing and conveying
as an alternative to an all truck system in open pit mines, The University of British
Columbia.
[5] Koehler, F., 2010, In-pit crushing looms the way into Australia, Mining
Magazine Congress.
[6] In-pit crushing and conveying (IPCC), 2010, Alan Cooper-Principal Consultant,
Snowden Group.
[7] Bulk materials handling in mining, 2007, Sandvik Mining and Construction.
[8] Tutton D. & Streck, W., 2009, The application of mobile in-pit crushing and
conveying in large, hard rock open pit mines, Mining Magazine Congress.
[9] IPCC innovations, 2009, International Mining.
[10] Schroder, D.L., 2003, The use of in-pit crushing and conveying methods to
significantly reduce transportation costs by truck, Coaltrans Asia, Bali International
Convention Centre.
[11] Oberrisser, H., 2009. Fully mobile crushers as part of total IPCC solutions,
Sandvik Mining & Construction, Mining Magazine Congress.
[12] Argall, J.G.O., 1976. Twin Buttes pit gets bigger, 550000 tones moved out of
pit each day. World Mining, PP. 72-75.
[13] Anon., 1979. Pit crushers and conveyors move Sierrita ore and waste, PP. 279-
28.
[14] Kaerst, D., 1987. Modern equipment for Kennecotts Bingham Canyon copper
mine, Bulk Solid Handling, Vol. 7, No. 2.
[15] Engineered Solutions for Material Handling, 2010, Synergy Engineering Ltd.
[16] Anon., 1984. Island copper: in-pit crusher and conveyor system under
construction. Island Miner, Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 1-2.
[17] Valley copper mines ltd., Vancouver, B.C., 1980. Valley copper project, Stage
II Study, Vol. 1, Mining Plan
Gyratory Crusher

Introduction
The process of reducing mined ore for processing is known as ‘comminution’,
which is defined as ‘the action of reducing a material size, especially a mineral ore,
to minute particles or fragments’; this is normally achieved at mining
operations through one or more stages of crushing and milling.

Early mining activities were labour intensive. Ore breakdown occurred via a miner’s
pick, sledgehammer, or drill bit. Until the mid-nineteenth century, most initial ore
crushing and sizing continued to be done locally by hand. Later operations were
assisted with water powered trip hammers (early-to-middle industrial revolution).
The earliest known crushers were hand-held stones, where the weight of the stone
increased the force a miner could apply when hammering against a stone anvil. The
small volumes of rock and aggregate produced were then typically loaded into
sacks for transport by road.

The Original Mining Tools

Explosives (gunpowder etc.) were introduced to commercial mining during the

industrial revolution; using explosives to mine is referred to as ‘blasting’. Blasting
came into widespread use for bulk mining in the mid-nineteenth century, followed
later by steam shovels. For the first time, new mining techniques and machines
began producing ever larger chunks of liberated materials.

Rapid growth in demand over the past century has required considerable upscaling
of production tonnages, regardless of the types of ore being mined. To cater for this
increase in demand, various crushing and breaking technologies were developed
to allow for efficient transport of bulk materials (via conveyors etc.) from
the mine to the processing plant.

Today, most mining and quarry operations utilise crushers as part of the front end
of the ore beneficiation processes after the ore bed has been liberated by blasting or
other techniques. Exceptions include mining of very loose materials such as mineral
sands, where this crushing stage is often not needed. Similarly,
many coal and lignite beneficiation/washing plants use other technologies such
as Bradford Breakers and Mineral Sizers. But for hard rock mining, the use
of gyratory crushers, cone crushers, and/or jaw crushers, is the starting point
for ore processing.

Gyratory Crusher

Gyratory crusher
A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting of a
concave surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined with manganese
steel surfaces. The inner cone has a slight circular movement, but does not rotate;
the movement is generated by an arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material
travels downward between the two surfaces being progressively crushed until it is
small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces.
A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine or ore
processing plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by the gape and
mantle diameter or by the size of the receiving opening. Gyratory crushers can be
used for primary or secondary crushing. The crushing action is caused by the closing
of the gap between the mantle line (movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle
and the concave liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is
opened and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the central
vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate around its own axis.
The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended spindle type, meaning that the main
shaft is suspended at the top and that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The
short-shaft design has superseded the long-shaft design in which the eccentric is
mounted below the gear.

Purpose of Crushers
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce the size of Run of Mine (ROM) large
rocks to smaller rocks, gravel, sand, or rock dust; this is essential for efficient
transport of the ore via conveyors etc. Crushing is the first of many stages that lead
to separation of the ore from the waste (gangue) material. Waste material can be
discarded or recycled allowing the ore rich stream to be further processed at the main
plant.

Various types of crusher and mineral separator may be employed depending upon
the throughput, hardness, and properties of the ore being processed. In all cases,
the crushing stage is essentially achieved by transferring a mechanically amplified
force (via mechanical advantage) to a material, to breakdown the bonds which hold
the material together.

Crushing is achieved by passing ore between two solid surfaces, then by applying
sufficient force to bring the surfaces together so that the molecules of the material
being treated are separated from (fracture), or, change alignment in relation to
(deform), each other.

Crushers are commonly classified by the degree to which they fragment the starting
material, with primary and secondary crushers handling coarse materials,
and tertiary and quaternary crushers reducing ore particles to finer gradations.
Each crusher is designed to work with a certain maximum size of raw material, and
often delivers its output to a screening machine (screener), which sorts and directs
the product for further processing. In many cases, initial crushing stages are followed
by further milling stages using e.g. ball mills etc.

Crusher Types
There are three common crushers used at mining and processing plants:

 Gyratory Crushers
 Jaw Crushers
 Cone Crushers

Typically, the initial crushing stage is completed using either gyratory

crushers or jaw crushers. It is often the case that there will be only one crusher
installed, and this will be referred to as the ‘Primary Crusher’. Cone crushers are
typically used for 2nd, 3rd & 4th stage crushing steps (although not always).

Jaw, Cone and Gyratory Crushers

Gyratory Crusher Components
Gyratory crushers were invented by Charles Brown in 1877 and further developed
by Gates in 1881 (they were commonly referred to as a ‘Gate’s crushers’ in the early
years).

A primary crusher is designed to receive run-on-mine (ROM) rocks directly from

the mines. Gyratory crushers typically crush to reduce the size of aggregate to a
maximum of about one-tenth of its original size. Gyratory crushers are always
installed vertically orientated.

A gyratory crusher’s size is classified by:

I. Its gape and mantle diameter.

II. The diameter of the receiving opening.

Fig. Gyratory Crusher Components

Key components of a gyratory crusher are:

 Spider Assembly & Bushing

 Top & Bottom Shell Assemblies
 Main Shaft
 Mantle & Concaves
 Eccentric Drive & Bushing
 Pinion & Countershaft Assembly
  Hydroset Assembly (Hydraulic Support)

Gyratory Crushers Work

ROM ore from the mine is typically transferred by haul trucks which discharge into
a feed hopper at the upper level; crushed ore is then discharged from the bottom
shell assembly. In some cases, a grizzly feeder may be used, and undersize ore can
be screened to bypass the crusher (transferred directly to the output conveyor).
There is typically also a hydraulic rock breaker to reduce large boulders received
from the mine.

Fig. Haul Trucks Deliver ROM Ore to Crusher Hoppers

The ore enters the upper section of the crusher past the spider assembly which
supports and houses the upper main shaft bearing.

Fig. Spider Assembly (Upper Shaft Bearing Housing)

The gap between the main shaft and concaves reduces from the top to the bottom
of the crusher assembly. The upper concave is lined with hardened
steel concave linings and the main shaft is fitted with a mantle liner (sheathe) of
similarly hardened material.

Linings are the main wear components of a crusher. Linings wear over time and
protect the main casing and shaft from damage. The maintenance strategy for a
gyratory crusher will be largely influenced by the rate of wear of the linings, which
can be monitored manually (thickness measurements) or by using suitable condition
monitoring tools e.g. laser scanning. The liners and mantle are replaced at
scheduled intervals or based on the wear rates recorded.

The ‘hydro set’ system is a hydraulic mechanism which allows the vertical position
of the main shaft (and mantle) to be raised and lowered. Changing the position of
the mantle changes the gap setting at the outlet of the crusher, and consequently the
size of the crushed output. The height of the mantle is often automatically adjusted
based upon the torque produced, and has a release mechanism that allows the
mantle to drop should the normal workload be exceeded; this is an overload
protection feature.

The upper shaft bearing is enclosed within the central spider bushing. This
arrangement allows slight oscillation of the upper shaft and limited vertical
movement produced by the hydro set. The spider bearing is normally lubricated
by grease (manual or automatic).

Fig. Gyratory crusher

Gyratory Crusher Operation
Crushing action is produced by the oscillation or ‘throw’ (opening & closing) of
the gap between the moving mantle liner, mounted on the central vertical
shaft (spindle), and the fixed concave liners mounted on the mainframe (top shell)
of the crusher. The mantle and concaves from the working surfaces of the crusher,
producing the force required to crush the ore.

Eccentric motion is achieved by the lower eccentric bushing and drive

arrangement on the bottom of the main shaft. The input pinion drive
countershaft is supported by pinion bearings and powered by an electric motor.
An external gearbox or belt drive arrangement reduces the motor speed to
approximately 100-200 RPM at the crusher. In some cases, a clutch system may
also be used to absorb shocks. The pinion on the countershaft meshes with and
turns the eccentric gear drive or crown gear.

Fig. Crown Gear of Gyratory crusher

The inner surface of the eccentric bushing is machined off-center from the center-
axis of the crusher. As the eccentric bushing rotates, the lower shaft oscillates in
an elliptical orbit around the centerline of the crusher. This action causes the gap
between the mantle and concave liners to open and close upon each rotation of the
shaft. At the upper end of the mantle this movement is very small, but as the ore falls
lower, the throw increases and the crushing force also correspondingly increases.
Fig. Gyratory Crusher Mantle Travel Path

Crushed ore falls to the bottom shell assembly and is discharged into the crushed
ore conveying system for further processing. The lower casing also houses a forced
lubrication and hydraulic system, which is critical for the drive arrangement and
hydro set mechanism.

Jaw crusher application

Jaw crushers are used for initial size reduction to convert big rocks into small
stones. This is generally followed by a cone crusher.

Gyratory crusher application

Gyratory crushers are used for initial size reduction to convert big rocks into
small stones. This is generally followed by a cone crusher.
CONSTMACH PI-2 Mobile Crushing plant is an ideal solution for crushing
materials with low grade of hardness and abrasiveness such as limestone. PI-2 is the
result of advanced design and engineering, usage of premium quality components
with long-lasting and excellent craftsmanship.
PI-2 Mobile Crushing and Screening Plant is combination of:

 Feeding Hopper with vibrating feeder

 CPI-1415 Primary Impact Crusher
 By-pass conveyor (for extraction of soil)
 Feeding Conveyor between primary impact crusher and vibrating screen
 Vibrating Screen with 3 or 4 decks
 Feedback Conveyor from vibrating screen to impact crusher
 Fold-up type Stockpile Conveyors
 Wheeled mobile chassis with hydraulic legs
 Automation System with PLC and remote controller
 Dust Removing System
  Diesel Electric Generator Set (Optional Application)
PI-2 Mobile Limestone Crusher production capacity changes between 250 to 300
tph according to hardness grade of the material to be crushed. Maximum feeding
size is 950 x 950 mm. Thanks to special design of the secondary impact crusher,
produced final materials have a satisfying fine material ratio and also excellent
cubical shape which is a desired result especially for concrete production. It is
possible to get 3 or 4 different fractions at the same time.
In case of need, it is possible to adapt an electric generator to chassis of the plant.
PI-2 Mobile Limestone Crushing plant is a user-friendly combination which
promises easy mount/assemble features to its operators. The plant can be put into
use in very short time. In case of need, it is possible to equip the feeding hopper and
stock conveyors with hydraulic opening mechanism and in that case the plant can be
taken to operation without needing any external equipment such as crane, loader etc.

PI-2 Mobile Crushing plant is equipped with high-tech automation system including
top class SIEMENS – SCHNEIDER brand electronic components and PLC.
PI-2 Mobile Crusher is operated by just a tablet controller.
Overall dimensions of PI-2 Mobile Limestone Crushing plant are determined
according to international road transport regulations and it is transported between
jobsites easily.
General layout, transport information and photos of PI-2 Mobile Limestone Crusher
by clicking the related tabs and you can request a quotation by clicking REQUEST
A QUOTE tabs.
Crushing Plant Startup Sequence & Procedure
The following items make up an EXAMPLE Crushing Plant Startup Sequence
& Procedure that all must be checked in preparation and before the equipment in
the Crushing Plant is started.

1. If maintenance has occurred since the last operating shift, ensure that the MCC
is energized and that all safety locks have been removed from equipment
starters.
2. Walk along all conveyors and check belt scrapers, idlers, and pulleys to ensure
that there is no undue buildup of material or spillage. Check all conveyor
emergency pull-cord switches; reset any engaged switches.
3. Check all chutes to ensure that they are not plugged.
 4. Ensure that the cone crusher lube system is operational and that there is an
adequate supply of oil in the reservoir.
5. Remove and discard of any tramp metal dropped from the magnet onto
conveyor #1 or #2.
6. Inform the mill foreman or operator that the Crushing Plant is about to be
started and that water from the dust scrubber bottoms pump will soon be
pumped to the cyclone feed pump box.
Crushing Plant Design
Crushing Plant Startup Sequence
All the Crushing Plant equipment is interlocked, except for the sump pump, and
therefore, the plant must be started from the fine ore bin back. The dust collector and
scrubber bottoms pump are interlocked together, and must be started prior to other
equipment. The sump pump should be placed in AUTO. The drives should be started
in this order:

1. Start the dust collector. Scrubber bottoms pump will start automatically.
2. Place sump pump on AUTOMATIC
3. Start either cone crusher lube pumps and allow 5 seconds for pressure to build
up and oil to be circulated through the crusher.
4. Start conveyor #3 (30 second horn will sound).* Start the Cone crusher drive.
5. Start the double deck screen. Once the screen has been started, a 15 second
PLC timer will begin timing. Conveyor #2 and conveyor #1 must be started
prior to the timer timing out (within 15 seconds), otherwise the conveyor #1
interlock to the screen will come into effect and stop the screen. If this occurs
the screen should be started again to restart the sequence.

6. Energize the electromagnet.

7. Start conveyor #2 (30 second horn will sound).
8. Start conveyor #1 (30 second horn will sound).
9. Start the jaw crusher and allow it to come up to full speed before feeding it
ore.
 10.Start the apron feeder and adjust the hand speed control to the desired feed
rate.
11.Safety codes require that a horn must sound for approximately 30 seconds
prior to the startup of any conveyor.
In this plant, when a conveyor start button is pushed, internal logic latches it in
and a horn will begin to sound for 30 seconds, when the horn ends the
conveyor in question will start. In the startup sequence above, conveyor #3 will
start as described; while the horn sounds, the Cone crusher lube system can be
started, and then the Cone crusher. By the time the crusher is running, conveyor
#3 will have started. When the start pushbutton for conveyor #2 is pushed, the
internal logic will latch, sound the horn for 30 seconds, and start conveyor #2. As
soon as conveyor #2’s start pushbutton is pressed, the interlock is made to allow
conveyor #1 to start if desired. Pushing the start button for conveyor #1 during
the horn sounding will extend the horn for a further 30 seconds. Therefore,
starting conveyor #1 immediately after conveyor #2 limits the horn to a
minimum.
Normal Crushing Plant Operation

After the crushing plant has been brought up to normal operating conditions the
operator should attempt to even out the feed to the jaw crusher to the design tonnage
of 60 mtph. This is achieved by ensuring that the feed to the crusher maintains an
essentially full chamber without ore spilling out. Adjust the speed of the apron feeder
with to increase or decrease the feed rate to the jaw crusher and ultimately to the
crushing circuit.
The product from both crushers should be visually checked to ensure that each
crusher is producing the desired product. If the jaw crusher product increases in size,
the Cone crusher may become overloaded. Similarly, if the Cone crusher product
increases in size, the circulating load around the Cone crusher will increase,
consequently, increasing the load on the Cone crusher and decreasing throughput.

The Crushing Plant operator must monitor the Cone crusher power draw displayed
on the Cone crusher ammeter. The ammeter should show no major fluctuations and
should read approximately 100 amps. An excessively high power draw on the Cone
crusher indicates the cone is being overloaded, which may be due to a high feed rate
or a blinded screen.

The operator must pay close attention to the Cone crusher lube system. A low
pressure alarm will sound if there is an abnormally low oil pressure. If this alarm
sounds, the crusher will shut down after a timed delay. If the crusher is allowed to
operate longer than 2 minutes after the loss of oil pressure, serious damage to the
crusher may result. If the pressure gauge indicates pressure above the normal
operating pressure, shut down the Cone crusher and investigate the problem.
Likewise, a high temperature alarm will sound if there is an abnormally high oil
temperature in the oil return line.

Shutdown the crusher and investigate if the temperature of the oil pipes seems
excessive. Low oil pressure or high oil temperature may be caused by several
conditions; insufficient oil supply in the lubrication system, a broken oil feed line,
oil pump failure or excessive bearing wear in the crusher. Either condition must be
thoroughly investigated as to the cause of the alarm.
Although there is no variable control of the belt conveyors in the Crushing Plant, the
operator should regularly check conveyor discharge chutes to ensure there is no
undue buildup of material. This is especially important if the feed material is “clay-
like” or excessively wet.
The Crushing Plant operator must ensure that the dust scrubber has an adequate
supply of reclaim water and monitor flow-meter to ensure that the proper amount of
water is being recirculated through the scrubber. Under normal conditions, the dust
scrubber requires a minimum recirculation of 8 to 10 cubic meters per hour. A lower
flow rate will ultimately cause excessive wear on the scrubber and a higher flow rate
is a waste of reclaim water and may hinder operation of the grinding circuit.
Crushers for Bulk Materials
Crushers and breakers are used to reduce size of mined and quarried material for
further processing or to size suitable for the intended end use. The goal of a crusher
is to crush the given material in to the material with certain size and shape.
Information about crushing technology, construction, working and maintenance of
crushers for bulk materials is given in this article. Crushing Technology There are
four basic ways to reduce size of a material: by impact, by compression, by shear or
by attrition. Most crushers employ a combination of all these crushing methods.

Impact

Impact refers to the sharp,

instantaneous collision of one
moving object against another.
During the collision, both the
objects may be moving, such as
a cricket bat hitting a fast
moving ball, or only one object
may be moving, such as a rock
being struck by hammer blows.
Fig. impact
There are two types of impact:
I. Gravity impact and
II. Dynamic impact.
Coal dropped onto a hard surface such as a steel plate is an example of gravity
impact. Gravity impact is most often used to separate two materials which are having
relatively different friability. For example, in a rotary breaker, separation of the more
friable material can be done by screening the material after the more friable material
is broken due to the impact while the less friable material has remained unbroken.
Material crushed in an impact crusher is an example of dynamic impact. When the
material is crushed in an impact crusher, the freely falling material first breaks due
to dynamic impact by a moving hammer and then the force of impact accelerates
movement of the reduced particles toward breaker blocks and/or other hammers for
further size reduction.
Dynamic impact has specific advantages for the reduction of many materials and it
is specified under the following conditions.
a. When a cubical particle is needed.
b. When finished product must be well graded and must meet intermediate
sizing specifications, as well as top and bottom specifications.
c. When ores must be broken along natural cleavage lines in order to free and
separate undesirable inclusions (such as mica in feldspars).
d. When materials are too hard and abrasive for hammer mills, but where jaw
crushers cannot be used because of particle shape requirements, high
moisture content or capacity.

Compression
Crushing by compression is done
between two surfaces, with the work
being done by one or both surfaces.
For example, jaw crushers using this
method of compression are suitable
for reducing extremely hard and
abrasive rock. As a mechanical
reduction method, compression
should be used for the following.
 If the material is hard and
tough.
 If the material is abrasive.
 If the material is not sticky.
 Where the finished product is to
be relatively coarse, i.e., top
size to be 38 mm (1 1/2") or
larger
Fig. compression

Attrition
Attrition is the
reduction of materials
by scrubbing it
between two hard
surfaces. However,
attrition consumes
more power and
exacts heavier wear. Fig. Attrition

In a non-reversible hammer mill

with screen bars, shown in above
figure, material is broken first by
impact between hammers and
breaker plates and then by a
scrubbing action (shear and
attrition) of material against
screen bars. Attrition crushing is
most useful in the following two
circumstances.
 When material is friable or
not too abrasive.
 When a closed circuit system
(detailed in next section) is
not desirable to control top
size. Fig. Non- Reversible hammer mill

Shear
Shear consists of a trimming or
cleaving action. Shear is usually
combined with other methods. For
example, a single-roll crusher,
employ shear together with impact
and compression. Shear crushing is
normally used under following
conditions.
 When material is somewhat
friable and has relatively low
silica content
 For primary crushing with a
reduction ratio of 6 to 1
 When a relatively coarse product
is desired, top size usually larger
than 38 mm (1 1/2") Fig. Shear
Gyratory Crushers
Gyratory crusher is generally used as a primary crusher. The crusher is popular due
to its high throughput capacity and the large sized opening. The crusher is well suited
for handling direct feed from haul/dump trucks. The gyratory crusher is mainly used
in rock that is abrasive and/or has high compressive strength. The crusher is the
workhorse of the hard rock crushing industry.
A gyratory crusher uses a mantle that gyrates (rotates) within a cone shaped inner
surface lined with wear resisting plates often called concaves. As the mantle gyrates
within the crushing chamber, progressively approaching, and receding from, each
element of the cone shaped inner surface, it creates compressive force, which
fractures the material.

Fig. shows sectional view of a typical gyratory crusher

On the above figure shows sectional view of a typical gyratory crusher. Essentially,
a gyratory crusher consists of a heavy cast-iron, or steel, shell/frame which includes
in its lower part an actuating mechanism (eccentric and driving gears), and in its
upper part a cone shaped crushing chamber, lined with wear resisting plates
(concaves). Construction detail and working of the crusher is as under.
The main shaft of the crusher is journaled in the spider bearing and in the eccentric
bearing assembly. The spider bearing fixes the position of the upper end of the main
shaft. Eccentric bearing assembly with inner bushing can be replaced, or in some
models turned, to adjust the stroke. The step bearing located on the piston of the
hydraulic cylinder provides axial support for the main shaft.
The rotational movement of the drive motor is transferred to the eccentric bushing
in the eccentric bearing via the countershaft assembly. This rotating eccentric
bushing imparts an eccentric motion to the main shaft, a characteristic of the gyratory
crusher.
In this way the crushing gap located between the fixed concaves in the crusher shell
and the eccentrically gyrating mantle continuously changes.
The feed material that is fed into the crushing chamber from above is progressively
crushed between the crushing elements (mantle and concaves), finally exiting the
crushing chamber at the bottom under the influence of gravity. The crushing
elements, mantle and concaves are made of high wear resistant material.
The crushing gap is adjusted by hydraulically lifting or lowering the main shaft by
the hydraulic cylinder. The hydraulic shaft adjustment is used mainly when crushing
abrasive material and when the gap frequently needs to be corrected. It is also used
to compensate for liner wear. It also serves as overload protection when uncrushable
tramp material enters the crushing chamber. It may be noted that overload can occur
if the feed material is sticky or contains high amount of moisture.
Moreover, the main shaft hydraulics make it easier to restart the crusher in an
emergency when the crushing chamber is full by adjusting the height of the shaft (to
clean the chamber).
Gyratory crushers are designated by two numbers. These are the size of the feed
opening (in inches) and the diameter of the mantle at its base (in inches). The feed
material should be at least 15 to 20% smaller than the width of the feed opening.
Fig. Open Side Setting (OSS) Gyratory Crusher
Gyratory crusher’s discharge setting is referred to as the Open Side Setting (OSS).
Open side setting is a single pre-determined setting at which the crusher and it’s
crushing chamber are designed to operate. The setting can be changed to produce
different product sizes by modifying shape and thickness of the bottom tier of the
concave. Crusher’s capacities (throughput) are listed for open side settings of the
crusher in tons per hour.
Close Side Setting (CSS) = Open Side Setting (OSS) − Eccentric Throw.
As compared to the jaw crusher, where it only crushes when the swing jaw moves
towards the fixed jaw, with its rotational action, the gyratory crusher is always
crushing. Hence the gyratory crusher can process a much greater throughput than a
jaw crusher.
Jaw Crusher
Jaw crushers are used in mines and quarries as primary crushers. A jaw crusher uses
compressive force (mechanical pressure) for breaking of particles. Above figure
shows construction of a typical single toggle Blake type jaw crusher. As shown in
above figure, a jaw crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws. The volume or cavity
between the two jaws is called the crushing chamber. The gap between the jaws
becomes narrower farther down into the crushing chamber. One of the jaw is kept
stationary and is called a fixed/stationary jaw (front frame/wall) while the other jaw
called a swing/moving jaw, moves back and forth relative to the fixed jaw. The
inertia required to crush the material is provided by a weighted flywheel that moves
the eccentric shaft.

Fig. cross-section of eccentric shaft and drive-side main bearings

Above figure shows cross-section of eccentric shaft and drive-side main bearings.
When the swing jaw moves forward, the pressure required to crush the material is
generated because the crushing chamber narrows and the material gets crushed.
When the swing jaw moves back again, the material crushed to the size of the pre-
selected jaw opening exits the crushing chamber at the bottom due to gravity while
new material flows in from the top.
In most of the jaw crushers, the toggle plate also serves as a safety mechanism.
Should a piece of non-crushable material, generally called tramp iron, enter the jaw
crusher and be larger than the bottom opening, it can't be crushed nor pass through
the bottom opening. In this case, the toggle plate will crush and prevent further
damage. In some designs, the toggle plate is made up of two steel plates which are
bolted together with shear bolts.

Fig. , jaw crusher types

As shown in above figure, jaw crushers are generally classified by the method of
pivoting the swing jaw.
 In a Blake type jaw crusher, the swing jaw is pivoted at the top (upper
position).
 In a Dodge type jaw crusher, the swing jaw is pivoted at the bottom
(lower position).
The Dodge type jaw crusher has a variable feed area and a fixed discharge area which
leads to choking of the crusher and hence it is used only for laboratory purposes and
not for heavy duty application.
The Blake type jaw crusher has a fixed feed area and a variable discharge area. As
the maximum amount of motion is at the bottom, discharge area, tendency for
choking is less. Blake jaw crushers are of two types:
1. Single toggle and
2. Double toggle jaw crushers.
Fig. crushing Actions in Blake type crushers

In the single toggle jaw crushers, the swing jaw is pivoted/suspended on the eccentric
drive shaft which leads to a much more compact design than that of the double toggle
jaw crusher. As shown in above figure, the swing jaw, pivoted on the eccentric shaft,
undergoes two types of motions: swing motion towards the fixed jaw due to the
action of toggle plate and vertical movement due the rotation of the eccentric shaft.
These two motions, when combined, lead to an elliptical motion of the swing jaw (at
the feed opening it is elliptical and at the discharge opening it is a thin crescent,
whose chord is inclined upwardly toward the fixed/stationary jaw). This motion is
useful as it assists in pushing the particles through the crushing chamber. This
phenomenon leads to higher capacity of the single toggle jaw crushers but it also
results in higher wear of the crushing jaws. Hence, these type of jaw crushers are
preferred for the crushing of softer materials.
Fig. Typical Double Toggle Jaw crusher construction
On the above figure shows construction of a typical double toggle Blake type jaw
crusher. In the double (two) toggle jaw crushers, the oscillating (back and forth)
motion of the swing jaw is caused by the vertical up and down motion of the pitman
under the influence of an eccentric shaft, causing the toggle plates to alternately flex
and stretch. The swing jaw moves like a swinging door that is hinged at the top and
is being pushed and pulled at the bottom to open and close it. The term "pitman"
generally means "connecting rod". In a double toggle jaw crusher, it connects
eccentric shaft to the toggle plates. In case of a single toggle jaw crusher, eccentric
shaft and swing/moving jaw functions as pitman. As shown in the figure titled
crushing actions in Blake type jaw crushers, due to absence of wasteful abrasive
action path (absence of elliptical motion of the jaw due to absence of vertical
motion), in a double toggle jaw crusher, abrasion or gouging of the jaw plates is
reduced to a minimum. Hence, double toggle jaw crusher is commonly used to crush
abrasive materials.

Jaw Crusher Terms

 Fig. Jaw Crusher Terms
Feed Opening It is the distance between the jaws at the feed opening. The feed
opening (gape or depth of the cavity) is measured from the top of the tooth of the
fixed jaw to the bottom of the tooth of the movable jaw in a straight line
perpendicular to the center line of the crushing cavity. Feed opening defines the
maximum feed size of the crusher. The maximum feed size is approximately 80%
of the feed opening. Open Side Setting (OSS) The open side setting is measured
when the crusher is at rest. The setting is measured either top to top (for closed
profile jaw plate, i.e. use of heavy duty jaw plate), or bottom to top (for open profile
jaw plates, i. e. jaw plates with tooth), depending on the tooth profile of the jaw
plates. It is the maximum discharge opening/gap. Throw/Stroke The throw is stroke
of the swing jaw. It is the difference between OSS and CSS. Closed Side Setting
(CSS)
The closed side setting can be calculated by deducting the throw/stroke from the
OSS. CSS is the most important crusher parameter since it defines the maximum
product size and has significant bearing on capacity, product gradation, power draw
and wear. It is the minimum discharge opening/gap. Check the instruction manual
for the permitted minimum CSS.

Nip Angle
The nip angle is the angle between the
fixed and movable jaw plates. Too large a
nip angle reduces the capacity (due to
material squirt out like a large ball which
might squirt out from under a car tire) and
increases the wear as the feed material
grinds and gouges the jaw plates in an
upwards direction during the compressive
stroke.
Jaw Plates -Replaceable liner plates
protecting the jaws from wear.
Cheek Plates -Wear plates used to protect
the sides of crusher frame.
Fig. Nip Angle
As the earth’s natural resources are becoming scarce, recycling is becoming
important. Recycling of material is generally carried out in the building industry.
Recycling means reuse of demolition concrete, reclaimed asphalt pavement, etc. Due
to the wide range of applications and feed material, jaws plates of many profiles are
available.
Above figure and table shows basic jaw plates profiles and recommendations for
their applications. Different type of jaw plate profiles can be broadly classified in to
three categories/groups: sharp teeth (e.g. standard tooth), corrugated teeth (e.g. super
tooth) and flat (e.g. heavy duty). The applicability of these three categories depends
on the material being crushed. Sharp teeth are used for softer materials (hardness
below 5 on the Mohs’ hardness scale), corrugated teeth are used for medium hard
materials (hardness between 5 and 7 on the Mohs’ hardness scale) and flat profiles
are used for very hard rocks (hardness greater than 7 on the Mohs’ hardness scale).
Operation and Maintenance of Jaw Crushers In order to get optimum capacity and
maximum lifetime of wear parts, follow the recommendations given in the operation
and maintenance manual.

Jaw crusher Operation

Fines (material smaller then CSS) should be removed from the feed material. This
can be done by installing a grizzly feeder. This reduces wear on the jaw liners and
can improve overall plant performance.
Check the feed size. Oversize feed material decreases capacity and can cause
unnecessary stresses to the crusher components.
 Fig. Optimum material level

In order to reach optimum capacity and maximize on the life of the wear parts, the
crusher cavity/chamber should be full. Above figure shows the optimum material
level. The feed must be distributed evenly across the crushing chamber. The crusher
must not be operated at a smaller CSS than what is stated in the operation and
maintenance manual. A tight CSS will lead to higher wear on jaw plates. Check the
wear profile of the jaw plates. An uneven wear profile will decrease capacity,
increase wear, and increase crushing forces.
Maintenance
Check plates and jaw plates should be changed before they are fully worn out in
order to avoid damage to the crusher components (worn jaw plates imposes
unnecessary excessive loads on the crusher).

As shown in above figure, it is recommended that a jaw crusher should not run any
longer once the tooth profile of jaw plate has reduced to below 90% of its profile
height.
Above figure shows indicative lifetimes of wear parts. It may be noted that usually
the fixed jaw plate wears the fastest (compared to the movable jaw plate, the sliding
distance between the crushed particle and the fixed jaw plate is more).
As the wear in the inlet part of the crushing chamber is small as compared to the
middle and exit sections, it is recommended to rotation and replacement jaw plates
as under:
After a new one-piece jaw plate installation, rotate it when 30% of the tooth profile
is worn. Rotate it a second time when the tooth profile at the bottom of the jaw plate
is completely worn. Replace the jaw plate after it is completely worn.
As shown in above figure, in case of two-piece jaw plates, worn out jaw plates are
removed from the bottom of the crushing chamber and work hardened upper jaw
dies are installed at the bottom of the crushing chamber. New jaw plates are installed
at the top of the crushing chamber. Above procedure will allow for good work
hardening of the manganese jaw plates and maintain the best nip angle for maximum
through put. Carry out lubrication as per manufacturer’s recommendation.
Cone Crushers

As shown in the figure below shows construction of a typical cone crusher. Cone
crushers are used in secondary, tertiary and quaternary stages. They are compression
crushers. A cone crusher is similar in operation to a gyratory crusher, with less
steepness in the crushing chamber and more of a parallel crushing zone. A cone
crusher breaks material by squeezing it between an eccentrically gyrating main shaft,
which is covered by a wear resistant mantle and the concave hopper, covered by
bowl liner (concave). As material enters the top of the cone crusher, it becomes
wedged and squeezed between the mantle and the bowl liner. Large pieces of the
material are broken and then they fall to a lower position (because they are now
smaller) where they are broken again. This process continues until the pieces are
small enough to fall through the narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher.

Fig. typical Cone crusher construction

The spring or hydraulic release system (not shown in above figure) of a cone crusher
acts as an overload protection that allows tramp iron to pass through the crushing
chamber without damaging the crusher. For automation, many manufacturers
provide modern features such as hydraulic mechanism for setting adjustment. These
automation systems constantly adjust the CSS (Closed Side Setting) with no need to
shut the machine down. They compensate for variations in feed material and wear
in wear parts. They are also used for cavity clearing (if the machine stops during
operation under load due to electric failure, etc.).
Wear parts, mantle and bowl liner are made of manganese steel. The performance of
wear parts depends on the feed arrangement, speed, stroke and closed side setting
(CSS) of the crusher. Trickle feed results in irregular liner wear. As shown in the
following figure, choke feeding is the correct method for uniform liner wear.

Fig. Cone crusher Feeding

The condition in which the feed rate exceeds the product rate is known as choke
feeding.
As shown in above figure, in a choke fed cone crusher, feed material is always filled
above the mantle nut.
Crushing Chamber Designs

Fig. crushing chamber designs

As shown in above figure, for different materials and outputs demand, different
designs of crushing chambers are available. For best performance, select the right
chamber design.
Designed for Ease of Maintenance Time spent on changing parts during
service/maintenance, and the number of people it takes, also affect profitability.
Premium machines are often designed for easy fitting and maintenance (for example:
mechanical rotation of the bowl for its removal), saving time and costs. Use of a
mantle lifting device can save time and increase safety.

Crusher Performance
The following factors will detract from crusher capacity and performance.
 Sticky material in crusher feed.
 Excessive moisture in the feed.
 Fines in crusher feed (smaller than crusher setting) exceeding 10% of
crusher capacity.
 A lot of single size product in the feed.
 Feed segregation in crusher cavity.
 Improper feed distribution around circumference of crusher cavity.
 Operation of crusher at less than recommended full load countershaft
(pinion shaft) speed.

Cone Crusher Terms

Mantle
Covers the cone head of the crusher to protect it from wear. It is the inner sacrificial
wear liner that sits on the cone head.
Concave (Bowl Liner) Sits in the upper frame of the crusher to protect it from wear.
It is the outer sacrificial wear liner that sits inside the upper frame.

Backing Compound
A resin that is poured behind the manganese liners to fill the void and secure the
manganese liners.
Open Side Setting (OSS)
The maximum distance between concave and mantle at a given close side setting.
Close Side Setting (CSS)
The minimum distance between concave and mantle to give the required output and
grading for a crusher. Mantle Nut
Used on the top of the mantle to secure the mantle in place on the cone head.
Roll Crushers
Roll crushers are used for primary as well as secondary and tertiary stages. They are
used for crushing lignite, coke, coal, soft to medium-hard rock, ore, iron ore and
similar products. Roll crushers are of two types: single roll crusher and double roll
crusher. Single roll crushers are typically used as primary crushers. Double roll
crusher are typically used in situations in which fines are to be minimized.
Single Roll Crushers

Fig. Single Roll Crushers

As shown in above figure, a single roll crusher consists of a roll assembly and a
breaker plate. In these crushers, reduction occur due to impact, shear and
compression. As shown in the following figure, sometimes, comb teeth-like
projections are provided at bottom of the breaker plate, which are duly hard-faced
by special electrodes of wear-resistant quality.
Fig. Breaker plate with comb Teeth- Like projections

As material enters the crusher through the feeder hopper, it is struck by the teeth of
the revolving roll and initial breakage occurs from the impact. The rotation of the
roll then guides the material further into the crushing chamber, the space between
the breaker plate and the roll itself. The roll then pinches the material against the
stationary breaker plate, and simultaneously, the material is crushed by the shearing
action of the roll teeth and by compression, providing final sizing. The crushed
material exits through the bottom discharge portion of the crusher.
The gap between the bottom lip of the breaker plate and the rotating roll determines
output size of the product. The output size of the product is adjusted by changing the
size of the gap.
This gap is adjustable from outside the machine by a shim (or spindle) arrangement.
Adding or removing shims (or rotating the spindle) causes the breaker plate to pivot
about its top hinge, moving it into or away from the roll.
For protection against uncrushable debris (tramp iron), the breaker plate assembly is
secured with an automatic release device. As pressure from the uncrushable is
exerted against the plate, the device allows the entire breaker plate assembly to move
away from the roll instantly. The uncrushable drops clear of the machine by gravity,
and the breaker plate assembly immediately returns to its normal crushing position.
Many times crushers are also provided with shear pin and zero speed switch as
additional safety device.

Double Roll Crushers

 Fig. Double Roll Crusher
As shown in above figure, a double roll crusher consists of two parallel rotating rolls
turning together (in opposite directions and turning in the direction of the downward
material flow through the center), with feed being directed through the moving gap
between them. The rolls are individually powered or coupled by gears.
The crushing material is fed into the crusher such that it is spread over the whole
width of the rollers. As the two rolls rotate toward each other, the material is pulled
down into the crushing zone where it is grabbed and compressed by the rolls. Since
both rolls rotate at the same speed, there is no relative motion between the two roll
surfaces, and crushing is primarily accomplished by compression. Fines are reduced
because already sized material passes freely through the crusher with no further
reduction.
Product size is determined by the size of the gap between the rolls, and this gap can
be changed to vary product size or to compensate for wear. To change the gap, one
of the two crushing rolls is designed as a loose roll. The gap adjustment is done
mechanically, hydraulically or electro-mechanically.
Protection from uncrushable debris (tramp iron), is provided by the loose/retractable
roll assembly. It retracts instantly when an uncrushable is encountered, then reverts
to its original position once the uncrushable has cleared the crushing chamber with
no stoppage of the crusher. Double roll crushers are well suited for extremely hard
and abrasive materials.

Construction
Details Housing/Frame Housing/Frame is generally fabricated from structural steel
plates and heavy section duly stiffened by ribs. Replaceable wear resistant steel liner
plates are fitted at the crushing zones.
Rotor Assembly (Rolls)

Fig. Roll Tooth Patterns

The rotor assembly is fitted with smooth or toothed circular crushing rings or
segments to suit individual application. Above figure shows some common roll tooth
patterns.
In double roll crushers, smooth rolls are used for crushing medium hard to hard
materials whereas toothed rolls are used to crush soft to moderately hard materials.
The wear parts, toothed circular crushing rings or segments and breaker plate are
made of manganese steel or wear resistant steel.
Hybrid Crushers

Fig. Hybrid Crushers

As shown in above figure, a hybrid crusher (CR800 series by Sandvik) results in a
compact design as a result of aggressive tooth geometry. Hybrids are used for
primary and secondary crushing of soft and medium hard materials that also have
the tendency to be wet and sticky. They are equipped with an advanced hydraulic
gap adjustment system with integrated overload protection to realize different
product sizes and to protect the machine against foreign bodies within the feed
material. Furthermore, the hybrid is able to compensate peaks with “energy storage”
in the flywheels.

Crusher Feeding
Once the crusher reaches operating speed, it may be choke-fed from hoppers or fed
at continuous, controlled rates from vibratory screens, apron feeders or belts.

Low Speed Sizers

A low speed sizer is designed to accept feed material (either ROM, i.e. for primary
crushing or pre crushed, i.e. secondary crushing applications) through the top of the
crushing chamber, drawing it through the rotating shafts laced with teeth (rolls) and
crushing or sizing it to a specified product size. Low speed sizers are insensitive to
clay and sticky materials. Dust and noise generation are also low due to low roll
speed. As low speed sizers allow high throughput capacities to be achieved with a
compact machine design, plant dimensions can be significantly reduced, ensuring
low investment costs.

Fig. Low Speed Sizers

Above figure shows typical construction of a low speed sizer. As shown in the figure,
in a low speed sizer, two toothed rolls revolve in a chamber at low speeds and high
torque. The shear and tensile forces required for crushing or sizing are generated by
the high rotor torques at low circumferential speeds. The low speed of the crushing
rolls results in low fines content in the final product. Furthermore, low roll speeds
maximize wear life of consumable elements due to positive bite and minimal feed
slip.
As per one of the leading manufacturer, the actual rotating tip speed of the tooth or
sizing element in a sizer can be as low as 0.8 m per second (primary applications)
and up to 1.8 m per second (tertiary & quaternary applications).

As shown in above figure, many times a breaker bar is provided in the inward
running sizers or center sizers. The breaker bar is used to break any lumps of material
that still remains oversized after the feed material has passed the rolls. Lumps are
broken as the rotors chop through the fixed teeth of the breaker bar.
As there is no impact that will cause the material to pack in the crushing chamber,
the low speed sizers are the only primary crushers that can handle the sticky
materials effortlessly.
In most cases, pre-screening (pre-scalping) of undersize material is not necessary, as
the fines contained in the feed material can pass smoothly through the crushing rolls.
Low speed sizers are protected against overload or from foreign particles contained
in the feed material (tramp iron) by providing under speed sensors (proximity probe)
for autoreverse operation or discharge to by-pass chutes (provided with hydraulically
operated doors) so that they will not suffer catastrophic damage. In case of drives
with fluid couplings, thermal overload switch if provided or fusible plug on the fluid
coupling also provides protection against overload or from tramp iron.

Construction Details
Generally, the main frame (housing) is fully fabricated and machined from carbon
steel plates. Wear plates (usually 500 BHN) are used to completely cover the
sizing/crushing chamber (the inside of the housing).

The rolls consist of the bearings and shafts, which are fitted with easily replaceable
crushing segments/picks (teeth) made of wear resistant material. The shafts and drive
gears are fully machined from a solid high carbon steel (grade 4340) forging. Shaft
bearings are spherical roller with C3 clearance.

Fig. deep scroll Tooth Pattern

If provided, a deep scroll tooth pattern/configuration helps in spreading the feed
material evenly over the whole width of the crushing rolls. This is important in order
to achieve high throughput capacities. Furthermore, uniform wear attained in the
feeding area results in a longer lifetime of the wear parts
Fig. Centre Distance Between Toothed Rolls
The center distance between toothed rolls combined with the tooth configuration
controls the maximum size of in feed material that the unit can process efficiently.
The length of the inlet has a major effect on the volume of material that the unit can
process.
To handle sticky materials, the low speed sizers can be provided with scraper bars
that are located between the rows of sizing teeth to keep the toothed shafts clean at
all times.

Maintenance
Routine maintenance requirements are minimal. Periodically check tightness of
frame, tooth and liner bolts. Check wear and adjust breaker plates or replace breaking
elements (teeth and breaker plates) as per requirement. Carry out lubrication as per
manufacturers recommendations.

Horizontal Shaft Impactors

The horizontal shaft impactor (HSI) has a shaft that runs horizontally through the
crushing chamber with a rotor that turns hammers or blow bars. It uses the high
speed impacting force of the turning blow bars projections to break the material.
With impact crushing, the material breaks along its natural cleavage lines, resulting
in a more cubical product at high reduction ratios. Horizontal shaft impactor can be
used as primary or secondary crushers. In the primary stage, horizontal shaft
impactors are better suited for softer and less abrasive material. In the secondary
stage, the horizontal shaft impactors can process more abrasive and harder material.
In compression crushing (primary gyratory, jaw crusher and cone crusher) the
material is squeezed between 2 surfaces which get closer to each other. The crushing
movement speed is between 0.5 m/s up to 1.5 m/s. In impact crushing (Horizontal
Shaft Impactor - HSI and Vertical Shaft Impactor - VSI) the material is subject to
shocks given by rotating parts (rotor equipped with blow bars, etc.) and thrown
against metal surfaces. The movement speed is from 30 up to 80 m/s.
Horizontal shaft impactors are suitable for crushing hard rocks such as limestone,
dolomite, granite and other similar materials under toughest operating conditions.
A reversible impactor generally uses hammers instead of blow bars and the material
hits the breaker blocks/plates instead of aprons liners.
However, the horizontal shaft impactors and hammer mills cannot be used for clay
bearing or sticky materials as the crushing chamber will build up with the clay
(sticky material) and prevent impact crushing from taking place. The crushing
chamber will also quickly pack.

Construction and Working of Horizontal Shaft Impactor

Above figure shows construction of a typical horizontal shaft impactor. The

rotor has wedgeshape grooves extending parallel to the shaft for holding blow
bars. The rotor shaft assembly is dynamically balanced to assure vibration free
operation. The rotor is equipped with two, four or six blow bars. The blow
bars extend over the full width of the rotor. The bars are so designed that they
can be used by turning them after one face wears out. Two or three aprons
(breaker plates) are positioned to form an arc of the circle centered to the point
of impact. The first apron is normally fixed in initial crushing zone. Liners
(replaceable wear plates) are fitted to the aprons to ensure that the apron
settings can be maintained. Sometimes reversible and interchangeable mono-
block type aprons are also provided. The housing/frame is fabricated from
heavy steel plates and is stress relieved. Inside surface of the housing is
shielded/protected by the side/frame liners. Many times the housing is
hydraulically hinged for its quick opening to reduce time required for
maintenance.
After entering the crushing radius of the rotor, the feeding material is broken
by primary impact of the blow bars and the material propels towards the first
apron (liners) where it is broken by secondary impact. The material is then
shot back from the apron to the blow bars. The material is also broken in the
crushing chamber by material hitting material. Feed material is reduced
approximately 60 % by initial impact with blow bars and 30 % by impact with
aprons. The process repeats until the material is crushed to the required size
and discharged through the discharge opening at the bottom of the machine.
The aprons can be adjustable by apron adjusters to compensation for wear of
the blow bars and the aprons (liners). In order to prevent possible damage
caused by any foreign bodies (tramp iron) entering the machine, the aprons
are mounted on springs or hydraulic cylinders so that they can avoid any
temporary overloads. The size and shape of the end products also can be
changed by changing the gap between the blow bars and the aprons by
adjusting the apron adjustors. It may be noted that in small mobile machines,
generally only one apron is provided.

Design Considerations
In design of a horizontal shaft impactor, peripheral speed of the rotor, number
of impact bars and metallurgy of the wear parts play an important role. Rotor
Speed Increasing the rotor speed results in a tendency for a higher fine-particle
proportion and in some cases, to greater output. However, results in more wear
of the blow bars. The wear doesn’t increase proportionally with the speed; it
 is a function of the square of the speed. Number of Impact Bars Generally,
rotors with two or three blow bars are used for smaller crushing chamber
geometries (inlet width of under 1100 mm with rotor diameter under 1100
mm). Larger crushing chamber geometries (inlet width over 1200 mm with
rotor diameter over 1200 mm) are equipped with rotors having four or more
blow bars.

As shown in above figure, for a rotor with four blow bars, there are two designs in
use: 2 short & 2 long blow bars and 4 long blow bars. In design with 2 short & 2
long blow bars, time between blow bars is doubled improving penetration on
material. It results in a higher tonnage for a given speed. It also produces less fines.
This design is suitable for most applications. However, design with 4 long blow bars
is good for secondary applications where shape and size outweigh throughput. But
this design produces more fines.
Material of Wear Parts
Fig. wear comparison of Impactor wear parts
The impact elements; blow bars, apron liners and side/frame liners are made from
wear resistant materials for long wear life. Above figure shows wear comparison of
an impactor’s wear parts. The wear is maximum on the blow bars because the most
reduction work takes place when the particles are struck by the blow bars. They
account for about 60% of the total wear costs.
Material of blow bars, apron liners and side/frame liners is chosen according to the
material type, abrasion, foreign elements and size at the feeding and the required
product.
Apron liners are made from either manganese steel castings or chromium iron. The
side liners are made from AR plates, 400 HB or 520 HB. The various options for
blow bars are: manganese steel, martensitic (alloy) steel, white cast iron (chromium)
and metal matrix composites (MMC) - martensitic ceramic and chrome ceramic
commonly called ceramics.

Blow Bar Material Selection

Fig. Toughness versus Abrasion Resistance
Above figure shows toughness versus abrasion resistance for various materials for
blow bars. It can be seen that an increase in wear resistance (hardness) of a material
such as chrome, is normally associated with a reduction in toughness (the impact
resistance) of the material.

Austenitic Manganese Steel

The wear resistance of manganese steel with austenitic structure is attributable to the
phenomenon of work hardening. The impact and pressure load results in a hardening
of the austenitic structure on the surface. The initial hardness of manganese steel is
approx. 200 HV (20 HRC, hardness test according to Rockwell).
After work hardening, the initial hardness can increase to an operational hardness of
up to approximately 500 HV (50 HRC). The deeper, not yet hardened material layers
provide for the great toughness of this steel.
In general, manganese steels will be used whenever very high shock resistance or
some elongation is needed. This alloy is used for crushing less abrasive and very
large feed material (e.g. limestone). The alloy is used in primary crushers or crushers
that have tramp iron in the feed.

Martensitic (Alloy) Steels

Martensitic steel will be used whenever hardness and impact resistance are both
needed, i.e. in all the applications where usage of white irons (chromium) can lead
to breakage. Generally, martensitic steels have a higher lifetime than manganese
steels in more abrasive applications when the feed size is below 900 mm. It can
tolerate steel in the feed material. It is used in primary and recycling applications.

White Cast Iron (Chromium)

In chrome steel (e.g. ASTM A532), the carbon is chemically bonded in the form of
chromium carbide. The wear resistance of chrome steel is based on these hard
carbides. To prevent the material from becoming brittle, the blow bars are heat-
treated. It is very important to assure that the temperature and annealing time
parameters are exactly adhered to. Chromium is available as medium chrome and
high chrome. Chrome steel typically has a hardness of 60 to 64 HRC and a very low
impact strength.
White irons are used when the shock level is rather low and the castings rather thick.
Feed to the crusher must be well prepared as far as top size and must be free of tramp
iron. Because of the brittle nature of this alloy, tramp iron will cause catastrophic
failure of the blow bars. This material is used in secondary, tertiary and asphalt
recycle applications where there is no tramp iron.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMC) – Ceramics

Fig. Example of ceramic Inlays in Basic materials

Metal matrix composites (MMC), consisting of metallic matrix (steel or cast iron)
and ceramic alloy. The ceramic part consists of particles spread across the wear
surface. Above figure shows examples of ceramic inlays in the basic materials.
These composites have the effect of combining the very hard surface of ceramic with
the useful mechanical properties of cast iron or steel. This combination makes the
whole structure sufficiently tough to resist to breakage during service. Compared
with standard alloys, metal matrix composites considerably increase the parts’ life
span and the tonnage crushed by each set of parts especially in more abrasive
conditions.
The martensitic ceramic blow bars consist of hard ceramic particles on the wear
surface in a martensitic steel matrix. This composite has the effect of combining the
very hard surface of ceramic with the useful mechanical properties of steel. These
(martensitic ceramic) blow bars can have two to four times the life of standard
martensitic steel blow bars. Martensitic ceramic blow bars are used for recycling
industries (primary), quarries (primary), concrete and asphalt. However, they are
NOT suitable for slag recycling (too abrasive) or limestone (risk of metal stress due
to too long lifetime).
Chromium ceramic blow bars consist of hard ceramic particles on the wear surface
in a chromium iron matrix. This composite has the effect of combining the very hard
surface of ceramic with the useful mechanical properties of chromium iron. These
(chromium ceramic) blow bars can have two to four times the life of standard
chromium blow bars. Chromium ceramic blow bars used for asphalt (when no risk
of unbreakable parts) and secondary application in quarries & gravel pits. However,
they are NOT suitable for primary crushers or extreme abrasive/hard materials
because carbide based matrix accepts near to no shocks.
Crusher Feeding
Maximum feed size should be as per the manufacturers recommendations. In
primary impact crushing process, the physical size of the crusher feed opening must
not be considered as the true gauge to set the maximum crusher feed size and - as a
result of that - assess that any lump passing through the crusher feed opening has the
correct feed size. Significantly larger feed opening than recommended feed top size
is recommended/provided to ease material flow and decreases bridging risks when
several big lumps come at once.
The crusher should be started without load. Start feeding the material only after rotor
attains the rated speed. Feeding of the crusher should be regulated one. Choke
feeding must not be done as it would create high wear and damages to the equipment.
Fines from the feed material should be removed before feeding the material to the
crusher. Fines in the feed creates additional wear (if material is abrasive), rises risk
of clogging if material is sticky and/or will generate additional dust emission. It may
also require a larger crusher to achieve the same total production.
Impact crushers must always be fed on all width of the machine (80 to 90%) to
ensure an even wear of the blow bars. Concentrated feed will generate localized wear
of the blow bars. Typical case of a wrong feeding method is a direct material flow
penetrating straight into the crushing chamber from a belt conveyor.
Note:
Crushed product has a high velocity when leaving the crushing chamber. Special
care must be given to the design of the transfer point underneath the crusher, to
prevent damages on collecting belt conveyor/vibrating feeder and to prevent
excessive wear: stone box, thick chute liners wherever needed (20 to 30 mm thick
AR steel, 400 HB), sufficient headroom underneath the crusher.

Aprons Setting (Crusher Gaps)

The space (gap) between the aprons (breaker plates) and the blow bars permits only
sized material to exit from the crusher. Materials that are larger in dimension remain
in the crushing cavity until the correct size is obtained. Then they are discharged.
Normally the crushing cavity is limited by two adjustable aprons (breaker plates),
which control crushed product size and capacity.
The closer the aprons are to the blow bars, the smaller is the product size and the
lower the capacity through the crusher. The smaller the setting is, wearing is
naturally faster. The further the aprons are from the blow bars, the higher is the
throughput of the crusher, and the larger the product size.
 Fig. Apron Setting
As shown in above figure, the bottom setting (S2) is the distance (gap) between the
tip of the blow bar and the apron liner when the blow bar is facing the bottom/second
apron liner.
The minimum operation/bottom setting (S2) depends on the size, the nature of the
feed material and the capacity through the machine.
The bottom/second apron setting (S2) defines the size of the product discharged from
the crusher (S2 = product size). In order to ensure the material flow and uniform
filling of the crushing chamber, it recommended that the distance (gap) between the
tip of the blow bar and the top/first apron liner (S1) should be approximately 30%
of the maximum feed size.
For Nordberg NP series impact crushers, Metso recommends to calculate S1 using
the formula: S1 = (S2 + Feed Material size) / 4 + 20 mm
Blow Bar Wear
As shown in above figure, blow bar needs changed or rotated when the wear limit
“Z” is reached otherwise considerable damage will occur to the rotor. For the wear
limit “Z”, please see the operation and maintenance manual supplied by the crusher
manufacturer.

Blow bars are reversible. When one face is used, the blow bar can be turned around
to use the other face. Above figure shows when to turn or replace a blow bar.
It is recommended to change all 4 blow bars simultaneously. However, in some
applications two worn blow bars and two new blow bars (diametrically opposed)
may be used which works like a design with 2 short & 2 long blow bars.
To increase the life of blow bars the following guidelines should be adhered to:
 Select correct blow bars depending on application.
 Adjust machine parameters (rotor speed, gap, etc.) to match the
application.
 Maintain and clean crushing chamber daily.
 Regularly inspect blow bars and take corrective action for premature
wear or damage.
Above figure shows ideal wear pattern for blow bars. A gentle radius on the blow
bar shows that the feed material is of the correct size. It also shows that the rotor
penetration and rotor speed are correct.

Above figure shows excessive/over penetration on the blow bar. Excessive

penetration takes place if the rotor speed is too slow. It increases risk of blow bar
breakage. It results in the underutilization of the blow bar before changing. It also
leads to rotor wear.
It may be noted that as shown in above figure, when the blow bars are new and
present a plane surface and a sharp edge, the impact is more violent, the energy
explodes the material in many pieces. However, when the blow bars are worn and
rounded, the material particles are only scuffed by the blow bar edges. As the energy
of the impact is lower, there is less fragmentation.

Above figure shows poor penetration on the blow bar. Poor penetration on the blow
bar means, the top of the blow bar is worn down flat. If the rotor speed is too high,
it results in poor penetration on the blow bar. In case of high rotor speed, wear rate
will be excessive. It also leads to reduced output and creates lot of fines.
As shown in above figure, a trickle feed, insufficient filling of the crushing chamber
results in excessive wear at center of the blow bar and reduces the life of the blow
bar. To overcome the problem, increase feed to the crusher.

As shown in above figure, high percentage of fines in the feed or over feeding
causing fines to be pushed to outside results in an excessive wear at both ends/sides.

As shown in above figure, blow bar wearing excessively to one side can be due to
machine being on uneven ground (not positioned horizontally) or material is falling
to one side.
As shown in above figure, blow bar can get damaged due to incorrect selection of
the blow bar for the application (e.g. Chrome), if there is steel or rebar (unbreakable
elements) in the feed material or the feed size is too large.

Blow Bar Replacement

A non-secured rotor can lead to severe injuries. Always observe safety instructions!
Completely extend the crusher gap before blow bar replacement in order to prevent
a collision between the blow bars and the apron after new blow bars have been
installed.
Make sure that all blow bars are in matched pairs pertaining to weight. The weight
difference of paired blow bars should not exceed more than that recommended by
the manufacturer (as per one reputed manufacturer, the difference should not exceed
0.5 kg) and the matched pairs should be installed on opposite sides of the rotor.
Before making the final settings, briefly operate the machine at the highest rotational
speed and then check the wedge clamps. Tighten the screws if necessary.

Reversible Impactors
Reversible impactors are used for secondary and tertiary crushing, and occasionally
for primary crushing. They are used for reduction of cement rock, gypsum, fertilizer,
chemicals, limestone, lightweight aggregate, ceramics etc.
Reversible impactors are normally recommended for requirements like: high
reduction ratio (35:1 or greater), high capacity, cubically shaped, well-graded
product, and minimum fines.
These crushers can be easily adjusted to produce a wide variety of product sizes. For
coarser output sizes, they are operated at lower speeds while for finer output sizes,
they are operated at higher speeds. It is also possible to change product size by
making adjustments to the breaker block assemblies.
As shown in above figure, a reversible impact has multiple rows of hammers. The
hammers are of two types: single piece hammer and two part hammer. A two part
hammer consists of a hammer arm and a hammer head. The following photograph
shows construction of a typical two part hammer. These hammers are suspended in
a pendulum fashion on pins between the rotor segments. Single piece hammers are
made from alloy steel and then heat treated to required hardness or cast manganese
steel. In case of two part hammers, the hammer arms are made of high quality steel
and the hammer heads from alloy steel.
Feed material is feed to impactor through the centrally located feed chute. The feed
material directly drops into the rotor, where it is struck by the rotating hammers. The
material then impacts against the breaker blocks and rebounds into the path of the
hammers. Since after first impact against the breaker blocks, the small, finished
particles cease to react freely to additional hammer blows and are swept from the
active reduction zone, the maximum crushing power is applied to large fragments
while little energy is expended on finished particles. There are no cage bars or
screens, therefore, impact and some shear are the methods of reduction. The bottom
of the crusher is entirely open and the sized material passes out freely.
When the product must be held to a specific top size, the impactor should be operated
in a closed circuit system. When operating in closed circuit, the impactor discharge
is carried to external screens or classifiers for separation, with the oversized particles
being returned to the impactor for further reduction.
As the reversible impactor is symmetrical in design, after the hammers have been
worn out on one side, the rotor direction can be reversed presenting a fresh hammer
face to the feed. The rotor direction can be reversed by the operator by simply
pushing the reversing button of the motor to change its direction of rotation. Thus a
reversible impactor eliminates manual turning of hammers.
The final product size can be altered by adjusting the distance (gap) between the
rotating hammer heads and the breaker blocks. At the same time the adjustment also
serves for the compensation of hammer wear to a certain extent. However, the
adjustment must be done very gradually and very carefully. In case the hammers
strike with the breaker blocks, one of the two may break and damage the crusher. It
is therefore desirable that the adjustment is stopped as soon as the desired product
size of the material is achieved at the discharge end.
To achieve uniform hammer wear and maximum crushing efficiency, the feed
material must be fed to the impactor uniformly and evenly spread across the entire
width of the feed hopper opening.
For stopping the impactor, with impactor operating, stop all feed to it. After impactor
is clear of all feed material, cut power. Impactor rotor will require several minutes
to coast to a stop. When the rotor speed has been reduced to near stop, a loud
clanking noise will be heard. This noise is caused by the hammers falling back on
the suspension pins, and is no cause for concern.
Notes
Hammer hardness is the most important factor in determining hammer life. In case
of single piece hammers, while the hammer head must be extremely hard and
resistant to wear, the arm (shank) must be ductile in order to absorb shock. For this,
some manufacturers (e.g. Pennsylvania Crusher, brand owned by Terra Source
Global) use special method of heat treating that creates a gradually varying hardness
between the arm and the head (tip), without any abrupt changes. The heads of these
special hammers are hardened to 500 BHN. However, in the vital arm/shank and eye
areas, these hammers are normalized to a nominal 350 BHN, providing the ductility
needed to resist shock.
As shown in above figure, some manufacturers (e.g. ABON Engineering) offer a
hammer design for using all four sides of a hammer head. It may be noted that like
hammers, the blow bars are also designed (e.g. by Telsmith) for 3 rotations allowing
up to 4 wear surfaces.
Hammer Mills
Hammer mills are similar to reversible impactors except they use breaker plates or
breaker blocks and incorporate a grate circle (also called screen bars or cages) in the
lower chamber of the crusher. The grate circle insures the product size. Hammer
mills crush material in two stages. First, the material is reduced by dynamic impact,
crushing then occurs by attrition and shear in the lower chamber, where small
clearances exist between hammers and the grate. This second zone is the final sizing
zone for the product. Hammer mills produces a cubical product, and is recommended
when the material to be crushed is not unusually abrasive. Hammer mills have high
reduction ratios and will produce high capacities whether used for primary,
secondary or tertiary crushing. Both, non-reversible and reversible type hammer
mills are available.
Above figure shows construction of a typical non-reversible type hammer mill. Non-
reversible type hammer mills are used for primary or secondary reduction of dry,
friable, low abrasive rocks, ores and chemicals, particularly when uniform product
gradation is important. The hammer wear is compensated for by resetting the
hammer suspension bars closer to the outside edges of the rotor discs, and by moving
the breaker plates closer to the hammer circle. A tramp iron pocket is provided for
non-crushable materials.
Like reversible impactors, reversible hammer mills are symmetrically designed
crushers with a rotor that can be run clockwise or counter-clockwise. This ability to
reverse the rotor eliminates the requirement of manual hammer reversal. A tramp
iron pocket is provided for non-crushable materials.
Reversible hammer mills are used for coals, rock, limestone, minerals and
chemicals. Above figure shows construction of a typical reversible hammer mill for
coal. To produce the smaller product sizes required, reversible hammer mills for coal
has more rows of hammers than are found in the reversible hammer mills used for
stone or rock. However, the breaker blocks and the cage bars are more massive for
crushing stone or rock than those used for crushing coal or other relatively friable
materials. Though the internal configurations for the coal and rock models differ, the
crushing actions are similar.
Bearings Temperature for High Speed Impactors
The following is (for a V-belt driven impactor: Capacity = 200 TPH, Motor = 200
KW, 1500 RPM and Rotor RPM = 927) as per one of the leading Indian crusher
manufacturer.
In case of a high speed machine, it is not unusual for some heating to occur when
new antifriction roller bearings are first operated. This heating can go beyond 90 -
95°C when measured on the top of the bearing cap/housing with a magnetic
thermometer depending upon ambient conditions. If heating does occur, stop the
crusher and allow bearing to cool to 50°C. Then, restart the crusher and observe
operating temperatures closely. Repeat process if bearings should heat again.
Bearings can withstand temperature up to 200°C. After running for few days,
temperature usually comes down to around 80°C.
Important Note
For reversible impactors and hammer mills, make sure that weight difference of
opposite side hammers does not exceed more than that recommended by the
manufacturer.

Ring Granulators
Ring Granulators (called granulators) are rugged, dependable units, specially
designed for continuous high capacity crushing of ROM coal and other medium hard
friable materials like gypsum, salt and chemicals. These are ideal machines for
crushing coal to a size suitable for pulverization, in power stations.

Above figure show construction of a typical ring granulator. Ring granulators use
rows of rings (ring hammers) which crush feed material with a slow, positive rolling
action. This produces a granular product with minimum fines. The crushing action,
combination of impact and rolling compression in a ring granulator results in higher
output with lower power consumption. As shown in above figure, the crushing rings
are mounted on suspension bars. When the rotor is set in the motion, centrifugal
force brings the rings out against material to be crushed. As material is fed to the
machine the rings are forced back towards the rotor center until suspension bar is
encountered by the ring internal surface and a forward driving force is exerted. The
material is broken and discharged through the cage bars or screen plates thus easing
the load and allowing the ring to move out until it is held again by suspension bar
before encountering the incoming feed once again. The rings are thus held in contact
with the bed of material on the cage bars or screen plates and they revolve with
planet like motion relative to the direction of rotor rotation. This positive rolling
feature provides effective crushing action which in turn results in a granular product.

The rings are generally made of austenitic manganese steel (ASTM A128, Grade C
or IS 276, Grade 3). Forged rings of alloy steel (e.g. ASTM A322, Grade 9260; 293
to 352 BHN) are also used. Depending upon application, they are toothed and/or
plain. Toothed rings are used to impact the feed material sharply. Above figure
shows a granulator with alternate rows of toothed and plain crushing rings.
As shown in above figure, arrangement with alternate toothed and plain crushing
rings in each row is also used. The size of product is determined by cage/screen
openings, and is adjusted by changing the clearance between the cage and the path
of the ring hammers. The adjustment of clearance between the cage and the path of
the rings also provided to compensate for wear. Granulators also have a tramp iron
pocket for continuous removal of non-crushable material from the crushing zone.
Rotor assembly is statically/dynamically balanced to operate with minimum of
vibration and noise. However, granulator will operate without vibration only if all
the crushing rings/hammers are weighed and assembled in such a way that it results
in a balanced rotating assembly.

Hammer Balancing
Example Hammer balancing example from Installation, Operation and Maintenance
Instructions (Manual) of Pennsylvania Crusher, brand owned by Terra Source
Global is reproduced here.
As shown in above figure, for this example, the granulator rotor is assumed to have
4 rows of hammers with 2 rows having 20 hammers per row and 2 rows having 18
hammers per row. There are a total of 76 hammers per set.

References
1. Handbook of Crushing by Pennsylvania Crusher, brand owned by
TerraSource Global (www.TerraSource.com).
2. Jaw Crushers - Double Toggle by Terra Source Global.
3. Gyratory crushers by thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions AG
(www.thyssenkrupp-industrialsolutions.com) Jaw Crushers by thyssenkrupp
Industrial Solutions AG.
4. Basics in Minerals Processing by Metso Corporation (www.metso.com).
5. Wear and materials - Wear parts application guide by Mesto
(www.metso.com).
6. Primary SUPERIOR® gyratory crushers - Wear parts application guide by
Mesto. Nordberg C series jaw crushers - Wear parts application guide by
Mesto.
7. HP Series Cone Crushers by Mesto.
8. Nordberg NP series impact crushers - Wear parts application guide by Mesto.
9. MMD Sizers by The MMD Group of Companies (www.mmdsizers.com).
10.Terex Finlay Crusher Wear Parts Reference Guide by Terex Corp.
(www.terexfinlay.com)
11.Crusher Selection Quick Guide by Sandvik (www.rocktechnology.sandvik)
12.Sandvik 700 Range Horizontal Shaft Impactors (HSI) by Sandvik. Horizontal
Shaft Impact Crushers by Telsmith (www.telsmith.com).
13.Single Roll Crushers by McNally Sayaji Engineering Limited
(www.mcnallysayaji.com).
14.Parts and More Compact Blow Bars by Kleemann, Wirtgen Group
(www.wirtgen-group.com).
15.Crusher Maintenance - Introducing new standards for crusher uptime with
offline oil filtration by C.C. Jensen A/S (www.cjc.dk).