Pointers to review

Definition of Learning - learning is a continuous process that commences at birth and continues
until death; it is the process through which we use our experience to deal with new situations and
to develop relationships.
Kimble (1961) said that Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior, or behavior
potential that occurs as the result of practice or experience.
According to Crow and Crow (1973) learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and
attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things, and it operates in an individual’s attempts to
overcome obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behavior.
Woodworth (1945) said that any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the
individual (in any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behavior and experiences different
from what they would otherwise have been.
According to Gardner Murphy (1962) the term learning covers every modification in behavior to
meet environmental requirements.

Classical conditioning - known as associative learning, is an unconscious process where an

automatic, conditioned response becomes associated with a specific stimulus.
Classical conditioning is a type of unconscious learning. It occurs when a person or animal
experiences an automatic response whenever they encounter a specific stimulus.
 Classical conditioning is the process by which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired
with a stimulus in the environment, and as a result, the environmental stimulus eventually
elicits the same response as the natural stimulus.
 Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, who
conducted a series of classic experiments with dogs.
 Classical conditioning was embraced by the branch of psychology known as behaviorism.

Law of Effect – The law of effect states that behaviors followed by pleasant or rewarding
consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unpleasant or
punishing consequences are less likely to be repeated.
The principle was introduced in the early 20th century through experiments led by Edward
Thorndike, who found that positive reinforcement strengthens associations and increases the
frequency of specific behaviors.
The law of effect principle developed by Edward Thorndike suggested that:
“Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur
again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to
occur again in that situation (Gray, 2011, p. 108–109).”
Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that leads to
the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism.
Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant
conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior.
Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed, Skinner’s
theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.
The law of effect states that connections leading to satisfying outcomes are strengthened while
those leading to unsatisfying outcomes are weakened.
 Positive emotional responses, like rewards or praise, strengthen stimulus-response
connections. Unpleasant responses weaken them.
 This establishes reinforcement as central to efficient and enduring learning. Reward is
more impactful than punishment.
 Connections grow most robust when appropriate associations lead to fulfilling outcomes.
The “effect” generated shapes future behavioral and cognitive patterns.

Forms of learning - Forms of learning refer to the various methods through which individuals or
organizations acquire knowledge and skills, including proprietary learning, spillover learning,
and learning by watching, which emphasize the impact of cumulative experience and external
knowledge sources on performance outcomes.

 Habituation Habituation, measured as a decrease in response to a repeated cue, is

considered the simplest form of learning, and allows animals to filter irrelevant
information [39]. Habituation is often used to describe the process of behaviourally
adapting to anthropomorphic disturbance across contexts ranging from chronic
noise [40] to human visitors [41].
 Imprinting - Imprinting is a specialised form of learning that occurs during a short
sensitive period in development to create strong preferences for one's own species [43],
specific foods, habitats [44], or sites [43]. Imprinting can propagate parental behavioural
patterns in future generations. For example, habitat imprinting can spread preferences for
urban habitats, thereby facilitating animals’ urbanisation [45]. Imprinting on
evolutionarily novel cues can cause maladaptive behaviours. For instance, zebra finches
 (Taeniopygia guttata) solicit an incorrect mate after imprinting upon a different
species [46].

 Associative learning - Associative learning occurs through classical or operant

conditioning. In classical conditioning, an animal's natural reflex (unconditioned
response; UR) toward a behavioural trigger (unconditioned stimulus; US) is associated
with a novel cue (conditioned stimulus; CS), so that the novel cue elicits the response
(i.e., creating a conditioned response; CR). Famously, Pavlov demonstrated that a dog
will salivate (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS) if it reliably precedes food (US) [3], thereby
learning to predict the occurrence of food. Instead of creating associations between
stimuli, operant conditioning creates associations between behaviour and its rewarding or
unpleasant consequences. These associations increase or decrease the preceding
behaviour, and can create novel behaviour as small variants in responses are positively or
negatively reinforced. In conservation contexts, possible rewards and punishments
inherent to the situation need be assessed, and unwanted rewards or punishments
removed.

 Category learning - Categories based upon perceptual similarity can form by learning
simple associations between common aspects of cues. Miscategorisation of novel cues
through cue generalisation can result in perceptual errors, which is why altering cues can
directly change behaviour. If novel cues cannot be altered, miscategorisation can be
prevented by changing the animal's categories through training using associative learning
principles. For example, greater bilbies (Macrotis lagotis) were trained to categorize cats,
an invasive species, as predators by associating a multimodal cat stimulus with an
unpleasant handling experience and repeated predation attempts [53].

 Social learning - Social learning, the ability to learn from others, can spread novel
behaviour faster than genetic change, and with fewer costs than individual learning [56].
Social learning can simply involve drawing attention towards a location or cue (i.e., local
or stimulus enhancement), with subsequent positive reinforcement perpetuating future
attention and behaviour towards that cue [3]. Therefore, attention toward small social
cues can facilitate population-level behavioural changes [57].
 Attitude learning
Problem solving - Problem solving is the act of defining the problem, diagnosing the problem's
root cause, identifying and implementing a solution, and sustaining results. Problem solving is
the act of defining the problem, diagnosing the problem's root cause, identifying and
implementing a solution, and sustaining results.
Concept learning - A concept is a “big idea”—a principle or notion that is enduring and is not
constrained by a particular origin, subject matter or place in time (Erickson 2008). Concepts
represent ideas that are broad, abstract, timeless and universal. Concepts add depth and rigour in
student thinking to the traditional “two-dimensional” curriculum consisting of facts and skills.
Concepts place no limits on breadth of knowledge or on depth of understanding, and therefore
are accessible to every student.
 Concept-based inquiry builds conceptual understanding.
 Concept-based inquiry creates deeper transferable learning inviting students to make
connections to current events helping them see the relevance of their learning.
 It promotes student agency by inviting learners to construct meaning and articulate their
own understanding.
 A concept-based inquiry approach results in higher levels of engagement for both
teachers and students.
 Concept-based inquiry is a powerful vehicle for learning that promotes meaning and
understanding, and challenges students to engage with significant ideas.

Learner Centered - Learner-centered is a teaching method that puts students at the heart of
learning. The teacher’s role changes from mainly giving information to guiding and supporting
students. It aims to meet each learner’s needs, interests, and strengths while promoting active
participation, teamwork, and responsibility for their own learning.

Social influences
Types of Learning
Learners Individual Differences
Areas of Application of Theories under Behaviorism
Define Learning Constructivism
Social Constructivism
Behaviorism

Role of reinforcement in classroom setting

Learners Cognitive Development
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Learners Multiple Learning