AMERICAN GEAR MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION

A rational procedure for the preliminary design of Minimum Volume Gears.

PREFACE

The gear design is a synthesis process where the geometry of the gear, materials,
thermal treatment, manufacturing methods, and lubrication are selected to find the
requirements of a given application. The manufacturer must design the gear set with a
adequate resistance to pitting, bending strength, and resistance to scuffing
to transmit the required power during the design's lifespan. With the algorithm presented here
Materials and heat treatment can be selected within the economic constraints and the
limitations of manufacturing facilities and selecting the gear geometry for
meet the restrictions of weight, size, and configuration. The designer can minimize the level of
noise and operating temperature, minimizing the pitch line speed and speed of
sliding. This is done by specifying high precision gears and selecting forces of
materials consistent with the maximum hardness of the material, to achieve minimal volumes of the
gear games with teeth no larger than necessary and thus balance the resistance to the
sting and the bending force.

Gear design is not the same as gear analysis. Existing gear sets
can only be analyzed, not designed. Although design is more challenging than analysis, books
current ones do not provide procedures for the design of minimum volume gears. They
It is usually recommended that the number of teeth on the pinion should be chosen based solely
in avoiding undercut. This information sheet, based on the work of R. Errichello, will show why
this practice or any other procedure that arbitrarily selects the number of teeth of the
Pinion may not necessarily result in minimum volume gear games. Although there are several
technical articles on gear design using computational algorithms which
they are unnecessary, Tucker arrived at the most approximate and efficient algorithm, but did not show how
find the desired number of teeth on the pinion.

This sheet includes the design of spur and helical gears. Other types of gears
They can be designed by an algorithm similar to the one presented here with some slight modifications.
A rational procedure for the preliminary design of gears
Minimum Volume.
1. Scope of Application

This article is aimed at the beginner gear student or designer, to provide a

outline of the preliminary design procedure that will lead to rational design for pairs of
spur and helical gears with constraints such as:

- Required gear ratio;

- Required torque capacity;
- Specified distance to the center;
- Material selection.

This method can be extended to other types of gears through the constants and factors.
appropriate.

1.1 Procedure

The simple form of the procedure allows the designer to explore options with a minimum of
computing such that important design decisions regarding loads, overloads,
Material and tool selection are not hindered by the need to spend a long time.
calculating each possibility.

This document will demonstrate to the user that the traditional starting point for design
gears selecting the minimum number of teeth on the pinion to avoid undercutting
will lead to the best design.

Since the procedure is approximate, it is necessary to audit the design. (See Clause 6).

1.2 Exceptions

The procedure described here incorporates design considerations and leads to a volume
minimum gear based on the selected criteria. For the final gear design, factors
additional influences besides those related in this article include the limits of the
deflection of the axis, sound levels (noise), costs, etc. Any of these can influence the design.
from the gear casing and the final volume.
This document is not intended to include the calculations of the profile change coefficient (addendum
modification coefficient). However, it is necessary to inform the reader that this change of profile exists,
How can this affect the gear design and what role does it play in the design of a game?
gears. Some of the important factors related to the change of profile are discussed in
7.4.

Flywheels or hang gears are not covered in this article due to the
difficulty in determining an accurate value for the load distribution factor.

2. Definitions and symbols

2.1 Definitions

The terms used follow the following standards:

ANSI Y10.3-1968, Symbols Letter for Quantities Used in Solid Mechanics.

ANSI/AGMA 1092-F90, Gear Nomenclature, Definitions of Terms with Symbols.

AGMA 904-B89, Metric Use.

2.2 Symbols

The symbols used in this article are shown in Table 1.

NOTE: The symbols, definitions, and terminology used in this document may differ from others.
AGMA publications. The user should not assume that familiar symbols can be used without
a detailed study of these definitions.

Table 1 - Symbols used in the Equations

Symbols Terms Units E.g. Where

AGMA ISO it is used 1st
Number of power steps - 8
Application factor -pitting - 9
Combined power reduction factor - 30
pitting
Pitting resistance life factor - 26
Load distribution factor – pitting - 9
Elastic coefficient [ ⁄
.
] 32
.
([ ⁄ ])

Distance to the operation center in (mm) 21

Dynamic-pitting factor - 30
Pitch diameter of the operating pinion in (mm) 10
Net nominal width (without gaps for in (mm) 25
double helicoidal
Brinell Hardness - 1
Geometric factor of resistance to pitting - 11
Geometric factor of flexural strength - 12
Application factor - Bending - 31
Border thickness factor - 31
Pitting resistance constant 32
Combined power reduction factor - 31
Flexion
Flexural strength life factor - 27
Load distribution factor - Bending - 9
Bending force constant 33
* Dynamic factor - Bending - 31
Life of the gear hours 3
Aspect ratio (F/d) - 4
Face contact relationship - 25
u Gear ratio - 4
High-speed gear ratio - 15

- Normal module mm 25M

 General relationship of double gear - 15
stage
Total number of charge cycles in life - 3
of the gear
Number of teeth in the gear - 6
Number of teeth on the pinion - 6
Preferred number of teeth of the pinion - 34
Speed rpm 3
Safety factor of pitting resistance - 32
Safety factor of resistance to - 33
flexion
Input power hp (kW) 7
- Normal step diameter 25
The symbol Kv is also used for the dynamic factor in ISO standards. However, its
value is the inverse (1/Kv) of the value used in ANSI/AGMA 2001-B88

Table 1 (Completed)

Symbols Terms Units Ec.

AGMA ISO Where is
USA 1st
Number of contacts per revolution - 3
Number of stress contacts ⁄ (⁄ ) 1
allowed
Number of allowed stress bends ⁄ (⁄ ) 2
Contact force ⁄ (⁄ ) 28
Bending strength ⁄ (⁄ ) 29
Torque on high-speed shaft In lbs (Nm) 7
Torque transmitted to the pinion by mesh In lbs (Nm) 8
Normal profile cutter angle degrees 11
Ѱ Standard helix angle degrees 25
Subscripts / Sign Convention

1 High speed (pinion)

2 Low speed (wheel)
n Normal (sine subscript indicates transversal)
G Gear (wheel)
P Pine nut
r Operating or running
(±) Upper sign - external gears, lower sign - internal gears

3. Input variables

This clause discusses the significant parameters related to a gear design. It does not have
the intention to be totally inclusive but limited by the scope of application of this article.
3.1 Materials and heat treatment

Many materials have been used in gears, but the most common today is steel. This
The article only applies to steel gears. There are two types of heat treatment commonly.
used for steel gears, surface hardening and through hardening of steel. The
The selection of the steel alloy must be compatible with the chosen heat treatment.

3.1.1 Surface Hardening

Surface hardening takes place after the cutting of teeth, usually in gears.
made of rolled steel or forged steel.

Carbureted / Carburized

Carburizing is the most commonly used steel for highly loaded compact designs.
like aircraft gears, transmissions of all types of vehicles, tools of
machines and similar uses. This material has the highest strength and the greatest capacity of
overload, but it must be carefully manufactured. The carburized gears usually
result in the overall transmission design being less expensive if its advantage in small size for
a given capacity can be utilized. Few manufacturers can produce carburized gears of
more than 40 inches in diameter, however, some can make them with diameters of more than 100
inches. Secondary finishing operations after carburizing such as sharpening the
teeth, are commonly required to eliminate the distortion caused by heating and
cooling used in the carburizing process.

Nitrided

Nitrided steel is the most commonly used for small gears, finer than 10 pitches.
diametrals (2.5 modulo) because the maximum depth of the box is limited. Some gears
larger ones are nitrided to avoid the inherent distortion in the carburizing process.
Typical applications are industrial gears and small machine tools. The gears
Nitrided materials have limited shock resistance.

3.1.1.3 Flame Induction and Hardening

Induction and flame hardening steels are used to achieve intermediate capacities.
between carburized and hardened gears. These processes are difficult to control but yield good
results when they are carefully controlled. This article does not relate gears of
induction or flame hardening since these are not recommended for designers
inexperienced.

3.1.2 Hardening through steel

The hardening gears through the steel are typically cut after being
thermally treated and do not receive any further heat treatment after being cut.
raw material can be rolled, forged, or cast steel. The hardness is chosen based on the
machinability, using the lowest hardness that can withstand the load at the center distance
required.

The required tension figures should be based on the lowest hardness in the
specifications of the heat treatment. The typical specifications for heat treatment have
a tolerance of 40 BHN between the minimum and maximum hardness. The heat treatment range more
hardness that can be machined without special techniques is 320-360 BHN. The normal hardness range
lower is 180-220 BHN since lower values are difficult to machine.

The sizes of the hardened gears made from steel typically range from less than
one inch to just over 20 feet in diameter. Typical applications range from
gear mechanisms of instruments to toothed crowns in large mills and furnaces. When the
gears cannot be of minimum size due to a required center distance, the
rigidity requirements or thermal limits, or when loads are low, gears are used
hardened through steel. The internal gears are usually of this type.

The selection of an appropriate alloy for manageability and reliability as well as control of
manufacturing quality and heat treatment are beyond the scope of application of this
document.

3.1.3 Elastic Coefficient

The gear rating also depends on the elastic coefficient (Cp). The elastic coefficient for
A steel pinion gear is 2300 (lbs/in2)0.5 (191(N/mm2)0.5).

3.1.4 Permissible voltage numbers

The allowable tension numbers for some heat treatments, hardenings

Superficial and quality grades of steel are shown in Tables 2 and 3. There are two allowed grades.
shown in Tables 2 and 3. The permitted voltage numbers are valid only when the
requirements of ANSI/AGMA 2001-B88, section 14 are met.

Table 2–Number of allowable contact stresses for steel gears.

Allowed number of contacts

Designation Treatment Minimum hardness in tension, Sac
of Material Thermal surface ⁄ (⁄ )
Grade 1 Grade 2
180 BHN and less 85000 95000
Hardened to (590) (660)
Steel through the steel 240 BHN 105000 115000
(720) (790)
300 BHN 120000 135000
(830) (930)
360 BHN 145000 160000
1000 (1100)
400 BHN 155000 170000
1050 1150
Carbureted and 180000 225000
hardened 1250 (1550
1. The information in this table has been extracted from ANSI/AGMA 2001–B88. The metric values have
have been reviewed by AGMA 904-B89. The allowed voltage numbers are only valid when the
ANSI/AGMA 2001-B88 section 14 requirements are met.
Table 3–Permissive bending numbers for steel gears

Admissible tension number, Sat

Designation Treatment Minimum hardness in ⁄ (⁄ )
of Material Thermal surface
Grade 1 Grade 2
180 BHN and less 25000 33000
Hardened to (170) (230)
Steel through steel 240 BHN 31000 41000
(215) (285)
300 BHN 36000 47000
(250) (325)
360 BHN 40000 52000
(275) (360)
400 BHN 42000 56000
(290) (385)
Carbureted and 55000 65000
hardened (380) 450
1. The information in this table has been extracted from ANSI/AGMA 2001–B88. The metric values have
are reviewed by AGMA 904-B89. The allowable voltage numbers are only valid when the
ANSI/AGMA 2001-B88 section 14 requirements are met.

The permissible voltage numbers for grade 1 steel hardened through the unit life factor
son

Where:

It is the allowable number of stress contact loads in pounds per inch.

square (newtons per square millimeter);

It is the allowable tension number in pounds per square inch (newtons per
square millimeter)
It is the Brinell hardness.

3.2 Life Design

When evaluating gears, it is important to know how many individual tension cycles it will experience.
during the expected life of the equipment. Some machines will operate 24 hours a day and will operate for
20 years or more. Other machines have gears that have total life requirements of about
few hours. The gear designer must obtain the life design that is appropriate for the
application. The life required in load cycles, N, will be used to determine the life factors.

Where:

N it is the total number of load cycles in the life of the gear;

L it is life, in hours;

n it's the speed in rpm;

Q it is the number of contacts per revolution.

3.3 Aspect Ratio

The aspect ratio, also known as the ratio of the width of the pinion face -
diameter, (F/d), is an indicator of how sensitive a gear set is to misalignment. In
this algorithm uses the aspect ratio as the input instead of the width of the face. The ratio used
it will affect the value of CmyKm. This happens because changes in the aspect ratio change the
width of the face of a gear game. This will increase or decrease the effect of any error.
of mounting or deflections under load. For this reason, when changing the aspect ratio, it is necessary to alter
adequatelyCmyKm.

There are various opinions about good design practices for an aspect ratio. Some
factors that influence are the proportion, materials, shaft deflection, spacing of the
bearings and the crown of the teeth. In the absence of experience, the following can be used
equations 4 and 5. This will result in conservative aspect ratios for most of the
applications.

Aspect ratio, ma. (F/d):

(For spur and simple helical... (4)

(For double helical without including the gap… (5)

Where:
3.4 Input Power, P

The input power, P, is the total energy input. If there are multiple power steps/routes of
feeding (whereb˃1), each one takes a portion of the input power. This document
Assume that each step receives an equal share of the energy, but in practice, steps must be taken.
extra to approximate a shared load equally among the power steps. Figure 1 shows a
example where b is equal to 2.

Figure 1 - Double stage gear with two branches.

3.5 Combined power reduction factors, CdyKd.

For the purposes of this article, additional factors (application factor, factor of
load distribution, dynamic factor and edge thickness factor) that affect the valuation of a
gear game are combined in a power reduction factor for resistance to
pitting, Cd, and a second for bending resistance, Kd. These are defined in equations 30
and 31.

3.5.1 Application factor, CayKa

The application factors allow any externally applied load above the load.
nominal tangential. This factor should be based on the experience of users and manufacturers of
gears. The typical application factors are shown in Table 4.

Table 4 – Typical application factors, Ca and Ka

Application factor Ca, Ka Powered Equipment

1.25 Uniformly loaded carriers
Pure liquid mixers
Centrifugal compressors
Rotary or centrifugal pumps
1.50 Unevenly powered conveyors
Variable density mixers
Lobe compressors
Reciprocating pumps
1.75 Multicylinder reciprocating compressors
Rubber extruders
 2.0 Reciprocating conveyors
Single cylinder reciprocating compressors
Washing machines
Taken from Appendix A of [8], for gears driven by electric or hydraulic motors.

Most electric or hydraulic motors and steam or gas turbines are considered
uninterrupted operation actuators, while multicylinder engines produce
medium shock load level and single cylinder engines produce high shock loads.
Add a value of 0.25 to the application factor given in Table 4 if the actuator is a motor.
multicylinder or 0.50 if the actuator is a single cylinder motor.

3.5.2 Load distribution factor, CmyKm

The load distribution factor modifies the rating of the equations to reflect the distribution.
no uniform distribution of the load along the contact lines. Reference [5] provides two methods for
determine this factor analytically and empirically. The analytical method requires knowledge of
design, manufacturing and assembly to evaluate the load distribution factor. For this reason, the method
Analytical is typically used only by experienced engineers and should not be used for design.
preliminary. The empirical method requires a minimum amount of information. This method is
recommended for relatively rigid gear designs that meet the following
requirements:

Aspect ratio, F/d ≤ 2.0 (For double helical gears, the gap is not included in the
thickness of the face;

The gear elements are mounted between bearings;

Thickness of the top face over 40 inches;

Contact across the entire width of the narrowest part of the member when loaded.
When using the empirical method, the calculated value of Cm and Km depends on several aspects but it
basically a function of the net nominal thickness and alignment. Unfortunately, at this point
From the design, the nominal net thickness is unknown. To obtain an approximation for Cm and Km.
based on the pinion torque, the application factor, and the aspect ratio use equations 9,
9M or Table 5.

Where:

b it is the number of power steps;

it is the speed of the high-speed pinion, in rpm;

 it is the torque on the high-speed shaft, in in-lbs (Nm);

it is the torque of the transmission pinion, in in-lbs (Nm);

P it is the input power, in hp (kW).

Once the pitch diameter of the operating pinion is known, a more accurate approximation
The load distribution factor can be calculated using equations 10 or 10M.

Do not use equations 9, 9M, 10, or 10M, or Table 5 for a final design, instead use the
procedure given in clause 6.

Table 5–Typical load distribution factors

Cm
Pinion torque Application factor
in lbs (Nm) ma= 0.25 ma=0.50 ma=0.75 1.00
5000 (550) 1.10 1.15 1.25 1.30
50000 (5600) 1.15 1.25 1.30 1.40
500000 (56500) 1.20 1.35 1.50 1.65
5000000 (565000) 1.40 1.7 1.90 2.10

3.5.3 Dynamic factor, Cv and Kv

The dynamic factors, Cv and Kv, considered for internally generated loads in gears
toothed which are induced by the unconjugated action of the gear meshing. The
externally applied dynamic load or resonance operation is not applicable to the dynamic factor
and is usually adapted to the application factor. Dynamic factors are essentially
dependent on the line speed and the quality of the gear. For simplicity's sake,
this article uses Cv = Kv = 0.7 as an initial approximation, which is conservative for most
of the applications.

3.5.4 Edge thickness factor, KB

When the thickness of the edge is not sufficient to provide full support for the tooth root,
the location of the bending fatigue failure may be across the edge of the gear instead of at
the root filet. The edge thickness factor, KB, adjusts the bending stress number for
fine adjustment gears.

In general, this factor can be taken as one if the section of the edge below the tooth is at
less than 20% greater than the height of the tooth, unless keyways, grooves or notches
be present in the hole (bore). Otherwise see Appendix C of [5] for a more detailed analysis.
detailed.

3.6 Geometric factors, I and J

The geometric factors for pitting resistance, I and bending stress are approximated by the
following equations.

Geometric factors for spur gears:

Geometric factors for helical gears:

Where:

(±) Upper sign - external gears, lower sign - internal gears

it is the normal profile angle in degrees. See 3.8

Equations 13 and 14 assume Ѱ = 15° and will change for other values of Ѱ.

The values of J=0.45 for spur gears and J=0.50 for helical gears are points of
start that can usually be achieved through appropriate design procedures
select the change profile and the stamping (tooling). The J factors as low as 0.20 and as
Low values like 0.75 are not uncommon but are usually not found in optimal designs.

3.7 Gear ratio

The gear ratio, mG, is an input that must be known. In many situations, the
the relationship is so great that there should be more than one stage. When the gear ratio is
approaches or exceeds 6:1, it may be more economical to add a second stage. To optimize the design,
first, the overall division ratio between the meshes must be optimized. This subclause
provide two methods to optimize the split ratio; one based on a minimum volume
and the other in pre-existing designs.

In both cases, internal clearances between rotating and stationary parts must be maintained.
There should also be adequate space for bearings with sufficient capacity for the application.
Both methods balance the rate of each mesh by equalizing the degree of pitting of each piston.
3.7.1 Minimum volume gears

One method is to divide the general relationship to minimize the sum of the volumes of the solid rotor.
This method is discussed in [9] and in annex B. The gear ratio of 'Minimum Volume' of
The high-speed two-stage gear game with power brams is given by:

Where:

It is the load distribution factor for pitting resistance - high-speed mesh;

it is the load distribution factor for pitting resistance - low speed mesh;

it is the geometric factor for pitting resistance - high speed mesh;

it is the geometric factor for pitting resistance - low speed mesh;

it is the gear ratio high-speed mesh

it is the general gear ratio

it is the number of allowed efforts - high-speed mesh;

it is the number of allowed efforts – high-speed mesh;

It is necessary to resolve the iteration to calculate mG1 since it appears in three places in the
Equation 15. Equation 15 can be solved by defining:

Iterating this equation:

Assuming an initial approach for this is successively improved by iterating
the equation 20 adjusting X=X1 each time (From the previous iteration).

Iterate until

3.7.2 Designs of fixed accommodations

The method in 3.7.1 will not normally work when the gears designed for a set of
existing gears where the center distances are fixed and the face thicknesses can be
restricted. In these situations, the best way to divide the overall relationship may be to balance the
pitting grades of each mesh.

Reworking the same equations from reference [9], a balanced gear train can
be balanced through an appropriate division of the general ratio of a gear system
multiple stages. This method is discussed in appendix C for a two-stage gear game
existing.

The 'balanced degree' gear ratio of the high-speed gear set of two
The existing stages with power combs are given by:

Where:

it is the distance center of the high-speed mesh;

it is the center distance of the low-speed mesh;

it is the aspect ratio of the high-speed mesh;

it is the aspect ratio of the low-speed mesh.

It is necessary to resolve the iteration to calculate mG since it appears in three places in the
equation 21. The equation 21 can be solved by defining:
Iterating the equation:

Assuming an initial approach for

This is successively improved by iterating the equation 24 by setting X=X1 each time.
(from the previous iteration).

Iterate until

3.8 Normal profile cutter angle

The angle of the normal profile cutter φn is generally chosen between a range of 14.5° and 25°.
The standard values are 14.5°, 17.5°, 20°, 22.5°, and 25°. The initial value should be 20°, since the
most cutting tools use that angle, they are universally available and usually
provides a satisfactory tooth geometry,

Tools with smaller profile angles can be used to achieve high ratios.
cross-contact when lower noise levels or lower sensitivity to change are desired
from the central distance. These gears usually have high tooth counts and are loaded
relatively light, as in telescopes, antennas, and precision instruments. Generally it is
easier to obtain gears that operate quietly when the pressure angles are low.

Tools with larger profile angles are usually used when bending stress
it is the most important requirement. These gears usually have a lower number of
teeth and are highly loaded as in mining machines, rotary solenoids, and crushers
of rocks. These gears normally operate at low speeds in tolerable noise environments.

The effect of greater or smaller cutter profile angles can also be achieved with
20° cutters increasing or reducing the operating center distance to change the
operating pressure angle of the gear. Many companies use profile angles of
non-standard cutters to optimize the geometry of the tooth root or to achieve objectives of
specific designs.

Selection of tools

The number of gears being produced can influence the geometry based on selection criteria.
from a gear cutter. For high production situations, an ideal tool can be
developed. But when only a few gear components are required, the design must
based on standard or readily available cutters. This can be obtained through the
variation of the helix angle or the profile change to reach the central distance and relationships
required.

3.10 Selection of the helix angle

The selection of the helix angle is not an arbitrary procedure; it requires knowledge of what
The right choice can provide. The main function of a helical angle is to supply
a sufficiently high contact relationship to ensure a smooth transmission of
power from one tooth to the other during the meshing. See Table 6 for other considerations.
For simple helical gears, a good starting point is 15°, and for a helical gear
double, a helix angle of 23° for hobbed gears or 30° for shaped gears. Before
to select the final angle of the propeller, check the tools, bearing grade, deflection of the
axis and availability of equipment.

The face contact ratio, mF, must be greater than 1.0 for a gear to be considered
conventional helical. If the face is very narrow, the pitch very thick, or the angle of the helix very
low, the gear will have a figure of less than or equal to 1.0 and will not have effective overlaps. The following
This equation shows the effect of gear geometry in mF:

Where:

F it is the net nominal thickness, in in (mm);

It is the normal passage diameter, in-1;

Ѱ it is the standard angle of the helix;

it is the normal module, in mm.

From this equation, it can be observed that the normal diametral pitch (or normal module), the thickness
net nominal and the helix angle influence the face contact ratio.

3.11 Safety factor

The safety factors are syntactic. The term safety factor has historically been used.
in mechanical design to describe a general power reduction factor to limit the design
of effort in proportion to the strength of the material. A safety factor serves for uncertainties

- Design analysis;
- Manufacturing;
- Applied load;
- Quality consistency with design requirements.

A safety factor also considers:

- Human security risk

- Economic risk.
 To greater uncertainties or consequences of the parameters mentioned above, the
the safety factor should be higher. Since the values of the variables within the algorithm
they are known with greater certainty, the value of the safety factor can be reduced.

The safety factor for bending stresses is commonly selected as a value

increase the safety factor for pitting resistance so that the possibility is reduced
of catastrophic failures. (See Clause 4).

For inexperienced designers, the conservative selection of variables within the algorithm is
recommended.

Table 6–Effects of the helix angle in parallel shaft gears

Spur gear:
The spur gears exert mainly radial loads on the bearings.
In practice, there must be thrust loads;
They are usually noisier than helical ones because there are fewer teeth in contact.
and the dynamic load occurring during a mesh cycle is greater;
The speeds of the pass line are usually limited to 3000 feet per minute without
special design considerations;
Lower load capacity than helicoidal of the same dimensions.
Simple helical gear:
Usually calmer than spur ones because there are more teeth in contact and because
Fewer severe dynamic loads occur during a mesh cycle.
Very high line speeds can be achieved through considerations of
suitable design;
Greater load capacities than those of the spurs of the same proportions;
Thrust loads and overturning moments are generated due to the angle of the propeller.
Then the bearings and storage must be designed appropriately.
Double helical gear:
-Thrust loads generated by the gear teeth, opposing each other;
Usually quieter than those of the spur because there are more teeth in contact and
fewer severe dynamic loads occur during a cycle;
Very high line pass speeds can be obtained through considerations of
appropriate designs;
Harder to manufacture;
The gap between the opposite blades must be wide enough for clearance.
tool. This gap adds weight and length to the design.
At least one member of the gear mechanism must be able to float axially;
The two helices cannot fit perfectly, since a dynamic load occurs.
from a member;
External thrust loads (couplings, bearings, inertial forces) on the member
floating, they can create an overload condition on one of the propellers.

4. Desired number of teeth on the pinion

The desired number of teeth on the pinion aims to maximize the load capacity of a set of
gears. Figure 2 shows that the load capacity is limited by pitting fatigue, fatigue
of bending or failures due to abrasions, depending on the number of teeth of the pinion. There is also a
limit on the number of teeth, below which undercut occurs. The pushed area is limited
by the three failure mode curves and the undercut limit. This applies to a homologous class of
gears with a specific combination of geometry, material properties and
application requirements.

Figure 2 - Desired number of pinion teeth

The relative positions of the curves change as well as the parameters as demonstrated in the
Figures 3 to 5. The presented algorithm solves the desired number of teeth of the pinion by making
It's unnecessary to draw these figures, which are shown to demonstrate the concept of the number.
desired tooth of the pinion. The curve marked as Fatigue by pitting, representing the resistance
The pitting on the gear is relatively flat, being only slightly influenced by the number of
teeth of the pinion. In contrast, the curve marked as bending fatigue, representing the stress.
of flexion, it strongly depends on the number of teeth of the pinion and decreases rapidly to
As the number of teeth increases, the maximum load capacity occurs at point A.
where the resistance to pitting and the bending stress are balanced. For more teeth of the pinion (to
to the right of point A) the load capacity is controlled by bending fatigue, while for
Few teeth (to the left of point A) the loading capacity is controlled by pitting fatigue.

The two modes of failure are quite different. Pitting fatigue usually progresses
relatively slow, starting with a few holes, which can increase in number and
coalesce in larger notches. When the tooth profiles are deteriorated with pitting,
gears generally generate noise and vibration, which prevents failure due to pitting. In
In contrast, bending fatigue can advance quickly like a crack that propagates along.
from the base of the tooth, breaking the tooth with little or no warning. Therefore, the fatigue due to pitting is
Normally less than flexural fatigue, which is often catastrophic.

Considering the differences between pitting fatigue and bending fatigue, it is wise to select the
number of sprockets somewhere to the left of A (Displayed by the vertical column marked
Nppre) where pitting fatigue controls bending fatigue. With this design, not much is lost.
load capacity because the pitting fatigue curve is relatively flat, while
that a safety margin against flexural fatigue is gained. This practice should not be taken to the
extreme, since the sprockets with few and larger teeth (with high specific ratios of
sliding) are prone to scratches (See point B on the curve marked as Failure by
crumbs.
Some books recommend using a number of teeth for the pinion equal to the minimum required for
avoid undercut. This generates gear plays with a lower optimal load capacity, which
is prone to scratches (See point C). A number of teeth on the pinion close to Nppre
provides a good balance between resistance to pitting and bending stress, and since the teeth
do not be larger than necessary, the risk of scraping is reduced.

Figures 3 to % demonstrate how the three limiting elements - pitting fatigue, bending fatigue
and failure due to scraping - interact to identify a desired number of teeth of the pinion based on
the geometry of the gear. Figure 3 illustrates an unmodified spur gear set. Here,
the three elements converge providing the selection of a limited number of teeth to the
maximum load capacity. Figure $ shows how the desired tooth selection range is
expands when modifying the appendix of the same gear game. Figure 5 illustrates how some
Gear designs may not fully utilize the calculated load capacity. This is an example
when redesign should be considered.

Some designers may require a combination of hunting teeth for the game of
gears. This will restrict the acceptable combinations of teeth. A hunting combination is
the one in which any tooth of the pinion contacts each tooth of the gear. The combination of
teeth of 108/33 should not be for hunting since there is a common factor of 3, which means that
any tooth of the pinion could eventually contact each tooth of the gear but not others
gear teeth. The combination 109/34 is a hunting tooth combination since it does not
it has common factors (different from one), therefore each tooth of the pinion will make contact
eventually each tooth of the gear.

Figure 3. Desired number of pinion teeth for spur gear (unmodified)

 Figure 4 - Number of teeth of the desired pinion for spur gear (modified)

Figure 5–Number of teeth of the desired pinion for spur gear where the redesign
it should have been considered

5. Design Algorithm

There is no need for trial and error procedures for gear design if you have
It accounts for the almost independence of the resistance to pitting and the number of teeth of the pinion. The following
resolved algorithm for the diameter and thickness of the pinion face based on surface fatigue
resolved for a desired number of pinion teeth by simultaneously satisfying the
restrictions of surface fatigue and bending fatigue. It is derived from the equations given in [5] and
[10], and is limited to steel. Since it is necessary to approximate the geometric factors Iy J,
The final design must be verified using [5] and [10].

The life factors are:

CLyKL must be less than or equal to 1.0 for this algorithm.

The contact effort is:

The bending effort is:

(For constant reverse bending, as in idler gears, multiply by 0.7)

The contact stress and the bending stress are calculated for the pinion and for the gears.
the lesser of the values for Snc and Sntson used in the following equations.

Combined power reduction factor:

Where:

Ca, Ka is the application factor;

Cm, Kmes the load distribution factor;

Cv, What is the dynamic factor

K is the edge thickness factor

The pitting resistance constant in cubic inches (mm3):

Where:

The bending stress constant in cubic inches–(mm3) is:

The number of teeth of the desired pinion is:

(Round to an integer)

The operating diameter of the pinion shaft:

Face thickness:

The equation in clause 5 calculates a preliminary value for the operating diameter of the step.
pinion, d. With this, an approximate center of operation distance can be calculated. This value is
rarely the center distance that will be used. It only provides a starting point.

If the operating center distance, Cr, is known, dyF can be calculated using the
equations 37 and 38.

SidyFson obtained from equations 37 and 38, the aspect ratio must be calculated with the
equation 39.
It is larger than the one recommended by equation 4 for simple spur or helical.
Equation 5 for double helical, the center distance, Cr, must be increased or the constant of
pitting resistance, Kc must be decreased.

Design Audit

When the profile change (7.4 and annex A) is selected, the gear design is complete. It is
it is necessary to audit the design by analyzing efforts and life cycles (using [5] and [10]) because it
approximate values were used for I and J. The only change that is usually required to find
the design life is a small adjustment of the width of the face. Before proceeding, it is recommended that the
the design should be reviewed by an experienced gear designer and its practicality evaluated
economic feasibility.

Although it is beyond the scope of this document, the selection of the type of lubricant
and the viscosity must be verified by calculating the film thickness and the flash temperature for
ensure that they are within the allowed limits as they relate to scratch resistance.
See appendix A of [5].

7. Considerations for improved grade

If the gear game being designed does not meet the flexural fatigue requirements,
fatigue due to pitting or scratch resistance, the design can be altered to improve power or
the useful life of the weaker areas. Changing the design parameter of the gear can help a
area and injure another, as it can also affect other items that are not part of the machinery
like the bearings. Some things that help improve bending fatigue, pitting fatigue and
Scratch resistance is listed below.

7.1 Improve bending fatigue resistance with:

lower load

Increase the center distance;

Thicker step (fewer teeth in the same gear diameter):

higher operating pressure angle;

Design of helical teeth (vs spur)

carburized material;

greater surface hardness with appropriate core hardness of the material;

improve the accuracy of the gear.

wider effective face width (up to a specific F/d limit)

profile change due to balanced fatigue by flexion;

large and soft root fillets in the teeth.

7.2 Improve fatigue resistance to pitting with:

Lower load

Increase the center distance;

Finer pitch (more teeth in the same gear diameter):

higher operating pressure angle;

Helical tooth design (vs spur)

carburized material;

larger hardness surface with appropriate core hardness of the material;

improve the accuracy of the gear.

improve the quality of the material

effective face width wider (up to a specific F/d limit)

profile change due to specific balanced sliding.

suitable nozzle or relief root;

Greater EHD film thickness of the lubricant oil

Softer tooth surfaces through careful manufacturing and implementation;

improve the quality of the lubricant.

7.3 Improve scratch resistance with:

Lower load

reduce the temperature of the gear mass

higher operating pressure angle;

Greater film thickness of the EHD lubricating oil

anti-scratch additives EP in the oil.

Smoother tooth surfaces through careful manufacturing and setup;

appropriate nozzle or relief root;

profile change due to balanced flash temperature;

improved efficiency of the gear;

Finer gear (more teeth in the same gear diameter):

reduced speed;

gear teeth plated in silver or copper;

improved lubricant quality;

nitrided steel.
7.4 Change of profile (modification of the appendix)

Once the pitch diameter, face thickness, and desired number of teeth for the pinion are
determined with the design algorithm, routine methods are used to select the majority
of the other necessary design parameters. Included in this list are the number of teeth of
gear, normal pitch diameter, and operating center distance. However, a final design does not
It is complete until the profile change has been selected.

The profile change is the amount that is added or subtracted from the tooth's appendage of the gear.
to improve the operational performance of the gear set or to find fixed design criteria. The
The determination of the amount of change is based on the following criteria:

- Avoid tooth undercuts;

- Balanced specific sliding
- balanced flash temperature
- balanced flexion fatigue
- Avoid narrow upper surfaces.

This article does not intend to include the calculation of the profile change coefficient. However, it
wants to inform the reader that the change of profile exists, how this can affect the design of
gear and where it plays a role in the design of a gear set. A discussion about the
Determination and effects of the change of profile are presented in Annex A.

7.5 Summary

Make sure to re-analyze the design, if it has been altered, to determine the amount of benefit.
obtained from the alterations.