History of Social Psychology and Current Perspectives

Dr. Cecilia Travnik

Social psychology is an area of psychology that studies how thoughts,

The feelings and behaviors of people are influenced by the real or
imaginary of other people (Allport, 1954). This area focuses on understanding how the
social interactions, norms, attitudes, roles, and processes of social influence
they affect the way we think and behave in different social contexts. The
social psychology is interested in a wide range of topics and phenomena such as
conformity
social, aggression and prosocial behavior, among others. Among them, the highlight is the
socialization process, as one in which an individual learns values, roles, and
norms, of their culture and society. This acquisition of social skills is found
determined by social structures, by agents of socialization such as the family, the group
of peers, the institutions and the media.

Social psychologists apply scientific research methods to

study these phenomena using both experimental and observational approaches.
Through laboratory experiments, field studies, and data analysis, people
what we investigate in the field of social psychology seeks to understand how the
social factors influence people's thinking and behavior, and how
These processes can vary between individuals and cultures.

The objective of social psychology is to generate knowledge that helps to explain and
better understand human behavior in social contexts, and also provide ideas
and strategies to address social issues, with the aim of promoting mental health
in society.
Predecessors of Social Psychology

The history of social psychology dates back to the 19th century when the first emerged
first ideas and concepts that laid the foundation for this discipline. As pioneers,
from what is currently referred to as the area of social psychology, they encounter with
Gabriel Tarde and Émile Durkheim. Each author with their contributions, many years later.
afternoon, gave rise to the development of two currents: psychological social psychology and the
sociological social psychology, respectively.

Durkheim (1858-1917) studied how social factors influence behavior.

individual and collective. Their research focused on the influence of norms
social, social solidarity and the phenomena of suicide. The 'collective consciousness' is one
from the concepts proposed by that author, which years later will be taken as the cornerstone
in the development of the notion of social representation. In fact, Durkheim differentiates the
individual representations, studied by psychologists, of the representations
collectives that sociologists study by objectively taking social facts
(Seidmann, 2010, p. 9). These ideas will be revisited when introducing European social psychology.
with the contributions of Moscovici.

Tarde (1843-1904) was interested in social imitation and how ideas and
behaviors spread among people. "We are the result of the combination of
a multiplicity of others. Late thus prefigures the later theory of the role and the perspective
social of the self that derives from 'taking on the role of the other' (Seidmann, 2010, p. 7). The emphasis

individually refers to the reciprocity of imitations, which the author denotes as

interpsychology.

Nevertheless, Allport (1954) identifies Auguste Comte as the founder of the

social psychology as a science. Comte, French philosopher and founder of positivism, in the
the 1850s, during the last years of his life, forecasted that beyond sociology,
a true final science would emerge, he called this science positive morality, but it was
clearly psychology. In fact, combined with sociology it would become
social psychology (Goethals, 2007, p. 12).
 If not with Comte, where does social psychology begin?, asks Goethals.
and it dates back to the ancient philosophers who reflected on the inherent nature of
humanity. Are people capable of free will or is it determined by
behavior? What is the nature of human thought and consciousness? Do the
do individuals perceive reality accurately? (Goethals, 2007, p. 22).

In the year 1875, Willhelm Wundt set up the first laboratory of

experimental psychology in Leipzig, Germany. He believed that psychology should be a
independent and separate science from philosophy. Its focus on introspection and the
Experimental research laid the groundwork for the subsequent development of psychology.
as a scientific discipline. Wundt's laboratory was a pioneer in the application of methods
scientific and experimental to study conscious experience and processes
mental. Its influence spread all over the world and laboratories were established
similar ones in other countries.

Also in 1875, William James established a psychology laboratory.

experimental informal in the United States and teaches the first psychology course in the
Harvard University. Then Stanley Hall, in 1883, founded the first laboratory.
psychological, formal, at Johns Hopkins University.

It is important to understand science, including psychology, not only as a

set of theories and statements, but as a social enterprise with norms, codes,
institutions and defined limits. The sciences, including psychology, are influenced
due to social and cultural factors that affect its development, evolution, and institutionalization.

The process of academic deinstitutionalization of psychology as

discipline at the end of the 19th century included, for example, the creation of chairs
and positions of university professors dedicated exclusively to this
area, the organization of research laboratories, the publication of
specialized magazines and books, and the organization of congresses and societies
of psychology. That process of institutionalization was not homogeneous (Talak,
2019, pp. 2-3.
Dawn of Social Psychology

The phenomenon of social influence is one of the most studied by Psychology.

Social. Two authors are located who begin to investigate how social forces affect
the individuals, since their studies have been very influential.

The first one presented is by Triplett, made in the year 1895 in the
Indiana University in the U.S. Observing cycling career statistics
the American Cycling League. It notes that the cyclists' times were faster
when they competed against other cyclists than when they competed against the clock, that is without the
presence of another. It concludes that the execution of a task can be improved with the mere
presence of other people. Tripplet developed a series to test this theory.
experiments in which participants rolled fishing lines onto a spool in two
occasionally, alone and in direct competition with others. Rediscover that people
studied have better performance, that is to say they wind the reel faster in situation of
competition when they were alone.

Allport, years later in 1924, refers to this explanation as the Theory of the
Social facilitation to refer to the fact that the presence of others, for some reason, produced a
higher performance in individuals. Thus, it continues the line of exploration
theoretical and methodological of Triplett, which still today continues to generate questions.

The second study presented is that of Le Bon, Psychology of the Masses.

published in 1895. His contribution from the field of sociology is of a theoretical nature,
since it made observations of various types of groups, instead of proposing inquiries
experimental in the context of a laboratory. Le Bon analyzed the influence of the crowd,
the mass, in individual behavior. Its main conclusions were that the
people who make up a crowd are more prone to extreme behaviors, it happens
in them a temporary suspension of reason in favor of emotional behavior.
They are also more influenced as they are easily incited by the figure of the leader. This
phenomenon of great emotional intensity and a decrease in functioning
intellectual, explains it through contagion and suggestion. These explanations have been
influential in other authors (Goethals, 2007).

In 1908, two books are published that contain the term psychology in their titles.
social. Social Psychology of Ross (1908), which presents the ideas of imitation and suggestion
applied to themes such as crowds, social movements, social class, marriage and
religion (Pepitone, 1999).

For his part, McDougall (1908) publishes Introduction to Social Psychology, in the
it is proposed that there are many different explanations for social behavior,
giving a preeminent role to the concept of instincts among these. Leaving in second
place, to the phenomenon of social influence. "On Mc Dougall's thought weighed
strong criticisms: for its biologistic and instinctivist stance on human behavior and for
consequent the fixity and incapacity of change of the human being" (Seidmann, 2010, p. 11).
Twelve years later, they publish The Group Mind (1920) proposing a group mind,
changing its individualistic approach to that of social processes.

Freud published in 1921, Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, an article in which
the contributions of Le Bon and Mc Dougall are mentioned. In this way, it explains, from the
theoretical psychoanalytic framework the influence of the masses and leadership on the
individual behavior.

Although at the beginning of the 20th century the field of psychology begins to be named
social, it is not until the 1930s that it is firmly established as a discipline
scientific.

Social Influence

The study of social influence was a key line of work in the decades
before World War II. Muzafer Sherif conducted one of the experiments
classics of social psychology, in which he investigated how people perceive movement
in conditions of uncertainty. For this, he placed a group of participants in a room
dark and asked them to look at a point of light that seemed to move. However, in
reality, the light was fixed, but due to the lack of reference points in the darkness, the
participants perceived a movement characteristic of light.

Initially, the participants performed the task individually. Then, Sherif

formed groups of three people and asked them to give individual estimates of the
movement of light. After several rounds of individual estimates, the
participants began to discuss their perceptions in the group. The interesting result was
that, over time, individual estimates converged towards a group consensus.
People who originally had different estimates adjusted their perceptions.
so that they matched those of the group. This demonstrated the phenomenon of 'self-perception of the
movement" and how people influence each other to conform to the
group norms, even in ambiguous situations (Sherif, 1936).

In this same line of work, Kurt Lewin developed the Field Theory,
I considered that a person's behavior is determined by interaction.
between their personality and the environment in which they find themselves. One of the most significant contributions

Important concepts of Lewin (1947) were the notions of "life space" and "psychological environment".

which refers to the psychological and social environment in which a person interacts with others
individuals. A person's behavior in a group is influenced by the
the dynamics of that group and the forces that operate in that space. In this line, it tries to
to develop an ecological psychology, which Urie Bronfenbrenner proposed years later.
(Seidmann, 2010).

Other of Lewin's most relevant contributions are the research on the

leadership, in which he conducted experimental studies that demonstrated that the different
leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, and laissez-faire) have different effects on the
dynamics and group performance. Finally, the three-stage model is highlighted.
social change and the ideas of applied research and participatory action, as it advocated for
the application of social psychology in the resolution of social and community problems.
Classic experiments in social psychology

Regarding the study of social influence, Asch was impacted by the principles of the
Gestalt presents one of the crucial experiments in social psychology. Asch (1951) asked
the naive participants of the research who made judgments about the length of some
lines when a unanimous majority of their peers made obviously wrong judgments about the
lines in a face-to-face situation. The question was whether people simply
they would adjust to the judgments of others when it was completely clear that their judgments
they were wrong (Goethals, 2007, p. 9).

In this way, he finds that the people who had participated were much
more influenced by the judgment of the majority than they believed. This phenomenon explains it
stating the Theory of Conformity and explains three processes through which the
people were formed. The first is that a distortion of action could occur, it is
They knew that most were wrong but accepted it. The second would be a
distortion of judgment, in this case they did not see the lines like most but surely the
the majority would be making the right judgment. And the third would be a distortion in the
perception, where the participants squinted their eyes until they perceived the line
misconstrued as correct. The studies to thoroughly investigate the phenomenon of the
Conformity has continued in the following decades.

Carolyn Sherif and Muzafer Sherif conducted the experiment known as 'The
"Cave of Thieves" in 1945 at the University of Oklahoma. The participants were
22 children aged 11 with good academic performance and family support,
divided into two groups randomly at a camp. Each group camped at
different places in a large park that they didn't know existed.

The experiment consisted of three phases, the first in which it was incentivized the
feeling of belonging to the group. The second, called conflict, in which
the researchers inform about the existence of the other group and propose to them
competitive activities against them to win prizes and rewards, generating a
climate of hostility between the groups. Finally, the collaboration phase in which they "invented"
conditions of shortage of drink and food because strange people had
stolen those resources. In this way, they proposed cooperative activities between the
groups. The authors note that, in this last phase, the two groups behaved in a
a very supportive and fraternal way to seek the common good. Sherif and Sherif (1954)
they postulate the Realistic Conflict Theory which explains that joint resolution of
Common problems lead to reducing and eliminating intergroup prejudices.

It is important to highlight that a significant criticism of the theory is that it assumes that

social groups compete on equal terms for resources. However, in

In reality, the relationships between groups are more complex and are often characterized by
existence of dominant groups that have disproportionate access to resources
material and symbolic. This imbalance of power and access to resources allows the
dominant groups react quickly to threats to their privileged position and
to implement social control mechanisms to maintain and perpetuate their position of
advantage (Smith Castro, 2006).

The studies on obedience to authority by Milgram (1963 and 1965) are another.
of the experiences that have marked this disciplinary area. The objective of this research
was to explore obedience to authority and understand why people could commit
immoral or harmful acts towards others when ordered to do so by a figure of
authority.

The design of the experiment consisted of assigning two roles, the "evaluator" and the
"learner", always in the presence of an experimenter who occupied the role of authority. The
"evaluator" was supposed to administer a series of progressively stronger electric shocks.
intense at the "learner" every time he answered a question incorrectly. Without
the "apprentice" was actually an accomplice of the experimenter and did not receive
really no electric shock, it acted the suffering and the pain that supposedly
was inflicted. Would the subjects obey the experimenter who orders these shocks or would they
Would they refuse to continue? Like Asch, Milgram found much more social influence from
what he, or almost anyone else, believed possible (Goethals, 2007, p. 7).
 The Milgram experiment, conducted at Yale University, shed light on
the nature of obedience to authority and questioned how social situations can
influence human behavior. However, it was also a subject of controversy
due to the ethical implications of subjecting subjects to stressful situations and
potentially traumatic without the full knowledge of the experiment.

Zimbardo in 1971 at Stanford University proposes to examine the

human behavior in situations of authority and power, specifically in environments
closed and hierarchical, focusing on how roles can influence behavior
of the people. For this, he made a call through announcements, in which
24 young male university students were selected due to their physical and psychological health.
apparently normal. Of those 24 participants, 12 were assigned to the role of "guards" and
the other 12 to the role of 'prisoners'. The experiment involved the simulation of a prison
in the basement of the university.

Six days after the experiment began, the situation spun out of control and
he interrupted it himself. The 'guards' began to wield their power abusively,
using psychological and physical tactics to control and humiliate the "prisoners". By
On the other hand, the "prisoners" began to show signs of emotional distress and
degradation.

Like the Milgram experience, this study was highly controversial.

due to the extreme cruelty that developed in such a short time. Their ethics were questioned, already
that the participants were not adequately protected and the experiment clearly
negatively affected their psychological well-being. Over the years, there has been much debate
about the validity and interpretation of the results of the experiment.

Regarding ethical issues in the field of social psychology research,

informed consent is mentioned, which involves obtaining voluntary approval and
aware of individuals before their participation in a study. This process is
based on a comprehensive and clear understanding of what research entails and its
possible implications. The essential elements of it are: voluntariness,
adequate information, understanding, capacity to consent, revocation of
consent and confidentiality. In Argentina, in the 1990s, it began to
strengthen the regulation in biomedical research and psychology. Thus, committees were created
on ethics in research in academic and health institutions for review and approval
the research protocols. These committees began to require consent
informed as an integral part of the ethical research procedures. Currently,
the Ministry of Health of the Nation publishes on its website the general guidelines for the
obtaining informed consent, based on Resolution 1480/2011, article
Article 59 of the Civil and Commercial Code, law number 26529 Patient Rights and their

current modifications.

Perception, attitudes, and social cognition

Social psychology, after World War II, grew rapidly.

proposing new approaches. Among them, the Attribution Theory is highlighted.
Heider and Festinger's Theory of Balance, both Gestalt psychologists.
Gestalt psychology originates from Germany with the contributions of Wertheimer, Koffka, and Köhler.

who emphasized that people process information and organize elements

perceptual in coherent wholes. 'The whole is more than the sum of its parts' is one
of its fundamental principles, taking musical notes as an example they are integrated into
a musical chord to create an integrated sound (Wheeler, 1970).

Heider in 1944 publishes "Social Perception and Phenomenal Causality," explaining

that people link perceived actions with underlying motives or dispositions.
The understanding of the ways in which people make causal attributions for the
personal behavior was more fully developed later in the classic book of
Heider, "Psychology of Interpersonal Relationships" in 1958.

Heider attempts to build a psychology of common sense by proposing

that we are all 'naive psychologists' trying to discover the
cause-and-effect relationships in the events that surround us. We propose
to explain the world in order to make it coherent and understandable and thus to be able to act
 in it. This attribution of causes is systematic. Explanatory patterns are created.
defined that have consequences for our feelings and our
behaviors. So we will approach or reject according to
our cognitive evaluation of the situation, emphasizing either causes
personal or situational factors that form causal inferences, mechanisms
central cognitive processes for the understanding of behaviors in the
interpersonal relationships (Seidmann, 2010, p. 33).

Two years later, in 1946, Heider presents the Theory of Balance or of

Cognitive Consistency in your article titled Attitudes and Cognitive Organization. According to
this theory suggests that people tend to maintain consistency and coherence in our
relationships. If something disturbs that balance or harmony, a change in attitude will be sought to
return to the same. From it, Osgood's Congruence Theory was developed.
y Tannembaum (1955) and Festinger's Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957).

Leon Festinger is one of the most influential authors in the field of Psychology.
Social, a disciple of Lewin at the University of Iowa, proposed theories through a vast
empirical evidence. Cartwright and Festinger have been the leaders of the Center for Dynamics of
Group, after the sudden death of Lewin in 1947.

First of all, Festinger postulates the Social Comparison Theory, in which

It explains that people evaluate their skills and opinions through a reference.
social. The change placed Festinger's concerns directly in the mind of the
person, thus avoiding the old questions of the independent nature of the group
(Goethals, 2007, p 9.). Nevertheless, Festinger, as previously presented, is
recognized by the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. This theory explains the mental conflict
what happens when a person has two beliefs that contradict each other, or when
there is a discrepancy between belief and behavior. To reduce that dissonance, one
You can avoid exposing yourself to contradictory information 'confirmation bias', you can
persuade and justify that contradictory information is false and/or can be changed.
belief or contradictory behavior.
 Festinger and Carlsmith in 1959 conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to
all participants who will carry out a boring and tedious task: filling out a series of
small cards with pins for a period of time. After completing the task,
participants were randomly assigned to one of two payment groups: in a
group, participants were paid only $1 for completing the task (the payment was minimal and
clearly insufficient to motivate the participants), and in the other group, they were paid to
the participants $20 for completing the same task (the payment was substantial and should have
It has been a much stronger incentive to see the task as valuable.

After receiving their payment, the participants were asked about their opinion
about the task. What Festinger and Carlsmith discovered was that the participants of the
A group of $1 tended to evaluate the task as more interesting and enjoyable in comparison.
with the $20 group, despite both groups doing the same boring task.
This discrepancy in the assessments reflected a cognitive dissonance in the group of $1,
since they knew they had done a boring job for very little money. To reduce
this cognitive dissonance, the participants of the $1 group changed their attitudes towards the
task, convincing themselves that, in reality, the task was more interesting than
than they initially thought. On the other hand, the participants in the $20 group did not
they experienced the same dissonance, as they had a clear reason to perform the task: the
money.

This experiment was referred to by critics as 'the misunderstanding of the 20s'

dollars," they have questioned the design of the experiment, pointing out that the manipulation of the

reward ($1 vs. $20) may not have been the only variable that influenced the
responses from participants. Other factors, such as boredom or the monotony of the
Task, they could have influenced the evaluations. It has been discussed whether the interpretations of
cognitive dissonance and the conclusions about how it is resolved could have been
simplified or over-interpreted, overlooking other possible mechanisms of
explanation. Although these criticisms do not completely invalidate the original findings of
experiment, highlight the need to carefully consider the limitations and the
interpretation of the results. Decades later, many reformulations have emerged and
new approaches to justify attitude change.
European Social Psychology

Several trends of the discipline with a strong anchor in belong to this section.
the social, however, the contributions of Moscovici and the lines of research are presented
current.

Moscovici and Zavalloni (1969) try to explain the phenomenon of polarization and
determine under what conditions it occurs. For this, they have conducted a study of 140
French secondary school student participants were required to score.
individually a scale of attitude with a series of items related to Charles De Gaulle,
French political and military. This first phase was called 'pre-consensus' and was known as
the negative, positive or neutral attitudes they had towards the mentioned person. Then,
they were asked to form discussion groups in which they had to reach a decision
unanimous about each of the items on the scale, which they had previously completed in
individual form, this second phase was called 'consensus'. Finally, each
participant would again respond to the scale individually, phase called "post-
consensus." In addition, similar studies have been conducted but changing the figure, instead
Charles De Gaulle had to score the Americans. Both studies show that
After the consensus phase, the polarization of attitudes occurs.

Moscovici (1961) proposes the Theory of Social Representations. His studies

they address the influence of minorities and innovation in groups, forms of influence
social issues that have not been investigated by the tradition of social psychology
North American.

Social representations are cognitive systems shared by

members of a community, common sense explanations that to them
allow to evoke absent objects, past or future, carrying a
condensation of meanings that entail emotions, images, and ideas.
These are created and transformed in the communication of daily life.
(Seidmann, 2010, p. 35).
 Also, framed within this theory, are the studies of Denise Jodelet.
who is a Doctor of State by the French government and has been awarded multiple times
Latin American universities, including the University of Buenos Aires in the year 2007,
for their work in the reclamation of social research spaces.

Finally, the contributions of Ivana Markova, a Czech social psychologist, are mentioned.
which has contributed through multiple empirical investigations on the
social representations, social thought, and semiotics.

Social cognition

The cognitive perspective takes its foundations driven by psychologists of the

Gestalt, among them Lewin, Ash, Heider, and Sherif stand out again. Within this
perspective, thought plays a central role: people think about their social world and,
Based on that thought, act in certain ways. However, it is necessary to clarify that
thought and cognition are not synonyms. Thought is the internal language and the
symbols that are used, is conscious. Cognition is broader, although it is also
refers to mental processing, warns that this can be largely automatic,
unconscious.
Cognition acts a bit like a computer program or a system
operational: it operates automatically in the background, executing all the
functions of the computer. Cognition and thought occur within
of the human mind. They are the mental activities that mediate between the world
exterior and what people do afterwards. Its operation can
infer from what people do and say: from actions, expressions, sayings and
writings. (Hogg & Vaughan, 2018, p. 44).

This perspective, in the year 1984, emerges with the publication of

Social Cognition by Susan Fiske and Shelley Taylor. It defines 'social cognition'
as the study of how people make sense of other people and themselves" (Fiske and
Taylor, 1991, p. 1). The authors argued that although 'people may seem
lazy and gullible, when they are right, can be effective social thinkers: In
summary, people are not stupid" (Fiske and Taylor, 1991, p.136).

Social cognition has also contributed with its perspective to investigate in the
phenomena of a person's memory, the development of schemas, the role of cognition
in persuasion and social inference.

Social Identity Theory

The social identity theory was based on a series of studies about

social categorization, ethnocentrism, and intergroup relations. In the 1960s
In 1970, Tajfel conducts a series of empirical studies that find the minimum conditions
required to form a group, the Minimum Group Paradigm.

In 1971, Tajfel and Turner published "Social Categorization and Intergroup Behavior".
in their experiences, they asked participants, young people aged 14 and 15, to choose between
paintings by Paul Klee and Vasily Kandinsky, with this criterion they determined which group
they belonged. Of course, this was a lie designed to establish the idea of
"us" and "them" in their minds. The experimenters wanted two groups of children without
the slightest idea of who was also in his own group or what the grouping meant or
what they had to lose or gain.

Afterwards, the children were taken to a cubicle, one at a time, and each was asked to
it would distribute virtual money to the other members of both groups. The basic finding was a
strong favoritism in the group.

Then, in 1985, Turner proposed the Self-Categorization Theory, in which

develops the tendency to see people in groups in relation to a 'prototype', which
refers to:
 a fuzzy set of attributes that define thoughts, feelings
and ideal behaviors of the members of those groups. Individuals
they are not perceived for their unique qualities. Rather, they are assimilated into

prototype of the group to which they belong, and the differences between are highlighted

prototypical members of different groups, forming the basis for the

stereotypes (Hogg, 2001, p.125).

The social identity theory has much in common with the theory of the
Social comparison focuses on how we evaluate ourselves as individuals.
within certain groups. As mentioned earlier, the social identity theory
and self-categorization have contributed to understanding the dynamics of relationships
intergroup

The work related to the study of intergroup relations, prejudice,

stereotypes and discrimination are part of current perspectives in the
development of social psychology.

Social identity theorists propose the existence of two classes

broad identity aspects that define different types of self: (1) social identity,
what defines the self in terms of belonging to groups (for example, origin
ethnic of each one) and (2) personal identity, which defines the self in terms of
relationships and idiosyncratic personal traits (for example, the relationship of
one with their romantic partner or to be clever). (Hogg & Vaughan, 2018, p.
132).

Local developments

Social Psychology in Latin America has also had significant developments,

affected by various theoretical currents and sociocultural contexts specific to the region.
Seeks to understand social and psychological processes in the context of history, the
culture and the specific social structures of Latin America. The main approaches
they are the Social Psychology of Liberation, Community Social Psychology, Psychology
Politics and the Social Psychology of Community Health.

Social Psychology of Liberation originated in the 1970s and is

deeply influenced by the social and political reality of Latin America. The
Liberation social psychologists focus on social transformation and justice
They address and promote the active participation of individuals in society and
they strive to address social inequalities, oppression, and exclusion. Ignacio Martín Baró,
he was a psychologist and priest considered one of the pioneers of Psychology of the
Liberation. He developed a psychological perspective committed to transformation.
social and justice and addressed topics such as political violence, human rights, and the
social marginalization. This current has a close relationship with the Theology of the
Liberation proposes a contextual reading of the Bible, the critique of power structures and
the active participation and empowerment of marginalized groups in society. Also
Paulo Freire can be included, although he is more recognized for his work in the area of
education and critical pedagogy also influenced the Psychology of Liberation. Their
pedagogical approach, focused on awareness and emancipation, has been applied in
psychological contexts to foster critical awareness and transformative action.

Community Social Psychology focuses on understanding and improving the quality of

life of the communities. Its main objective is to strengthen community ties and
promote the active participation of individuals in their environment. Maritza Montero is a
prominent community social psychologist who has significantly contributed to progress in
this field in Latin America. Its focus is on understanding and improving the quality of
life of communities through strengthening social cohesion and participation
active involvement of its members in building solutions to the problems they face.
A fundamental part of his work is participatory research, where he involves the
community in the identification and analysis of its challenges, thus promoting appropriation
of the processes and results by the participants themselves. This methodology
allows for a more complete and contextualized understanding of the social reality in which it
intervenes. Montero has stood out for addressing relevant social issues in
Latin America, like violence, poverty, social exclusion, and inequality,
seeking solutions from a collaborative perspective and working together with the
community.

Political Psychology is a discipline that focuses on the study of processes

psychological factors underlying political participation, political attitudes, and action
collective of individuals in political contexts. It examines how various factors
Psychological factors can influence political behavior, including voting intention.
and other aspects related to civic and electoral participation. One of the aspects
A key in the study of Political Psychology is understanding how perceptions of justice,
political values, identification with political groups, trust in institutions
policies and attitudes towards authority can shape political decisions of the
personas. These psychological elements can affect voting intention, preferences
policies and participation in different forms of political action, such as protest, the
mobilization or affiliation to political parties.

The Social Psychology of Community Health in Latin America is a field

interdisciplinary that focuses on understanding and addressing social dynamics
psychological factors that influence the health of communities in this region. It is nourished by the

Social Psychology and Public Health to analyze how social and economic contexts
and cultural factors impact the health and well-being of individuals and groups. This approach
it seeks to consider the particularities and challenges of the region, such as inequalities
social, cultural diversity, social determinants of health and the conditions
unequal economics. It focuses on disease prevention, the promotion of
healthy lifestyles and the active participation of the community in decision-making
health-related decisions. Some key topics include: health equity,
community participation and community mental health.

In local developments, the contributions of Enrique Pichon must be mentioned.

Rivière was a prominent psychiatrist, psychoanalyst, and social psychologist who conducted
important contributions to the field of Social Psychology, both in Argentina and to
international level. Quiroga (2010) points out three stages in Pichon-Rivière's thought:
a first period (1940-1950) in which a psychiatric and clinical perspective predominates
where a single core generating mental pathologies was studied; a second period
(1950-1960) in which he develops the theory of social ties pointing out the importance of the
interpersonal links in the construction of identity and individual development and in
where it proposes the family as an intersubjective unit of analysis in the clinical field; and a
third moment (1960-1970) in which social psychology is developed at the group level and
community.
Some of the most influential contributions of his thought are the notion of groups.
operational, as an intervention tool in various contexts. These groups seek
promote reflection and collaborative action to address issues and generate
changes in the social environment. Institutional psychotherapy, which focuses on the study and
approach of institutions and organizations from a psychological and social perspective.
He proposed techniques and strategies to intervene in these structures and promote change.
Group strategies for psychotherapy developed techniques and strategies for work.
group psychotherapy, focusing on how to use group dynamics to facilitate the
understanding and transformation of mental suffering.
The foundation of the "School of Social Psychiatry" by Enrique
Pichon-Rivière in 1953, which was later articulated with the "Institute"
Argentine Institute of Social Studies (I.A.D.E.S.). This institution was a space
key for the development of social research, opinion studies and
training courses for group coordinators (...) the institution changes
its approach from 'School of Social Psychiatry' to 'School of Psychology'
Social" in 1967, under the direction of Ana P. de Quiroga. It is emphasized that this
transformation is related to the reconceptualization of thought
from Pichon-Rivière around the E.C.R.O. (Becerra, 2015 pp. 11-12).

The ECRO refers to Conceptual, Referential and Operational Framework, and defines it

as an organized set of general, theoretical concepts related to a sector of

real, to a certain discourse universe, that allow an instrumental approach to
particular object (concrete)." (Pichon-Rivière, 1970, p. 36). It is supported from the
interdisciplinarity of the Social Sciences, Psychoanalysis, and Social Psychology.
 Finally, Becerra (2015) emphasizes the context of the rise of non-formal education in
that the School of Social Psychology is founded, with admission criteria based on aptitude
psychological instead of formal titles. Even a secondary title was not required, which
it represents an anti-academic stance, which could have influenced the marginalization of
Pichon-Rivière from the university.

Final reflections
The study of the history of social psychology reveals classic experiences that have
marked its evolution and development in various parts of the world. Through a journey
It has been attempted to highlight the relationship between historical events and the
advances in this discipline. It is necessary to reflect on the influence of the environment on the
social psychology, since this area is not only a product of abstract theories, but also
of constantly changing cultural, political, and social contexts.
The current perspectives of social psychology have been presented, which seek
integrate traditional concepts with the contemporary dynamics of society. The
current social psychology strives to address the complex problems we face
In today's world, such as identity and cultural diversity, the influence of networks
social and digital dynamics, political polarization, environmental sustainability and the
social justice, gender perspectives and social inequalities occupy a place
central in psychosocial research and practice.
In particular, the main local developments in psychology have been identified.
social, recognizing the importance of regional perspectives and their contributions
unique to the field.

To conclude, the history of social psychology provides a retrospective view, when

same time that proposes looking forward, acknowledging that the study of the
human interactions and the influence of the social environment remain fundamental for
understand and improve mental health.
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