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Principles of Digital Audio 6th Edition Ken Pohlmann
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Author(s): Ken Pohlmann
ISBN(s): 9780071663472, 0071663479
Edition: 6th
File Details: PDF, 23.01 MB
Year: 2011
Language: english
 Principles of
Digital Audio
Ken C. Pohlmann

Sixth Edition

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 for
Leslie Hope
and her
headwind tenacity
and tailwind exuberance
About the Author
Ken C. Pohlmann is a professor emeritus at the University of Miami in Coral Gables,
Florida. He was the director of the Music Engineering program in the university’s Frost
School of Music from 1983 to 2007. He initiated new undergraduate and graduate courses
in digital audio, advanced digital audio, Internet audio, acoustics and psychoacoustics,
and studio production. In 1986, he founded the first master ’s degree program in Music
Engineering in the United States. Mr. Pohlmann holds Bachelor of Science and Master
of Science degrees in Electrical Engineering from the University of Illinois in Urbana–
Champaign.
Mr. Pohlmann is the author of Principles of Digital Audio (McGraw-Hill); this book has
appeared in six editions and has been translated into Dutch, Spanish, and Chinese. He is
also author of The Compact Disc Handbook (A-R Editions); this book has appeared in two
editions and has been translated into German. He is co-author of the most recent (fifth)
edition of The Master Handbook of Acoustics (McGraw-Hill). He is also co-author of Writing
for New Media (John Wiley & Sons), and editor and co-author of Advanced Digital Audio
(Howard W. Sams). Since 1982, he has written over 2500 articles for publications including
Audio, Broadcast Engineering, dB, Car Stereo Review, CD Review, Edmunds.com, Electronics
Australia, Guitar Player, Handbook for Sound Engineers, IEEE Spectrum, Journal of the Audio
Engineering Society, Laserdisk Professional, McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology,
Mix, Mobile Entertainment, National Association of Broadcasters Handbook, NARAS Journal, PC,
Road & Track Road Gear, Sound & Vision, Scientific American, Spektrum der Wissenschaft, Stereo
Review, Video, and World Book Encyclopedia. He is a contributing technical editor and
columnist for Sound & Vision.
Mr. Pohlmann has worked extensively in the research, development, and testing of new
audio technology. He serves as a consultant in the theory and application of digital audio
systems and the development of sound systems for automobile manufacturers. Some of his
consulting clients include: Alpine Electronics, Analog Devices, Apple Computer, Bertlesmann
Music Group, Blockbuster Entertainment, BMW, Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, Cirrus
Logic, DaimlerChrysler, Eclipse, Ford, Fujitsu Ten, Harman International, Hughes Electronics,
Hyundai, IBM, Kia, Lexus, Lucent Technologies, Microsoft, Mitsubishi Electronics, Motorola,
Nippon Columbia, Onkyo America, Philips, RealNetworks, Recording Industry Association
of America, Samsung, Sensormatic, Sonopress, Sony, TDK, Time Warner, Toyota, and United
Technologies.
Mr. Pohlmann has served as a consultant or expert witness for patent infringement and
other issues with law firms such as Arnold & Porter; Baker & McKenzie; Barnes & Thornburg;
Christie Parker & Hale; Cushman Darby & Cushman; Darby & Darby; Dewey Ballantine;
Firmstone & Feil; Fish & Neave; Fish & Richardson; Greenberg, Glusker, Fields, Claman,
Machtinger & Kinsella; Howrey; Hunton & Williams; Jenner & Blocker; Jones Day; Kenyon &
Kenyon; Kirkland & Ellis; McDermott Will & Emery; McDonnell Boehnen Hulbert & Berghoff;
Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison; Young & Thompson; and the U.S. Justice
Department Anti-Trust Division.
Mr. Pohlmann co-founded Microcomputer Arts, Inc. (1980), International Business
Information Systems Inc. (1982), and U.S. Digital Disc Corporation (1985). He chaired the
Audio Engineering Society’s (AES) International Conference on Digital Audio in Toronto in
1989 and co-chaired the Society’s International Conference on Internet Audio in Seattle in
1997. He was presented two AES Board of Governors Awards (1989 and 1998) and was
named an AES Fellow in 1990 for his work as an educator and author. He was elected to the
AES Board of Governors in 1991. He was presented the University of Miami Philip Frost
Award for Excellence in Teaching and Scholarship in 1992. He served as AES convention
papers chairman in 1984 and papers co-chairman in 1993. He was elected as the Vice
President of the AES Eastern U.S. and Canada Region in 1993. He served as a Non-Board
Member of the National Public Radio Distribution/Interconnection Committee (2000–2003).
He served on the Board of Directors of the New World Symphony (2000–2005). Mr. Pohlmann
joined the Advisory Board of SRS Labs in 2009 as the charter member.
 Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1 Sound and Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Physics of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sound Pressure Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Digital Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Binary Number System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Binary Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Weighted Binary Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Unweighted Binary Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Two’s Complement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Analog versus Digital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Fundamentals of Digital Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Discrete Time Sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Nyquist Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Aliasing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Signal-to-Error Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Quantization Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Other Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Dither . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Types of Dither . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Postscript . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3 Digital Audio Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Pulse-Code Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Dither Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Input Lowpass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Sample-and-Hold Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Analog-to-Digital Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Successive Approximation A/D Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Oversampling A/D Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Record Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

v
vi Contents

Channel Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Simple Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Group Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Code Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

4 Digital Audio Reproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Reproduction Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Digital-to-Analog Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Weighted-Resistor Digital-to-Analog Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
R-2R Ladder Digital-to-Analog Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Zero-Cross Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
High-Bit D/A Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Output Sample-and-Hold Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Output Lowpass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Impulse Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Digital Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
FIR Oversampling Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Output Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Alternate Coding Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Floating-Point Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Block Floating-Point Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Nonuniform Companding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
m-Law and A-Law Companding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Differential PCM Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Predictive Differential Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Delta Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Adaptive Delta Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Companded Predictive Delta Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Adaptive Differential Pulse-Code Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Timebase Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Jitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Eye Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Interface Jitter and Sampling Jitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Jitter in Mechanical Storage Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Jitter in Data Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Jitter in Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

5 Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Sources of Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Quantifying Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Objectives of Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Error Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Single-Bit Parity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
ISBN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
Cyclic Redundancy Check Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
 Contents vii

Error-Correction Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

Block Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Hamming Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Convolutional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Interleaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Cross-Interleaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Reed–Solomon Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Cross-Interleave Reed–Solomon Code (CIRC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
CIRC Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Product Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Error Concealment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Muting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Duplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6 Optical Disc Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Optical Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Resolution of Optical Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Polarization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Design of Optical Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Nonerasable Optical Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Read-Only Optical Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Write-Once Optical Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Erasable Optical Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Magneto-Optical Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Phase-Change Optical Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Dye-Polymer Erasable Optical Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Digital Audio for Theatrical Film . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7 Compact Disc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Disc Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Disc Optical Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Data Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Player Optical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Optical Pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Autofocus Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Autotracking Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
One-Beam Pickup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Pickup Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Player Electrical Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
EFM Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Error Detection and Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Output Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Subcode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
viii Contents

Disc Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Premastering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Disc Mastering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Electroforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Disc Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Alternative CD Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
CD-ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
CD-R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
CD-RW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
CD-MO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
CD-i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Photo CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
CD+G and CD+MIDI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
CD-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Video CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Super Audio CD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Disc Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
DSD Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
DST Lossless Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Player Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8 DVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Development and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Disc Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Disc Optical Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Disc Manufacturing and Playback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Optical Playback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Data Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Reed–Solomon Product Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
EFMPlus Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Universal Disc Format (UDF) Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
DVD-Video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
DVD-Video Video Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
DVD-Video Audio Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
DVD-Video Playback Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
DVD-Video Authoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
DVD-Video Developer’s Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
DVD-Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
DVD-Audio Coding and Channel Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
DVD-Audio Disc Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
DVD-Audio Developer’s Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Alternative DVD Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
DVD-ROM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
DVD-R and DVD+R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
DVD-RW and DVD+RW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
DVD-RAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
 Contents ix

DVD Content Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

DVD-Video Copy Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
DVD-Audio Copy Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Content Protection for Recordable Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Secure Digital Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
DVD Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
HD DVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
9 Blu-ray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Development and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Disc Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
BD-ROM Player Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Disc Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Disc Optical Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Optical Pickup Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Disc Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
BD-ROM Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Audio Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Video Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Modulation and Error Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Audio-Video Stream Format and Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Blu-ray UDF File System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
HDMV and BD-J Application Programming Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Blu-ray 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Region Playback Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
Content Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Blu-ray Recordable Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
AVCHD Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
10 Low Bit-Rate Coding: Theory and Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Perceptual Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Psychoacoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Physiology of the Human Ear and Critical Bands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Threshold of Hearing and Masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
Temporal Masking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Psychoacoustic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Spreading Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
Tonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Rationale for Perceptual Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Perceptual Coding in Time and Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Subband Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Transform Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Filter Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Quadrature Mirror Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Hybrid Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Polyphase Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
MDCT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
x Contents

Multichannel Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369

Tandem Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Spectral Band Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Perceptual Coding Performance Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
Critical Listening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Listening Test Methodologies and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Listening Test Statistical Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Lossless Data Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
Entropy Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Audio Data Compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
11 Low Bit-Rate Coding: Codec Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Early Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
MPEG-1 Audio Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
MPEG Bitstream Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
MPEG-1 Layer I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
Example of MPEG-1 Layer I Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
MPEG-1 Layer II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
MPEG-1 Layer III (MP3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
MP3 Bit Allocation and Huffman Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
MP3 Stereo Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
MP3 Decoder Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
MPEG-1 Psychoacoustic Model 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
MPEG-1 Psychoacoustic Model 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
MPEG-2 Audio Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
MPEG-2 AAC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
AAC Main Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
AAC Allocation Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
AAC Temporal Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
AAC Techniques and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
ATRAC Codec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
Perceptual Audio Coding (PAC) Codec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
AC-3 (Dolby Digital) Codec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
AC-3 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
AC-3 Theory of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
AC-3 Exponent Strategies and Bit Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
AC-3 Multichannel Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
AC-3 Bitstream and Decoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
AC-3 Applications and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
DTS Codec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Meridian Lossless Packing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
12 Speech Coding for Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Speech Coding Criteria and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Waveform Coding and Source Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Human Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Source-Filter Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Channel, Formant, and Sinusoidal Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
 Contents xi

Predictive Speech Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

Linear Predictive Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Code Excited Linear Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
CELP Encoder and Decoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
CELP Codebooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Vector Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Examples of CELP Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Scalable Speech Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
G.729.1 and MPEG-4 Scalable Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Bandwidth Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
Echo Cancellation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Voice Activity Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Variable Bit Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Speech Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Speex Codec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Quantifying Performance of Speech Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482
Speech Coding Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
13 Audio Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
Audio Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
SDIF-2 Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
AES3 (AES/EBU) Professional Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
AES3 Frame Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
AES3 Channel Status Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
AES3 Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
AES10 (MADI) Multichannel Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
S/PDIF Consumer Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Serial Copy Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) and DisplayPort . . . . . 501
Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
AES11 Digital Audio Reference Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
AES18 User Data Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
AES24 Control of Audio Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Sample Rate Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Fiber-Optic Cable Interconnection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Fiber-Optic Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
Connection and Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
14 Personal Computer Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
PC Buses and Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
IEEE 1394 (FireWire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Digital Transmission Content Protection (DTCP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
Universal Serial Bus (USB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
Sound Card and Motherboard Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Music Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Surround Sound Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Audio Codec ’97 (AC ’97) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
xii Contents

High Definition Audio (HD Audio) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

Windows DirectX API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
MMX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
WAV and BWF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
MP3, AIFF, QuickTime, and Other File Formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
Open Media Framework Interchange (OMFI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
Advanced Authoring Format (AAF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
Material eXchange Format (MXF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
AES31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Digital Audio Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
Flash Memory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
Hard-Disk Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Magnetic Recording . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
Hard-Disk Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
Digital Audio Workstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Audio Software Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
Professional Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Audio for Video Workstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551

15 Telecommunications and Internet Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

Telephone Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
ISDN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
Cellular Telecommunications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Networks and File Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
Ethernet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Bluetooth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
MediaNet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Internet Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Digital Rights Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Audio Encryption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
Audio Watermarking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
Audio Fingerprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
Streaming Audio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
G2 Music Codec for Streaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Audio Webcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
MPEG-4 Audio Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
MPEG-4 Interactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
MPEG-4 Audio Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
MPEG-4 Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
MPEG-4 Coding Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
MPEG-7 Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
 Contents xiii

16 Digital Radio and Television Broadcasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

Satellite Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
Direct Broadcast Satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Digital Audio Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
Digital Audio Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
Spectral Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
Data Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
Technical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
Eureka 147 Wideband Digital Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
In-Band Digital Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
HD Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
HD Radio FM-IBOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
HD Radio AM-IBOC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
Direct Satellite Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Sirius XM Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
Digital Television (DTV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
DTV and ATSC Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
Video Data Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
MPEG-1 and MPEG-2 Video Coding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
MPEG-1 Video Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
MPEG-2 Video Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 638
ATSC Digital Television . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
ATSC Display Formats and Specification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
DTV Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
17 Digital Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
DSP Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
Discrete Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Linearity and Time-Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Impulse Response and Convolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
Mathematical Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
Unit Circle and Region of Convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
Poles and Zeros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
DSP Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
Digital Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
FIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
IIR Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
Filter Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
Sources of Errors and Digital Dither . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
DSP Integrated Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Processor Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
Fixed Point and Floating Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
DSP Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
Filter Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679
xiv Contents

Texas Instruments Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680

Motorola Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
Analog Devices SHARC Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684
Specialized DSP Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Digital Delay Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
Digital Reverberation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
Digital Mixing Consoles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
Loudspeaker Correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
Noise Removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691
18 Sigma-Delta Conversion and Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Sigma-Delta Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
Delta Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
Sigma-Delta Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Analysis of a First-Order Sigma-Delta Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . 700
Higher-Order Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
Idle Tones and Limit Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
One-Bit D/A Conversion with Second-Order Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . 704
Multi-Bit D/A Conversion with Third-Order Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . 708
Multi-Bit D/A Conversion with Quasi Fourth-Order Noise
Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
Sigma-Delta A/D Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
Digital Filtering and Decimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
Sigma-Delta A/D Converter Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
Sigma-Delta D/A Converter Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
Sigma-Delta A/D–D/A Converter Chip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
Noise Shaping of Nonoversampling Quantization Error . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
Psychoacoustically Optimized Noise Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
Buried Data Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
Appendix The Sampling Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783
 Preface

I
t seems inconceivable, but the editions of this book have arrived at number six.
Clearly, decades ago, I had no idea what I was getting myself into. In 1984, at an
Audio Engineering Society convention in New York, I presented a lecture on digital
audio theory, using material from a course I had recently inaugurated at the University
of Miami. After the lecture, I was thronged by engineers seeking more information on
this wondrous new topic. An astute acquisitions editor noted the response and, in true
Mephistophelean style, persuaded me to author a book on digital audio. After all, he
explained, it would be simple to put everything down on paper. I naively accepted his
bargain, and Principles of Digital Audio was published in 1985. The book’s publication
fortuitously coincided with a tremendous surge in the development of digital audio
technology.
Digital audio’s commercial popularity was matched only by the demand for
explanations of its workings. Audio engineers, and students wishing to join their ranks,
assimilated every scrap of information they could find, further propelling development
of the science. The first edition gave way to the second, which stepped aside for the
third, which submitted to the fourth, which yielded to the fifth. Despite occasional half-
hearted promises that I would never write another edition, I could not ignore the fact
that digital audio technology continued to expand, and there were increasing numbers
of people eager to learn about it. Clearly, new editions became inevitable. As I slavishly
authored one edition after another, I had only the royalty checks to console me. With the
arrival of this sixth edition, I suppose I should start planning for the seventh.
Readers familiar with earlier editions will see the same patterns in the renovations
in this latest installment. The essential nature of topics such as discrete time sampling
has not changed, but our appreciation of them has. Similarly, the relative importance of
topics continually changes; advances in technology diminish the magnitude of some
issues, while magnifying others. Moreover, and even more significantly, in the years
since the last edition digital audio theory has evolved and entirely new applications
have been developed.
Examination of the contents of this sixth edition will show both losses and gains. A
number of topics have been eliminated to conserve the page count; most notably and not
surprisingly, the magnetic tape, DAT, and MiniDisc chapters have been dropped. In their
place, numerous fresh topics have been introduced. For example, readers will find two
new chapters on Blu-ray disc and speech coding, and the perceptual audio chapter
(renamed “Low Bit-Rate Coding”) has been split into two chapters to allow more
thorough discussions of this important topic. Also, the bibliography has been updated as
needed.

xv
xvi Preface

As in past editions, a user-friendly approach has been retained, but the greater depth
given to some material has somewhat increased the reading sophistication required. Of
course, readers may pick and choose according to their level and need. Also, the wider
scope of topics should satisfy a broader range of professional practitioners and students.
One thing has not changed. This book is neither a compendium of every possible fact
nor an advanced treatise. It is an introductory text that attempts to provide lucid
explanations, and to strike that all-important balance between mere information and
understanding. In other words, this is a learning tool, sharpened by years of refinement.
A final note: The material in this book stems from the work of the many pioneers
and leaders in the field of digital audio technology. We owe a tremendous debt to those
wonderfully creative and hard-working engineers who breathe life into digital audio.
Clearly, their vision of the potential of this science is transforming both our industry
and our society.

Ken C. Pohlmann
Durango, Colorado
 CHAPTER 1
Sound and Numbers

D
   igital audio is a highly sophisticated technology. It pushes the envelope of many
diverse engineering and manufacturing disciplines. Although the underlying con-
cepts were well understood in the 1920s, commercialization of digital audio did not
begin until the 1970s because theory had to wait 50 years for technology to catch up. The
complexity of digital audio is all the more reason to start with the basics. This chapter begins
our exploration of ways to numerically encode the information contained in an audio event.

Physics of Sound
It would be a mistake for a study of digital audio to ignore the acoustic phenomena for
which the technology has been designed. Music is an acoustic event. Whether it radi-
ates from musical instruments or is directly created by electrical signals, all music ulti-
mately finds its way into the air, where it becomes a matter of sound and hearing. It is
therefore appropriate to briefly review the nature of sound.
Acoustics is the study of sound and is concerned with the generation, transmission,
and reception of sound waves. The circumstances for those three phenomena are cre-
ated when energy causes a disturbance in a medium. For example, when a kettledrum
is struck, its drumhead disturbs the surrounding air (the medium). The outcome of that
disturbance is the sound of a kettledrum. The mechanism seems fairly simple: the
drumhead is activated and it vibrates back and forth. When the drumhead pushes
forward, air molecules in front of it are compressed. When it pulls back, that area is
rarefied. The disturbance consists of regions of pressure above and below the equilibrium
atmospheric pressure. Nodes define areas of minimum displacement, and antinodes are
areas of maximum (positive or negative) displacement.
Sound is propagated by air molecules through successive displacements that cor-
respond to the original disturbance. In other words, air molecules colliding one against
the next propagate the energy disturbance away from the source. Sound transmission
thus consists of local disturbances propagating from one region to another. The local
displacement of air molecules occurs in the direction in which the disturbance is travel-
ing; thus, sound undergoes a longitudinal form of transmission. A receptor (like a
microphone diaphragm) placed in the sound field similarly moves according to the
pressure acting on it, completing the chain of events.
We can access an acoustical system with transducers, devices able to change energy
from one form to another. These serve as sound generators and receivers. For example, a
kettledrum changes the mechanical energy contributed by a mallet to acoustical energy. A
microphone responds to the acoustical energy by producing electrical energy. A loud-
speaker reverses that process to again create acoustical energy from electrical energy.

1
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Summary 1: Theoretical framework and methodology

Learning Objective 1: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 8: Practical applications and examples
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
References 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 13: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 18: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 3: Case studies and real-world applications
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 26: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 27: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 28: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 4: Literature review and discussion
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 35: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 5: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 41: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 43: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 45: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 6: Historical development and evolution
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 51: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 54: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 56: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 57: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 57: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Section 7: Ethical considerations and implications
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 63: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 64: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 65: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Abstract 8: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Example 70: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 73: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 76: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 77: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 79: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Background 9: Key terms and definitions
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 83: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 84: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 86: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 87: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Abstract 10: Interdisciplinary approaches
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 97: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 97: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 99: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Introduction 11: Practical applications and examples
Example 100: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 101: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 104: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 105: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 108: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 12: Literature review and discussion
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 111: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 119: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 13: Case studies and real-world applications
Practice Problem 120: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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