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Measurement Techniques
Part 1: Strain measurement
Strain measurement
• Important to find out distribution of forces within a particular
component
• Experimental strain measurement techniques are essential to achieve
the final design
• For most engineering materials, strain is a small quantity; strain is
usually reported in units of 10-6 in./in. or 10-6 m/m.
• These units are equivalent to a dimensionless unit called a
microstrain (μԑ).
• Strain measurements are made at the surface of an engineering
component
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Resistance strain gauges
• Measure the change in the distance between two scribe marks on the
surface of a load-carrying member, which corresponds to change in
resistance
Requirement of an ideal strain sensor:
• Good spatial resolution, at a point
• Unaffected by changes in ambient conditions
• High frequency response for dynamic strain measurement
The Bonded Resistance Strain Gauge – meets the characteristics
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Bonded Resistance Strain Gauge
• Secured to the surface of the test object by an adhesive so that it deforms as the test
object deforms
• The resistance of a strain gauge changes when it is deformed, and this is easily related
to the local strain
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Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
re L
R=
Ac
• re Specific resistance (or resistivity)
• L Length
• Ac Area of cross section
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Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
If conductor subjected to:
• A normal stress along the axis of the wire,
• The cross-sectional area and the length change
• Resulting in a change in total electrical resistance R, given by:
Ac ( re dL + Ld re ) − re LdAc
dR =
Ac2
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Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
• By incorporating Poisson’s ratio: • Derived from:
rL
dR dL dr R= e
= (1 + 2 ) + e Ac
R L re And relate area change to
Poisson’s ratio
Thus, change in resistance is caused by:
• Change in geometry
• Change in resistivity
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Resistance of a Metallic Conductor
• The dependence of resistivity on mechanical strain is called piezoresistance
• Expressed in terms of a piezoresistance coefficient, defined by:
1 d re / re
1 =
Em dL / L
• Therefore,
dR / R
= (1 + 2 ) + 1 Em
dL / L
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Example:
• A very common material for the construction of strain gauges is the
alloy constantan (55% copperwith 45% nickel), having a resistivity of
49E-8 Wm. A typical strain gauge might have a resistance of 120 W.
What length of constantan wire of diameter 0.025 mm would yield a
resistance of 120 W ?
Ans:12 cm
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Basic Strain Gauge Construction
• A single straight conductor is normally not practical fora local strain measurement with
meaningful resolution
• Increasing the total conductor length (and therefore R) in the same local region, amplify
Δ𝑅 while keeping the measurement local
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Metallic foil strain gauge
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Metallic foil strain gauge
• Photoetched metal foil pattern is mounted on
a plastic backing
• Material gauge length is an important
specification to decide the resolution
• Measured strain is averaged over the gauge
length
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Backing and adhesive materials
• Electrically isolates the metallic gauge from the test
specimen Examples of backing material:
• Transmits the applied strain to the sensor • Epoxy adhesive
• backing provides the surface used for bonding with • Ceramic cement
an appropriate adhesive • Cellulose nitrate cement
• PTFE (Teflon)
• Serves as a mechanical and thermal coupling
• Polyimide adhesive (Eg.
between the metallic gauge and the test specimen.
Kapton)
• Examples of adhesives: • Phenolic adhesive
Epoxies, cellulose nitrate cement, and ceramic-
based cements
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Gauge Factor / Strain Sensitivity
• Empirically determined parameter, supplied by manufacturer
• Depends on Gauge material and piezoresistivity
• For metallic strain gauges: ~ 2
R / R dR
R //RR
GF = = = (1 + 2 ) + 1 Em
L/L a/ L
dL
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Sample spec
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Semiconductor Strain Gauges
• Semiconductors change resistance when subjected to a load
• Silicon crystals sliced into very thin sections to form strain gauges
• Large piezoresistance coefficient - High gauge factor, upto 200
• Higher resistance,Longer fatigue life, lower hysteresis than metallic
gauges
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Standard semiconductor gauges
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Semiconductor Strain Gauges
• Output non-linear with strain
• GF depends on temperature
• For semiconductor crystal contains a low number of charge carriers (<1017carriers/cm3)
2
T T
GF = 0 GF0 + C1 0
T T
• GF0 is the gauge factor at reference temperature T0 , under conditions of zero strain and
C1 a constant for a particular gauge
• Semiconductor strain gauges find their primary application in the construction of
transducers, such as load cells and pressure transducers
• possibility of an inherent sensitivity to temperature, careful consideration must be given
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Example
• A strain gauge, having a gauge factor of 2, is mounted on a
rectangular steel bar (Em = 200 GPa). The bar is 3 cm wide and 1 cm
high, and is subjected to a tensile force of 30 kN. Determine the
resistance change of the strain gauge if the resistance of the gauge
was 120 W in the absence of the axial load.
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Solution
• Stress s = P/A
• = 30E3 / 0.03 X 0.01
• =100E6Pa
• Strain = s/E
• =100E6/200E9
• =5E-4
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Solution
• Change in resistance = RGF
• =120 * 5E-4 *2
• =0.12 W
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Wheatstone Bridge
• Wheatstone bridge is generally used to detect the small changes in
resistance that are the output of a strain gauge measurement circuit.
• A high-sensitivity device
• Equipment is commercially available that can measure changes in
gauge resistance of less than 0.0005 Ω is possible
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Wheatstone Bridge
Bridge output initial:
R1 R3
E0 = Ei −
(
1R + R2 ) ( R3 + R )
4
Bridge deflection associated with the change in the
strain gauge resistance δR:
( R1 + R ) R4 − R3 R2
Wheatstone Bridge circuit used for a
gauge measurement
E0 + E0 = Ei A
( R1 + R + R2 )( R3 + R4 )
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Wheatstone Bridge
• If the all the fixed resistors and the strain gauge resistanceare initially
equal, then the bridge is balanced such that E0 = 0
• When the strain gauge is then subjected to a state of strain, the change
in the output voltage, E0 from A ,
<<1
E0 R/R R/R
=
Ei 4 + 2 ( R / R ) 4
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Wheatstone Bridge
• Substituting with GF:
E0 GF GF
= B
Ei 4 + 2GF 4
- A practical equations for strain gauge measurements using a single
gauge in a Wheatstone bridge
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Wheatstone Bridge
Advantages:
• The bridge may be balanced by changing
the resistance of one arm of the bridge
• Strategic placement of multiple gauges
in a Wheatstone bridge can:
• increase the bridge output
• cancel out certain ambient effects and
unwanted components of strain
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The Multiple Gauge Bridge
• In general, the bridge output is given by:
R1 R3
E0 = Ei −
( R1 + R2 ) ( R3 + R4 )
• Strain gauges R1, R2, R3, and R4 are assumed initially
to be in a state of zero strain, now subjected to
subjected to dRi, where i = 1, 2, 3, and 4.
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The Multiple Gauge Bridge
• Change in the bridge output voltage =
4
E0
dE0 = dRi
i =1 Ri
• Evaluating the appropriate partial derivatives from Equation:
R dR − R dR R dR − R dR
dE0 = Ei 2 1 1 2 2 + 3 4 4 3
C
( R1 + R2 ) ( 3 4 )
2
R + R
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The Multiple Gauge Bridge
Since dRi = Ri i GFi
R1 R2 ( 1GF1 − 2GF2 ) R3 R4 ( 4GF4 − 3GF3 )
E0 = Ei +
( R1 + R2 ) ( 3 4)
2 2
R + R
E0 1
If R1=R2=R3=R4 = (1GF1 − 2GF2 + 4GF4 − 3GF3 )
Ei 4
It is possible and desirable to purchase matched sets of strain gauges for a particular application:
E0 GF D
If GF1=GF2=GF3=GF4 = ( 1 − 2 + 4 − 3 )
Ei 4
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The Multiple Gauge Bridge
E0 GF
= ( 1 − 2 + 4 − 3 )
Ei 4
• Basic working equation for multiple gauges
• For a bridge containing one or more strain gauges:
• Equal strains on opposite bridge arms sum
• Equal strains on adjacent arms of the bridge cancel
• These characteristics can be used to increase the output of the bridge, to provide
temperature compensation, or to cancel unwanted components of strain.
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The Bridge constant, K
• A scaling factor that tells you how much more (or less) sensitive the bridge output
becomes when more than one strain gauge is used
• Bridge constant, K, is the ratio of the actual bridge output to the output that would
result from a single gauge sensing the maximum strain
• The output for a single gauge Sensing the maximum strain max
R
= max GF
R
• For a single gauge, from B :
E0 max GF
= E
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Ei 4 31
The Bridge constant, K
• From the ratio of the actual bridge output given by Equation D to the output for a
single gauge given by Equation E:
• When more than one gauge is used in the bridge circuit, B becomes
E0 KGF KGF
=
Ei 4 + 2GF 4
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Example:
Determine bridge constant for two strain gauges mounted on a structural member,
as shown in figure:
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Solution:
• Gauge 1 is aligned with axial tension
• Gauge 2 is mounted transverse
R/R R/R
GF = =
R1 L/L a
= a ( GF )1
R1
R2 R1
= − p a ( GF )2 = − p
R2 R1
If ( GF )1 = ( GF )2
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Solution:
E0 GF
= ( 1 − 2 + 4 − 3 )
Ei 4
E0 ( R1 / R1 ) (1 + p )
=
Ei 4
• Bridge contant K=1+p
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Apparent Strain
• Any change in gauge resistance that is not due to the component of
strain being measured
• Recall D
• By strategic placement of strain gauges, temperature effects and
unwanted strain effects can be eliminated
E0 GF
= ( 1 − 2 + 4 − 3 )
Ei 4
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Bridge arrangements
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Bridge arrangements…
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Analysis of stress
• Strain gauges on surface
• Respond only to strains on the surface
• To determine complete state of stress
• At a point on the surface requires
• Measurement of three strains at the point
• From which principal strain and max stress can be determined
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Strain gauge rosettes
• Multiple-element strain gauges used to
measure more than one strain at a point
• A) single plane type
• B) Stacked type
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Optical strain measuring techniques
• Can provide fundamental information concerning directions and
magnitudes of the stresses in parts
• Take advantage of Photoelasticity: changes in optical properties of
certain materials (notably plastics) that occur when these materials
are strained
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Photoelasticity
• when a polarized light passes through glass that is subject to uniaxial tension, such
that the stress is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the light, the
glass becomes doubly refracting
• Polarized light split into two polarized beams that travel with different speeds and
that vibrate along the principal axes of stress.
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Photoelasticity
= relative retardation between the two light beams
nx, ny = indices of refraction in the directions of the principal strains
• The variations in the strain in the specimen produce a pattern of fringes, due to
interference, which can be related to the strain field through the strain optic relation
• Primary applications: study of stress concentrations around holes or reentrant corners
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Photoelasticity
• Useful in the initial determination of a stress field for complex geometries
Tension lines in plastic protractor seen under cross-polarized light
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Moire pattern
• Development of a moire pattern: Due to transmission or reflection of light from
two overlaid grid patterns
• Fringes that result from relative displacement of the two grid patterns can be
used to measure strain
• Each fringe corresponds to the locus of points of equal displacement
• Moire patterns are used to measure surface displacements
• Greater density of lines per unit width allows a greater sensitivity of strain
measurement
• Once a fringe pattern is recorded, data reduction techniques are employed to
determine the stress and strain field
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Moire pattern
• Effect of changing angle:
• Pitch is defined as the distance
between the centers of adjacent lines
in the grating
• Typical gratings has a value of from 1
to 40 lines/mm
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Example:
• Two strain gauges are mounted so that they sense axial strain on a
steel member in uniaxial tension. The 120 V gauges form two legs of a
Wheatstone bridge, and are mounted on opposite arms. For a bridge
excitation voltage of 4 V and a bridge output voltage of 120 mV under
load, estimate the strain in the member. What is the resistance
change experienced by each gauge? The gauge factor for each of the
strain gauges is 2 and Em for this steel is 29 x106 psi.
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