TRB – PG(MATHS)– Centre For Maths – Rasipuram

Differential Geometry

Consider the cubic curve with parametric representation x = u ;y = u2 ; z = u3 --------------(1)

By eliminating u , we get y = x2 and xz = y2 -------------------------(2)
we know that xz = y2 represents a parabolic cylinder, and y = x2 is a cone with vertex at the origin.
Hence the two surfaces specifying the curve and their intersection not only containing the cubic curve
curve (1) but also the Z –axis as the equation (2) satisfying x = 0 and y = 0.

Representation of Space Curve

Space curve is a intersection of two surfaces f1 ( x, y, z ) = 0, f 2 ( x, y, z ) = 0 whose parametric
representation is x = x(u ), y = y (u ), z = z (u ), u1  u  u2 .
Definition: Let I be a real interval and m be a positive integer. A real valued function f defined on I is
said to be of class m, if f has continuous m th derivative at every point on I . we call such function as cm
function . When a function is infinitely differentiable then the function is said to be of class infinity or
c  function.
dR
Definition: Let R = R (u ) be a vector valued function defined on I, if R = never vanish on I, then
du
R = R (u ) is said to be regular.
Definition: A regular vector valued function R = R (u ) of class m is called a path of class m.
Example: 1. R(u ) = (acosu, asinu, bu), u  [0,  ) and
1 − v2 2v
R(v) = (a ,a , 2 b tan −1v), u  [0, ) are equivalent representation of a circular helix where
1+ v 1+ v
2 2

v =  (u) = tan (u / 2)
Arc Length
Arc length of the curve x = x(u), y = y(u), z = z (u) is
u u .
s = s(u) =  2 2
x + y + z  du 2
=  r (u)  du
a a
2
 ds  dr dr
And   = .
 du  du du
Note : The arc length of a curve is invariant under parametric transformation.
Example
1) Find the length of the one complete turn of the circular helix r = a cos ui + a sin uj + buk ,
−  u  , a  0 .Also find the equation of helix with s as parameter
r = a cos ui + a sin uj + buk
r = −a sin ui + a cos uj + bk ; r = a 2 sin 2 u + a 2 cos 2 u + b ; r = a 2 + b 2
u u
s(u) =  r du =  a 2 + b2  du = a 2 + b2 [u ] uo = cu where c = a2 + b2
o o
Therefore u = s/c and the equation in term of arc length s is
r = a cos( s / c)i + a sin( s / c) j + b( s / c)k
If a helix starts from u0 it makes one complete turn when u = u0 + 2 . Hence arc length
u0 + 2 

corresponding to one complete turn is s = 

u0
r du = a 2 + b 2 [u ]uu00 + 2 = 2 a 2 + b 2

1
 x2 y 2 z
2) The length of the curve given as the intersection of the surface 2 − 2 = 1 , x = a cosh   from
a b a
the point (a,0,0) to the point ( x, y, z)
x2 y 2 z z
− 2 = 1 ; x = a cosh   , Parametric equations are x = a cosh t, y = a sinh t and t =
a
2
a b a
i.e. z = a t
( x, y, z ) t
S=  x + y + z  dt ; S = 
2 2 2
a 2 sinh 2 t + b2 cos h2t + a 2
( a ,0,0) 0
t t
S= a sinh t + b cosh t  dt ;
2 2 2 2
S = a +b 2 2
 cosh 2 t  dt
0 0

S = a + b [sinh t ] = a + b sinh t
2 2 t
0
2 2

Equation of Tangent
Let equation of the curve r = r (t ) [i.e. r is the positive vector of any point p on the curve)
dr
Then r = is a vector parallel to the tangent line at p
dt
i.e. equation to tangent is R = OP +  r , R = r +  r
Note :
dr
1) Tangent Vector is t = =r
dt
r
2) Unit tangent vector is tˆ = , we have s =  r dt  s = r
r
r dr dt dr
 tˆ = = = = r ' , equation of the tangent line is R = r + r
s ds dt ds
or R = r +  r ' or R = r + tˆ
3) Cartesian form: Equation of line is R − r =  r
X −x Y −y Z −z X −x Y −y Z −z
= = or = =
x y z x y z
Note : If at a point P, r = 0 then the tangent at P is called inflectional and the point P is called point
of inflection.
Example
1) Find the unit tangent to the curve r = (a cos t, a sin t, bt ) −  t  
r
Unit tangent tˆ =
r

r = (−a sin t , a cos t , b) ; r = a 2 + b 2

(−a sin t , a cos t , b)
 tˆ =
a 2 + b2
Equation of tangent is R − r =  r
R = [a cos ti + a sin tj + btk ] + [−a sin ti + a cos tj + bk ]
Equation of tangent is Cartesian form

2
 X −x Y −y Z −z
= =
x y z
X − cos t Y − a sin t Z − bt
= =
− a sin t a cos t b
2) Find the equation of the tangent of any point of the curve x = 3t , y = 3t 2 , z = 2t 3

Equation of tangent:
X −x Y −y Z −z
= =
x y z
X − 3t Y − 3t 2
Z − 2t 3
= =
3 6t 6t 2
Point of contact between curves and surfaces
Consider a curve  given by r = ( x(t ), y(t ), z(t ) ) and the surface S given by F ( x, y, z) = C . If
F (t0 ) = 0, F (t0 ) = 0, F (t0 )  0 then t0 is a triple zero of F (t ) and  and S have 3 point contact or
contact of second order at r ( t0 )
In general if F (t0 ) = F (t0 ) = ... = F n −1 (t0 ) but F n (t0 )  0 then that curve  and surface S have
n point contact (or) contact of ( n − 1) order at r ( t0 ) .
th

Example
1) Find the equation of the plane that has 3 point contact at the origin with the curve
x = t 4 − 1, y = t 3 − 1, z = t 2 − 1 Ans; 3x − 8 y + 6 z = 0
Osculating Plane (Plane of curvature)
The plane through the 3 consecutive points of the curve
Let  be a curve of class m  2 P and Q be two neighboring points on  . The limiting Position
of the plane that contains the tangential line at P and passes through the point Q as Q → P is defined as
the osculating plane.
When  is a straight line the osculating plane is indeterminate at each point.
A space curve does not lie on a plane however a very small arc of the curve may be thought of as
almost a plane curve. The plane which should almost contain a small curve about a point P is called the
osculating plane at P .
An osculating plane has a contact of second order (or) three point contact.

• Let R be the position vector of any point on the osculating plane, r be the equation of the space
curve with the arc length s as parameter then the equation of the osculating plane at P is given
by [ R − r ( s ), r ( s ), r ( s )] = 0 where r (s)  0
• If the arc length s be measured from P then s = 0 , r (0)  0
 equation of osculating plane is [ R − r (o), r (o), r (o)] = 0
• Equation of the osculating plane interms of parameter ' t ' is [ R − r (t ), r (t ), r (t )] = 0
X −x Y −y Z−z
• Cartesian equation of osculating plane is x y z =0
x y z
Note: The equation of osculating plane may be writer as [ R − r , t , t ] = 0 t =r

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Example

1) Find the equation of the osculating plane at the point 'u ' on the helix
x = a cos u, y = a sin u, z = bu
X − a cos u Y − a sin u Z − bu
−a sin u a cos u b =0
−a cos u −a sin u 0
b sin u X − b cos uY + aZ = abu
2) Find the equation of the osculating plane at the general point on the cubic curve r = ( u, u 2 , u 3 )
Ans. 3u 2 x − 3uy + z = u 3
Osculating plane at the point of inflection
When the curve is analytic there exist a definite osculating plane at the point of inflection P ,
provided the curve is not straight line.
If r m is the first non-zero vector for m  2 then the equation of osculating plane at the point of
inflection P is [ R − r , r ( s), r m ( s )] = 0
• If for all m  2 , r m = 0 then we conclude r  is constant i.e. the tangent vector is same at each
point of the curve and hence the curve is straight line.
• If P is not point of inflection r   0 from the equation of the osculating plane, we have the
vectors r , r  lines on the osculating plane, any vector lying on the osculating plane is
ar + br, a, b are constant.
• In the case of plane curves, the osculating plane of the plane curve is coincides with the plane of
the curve itself.
Tangent plane
Tangent plane at any point of the surface f ( x, y, z ) = 0 is ( R − r )  f = 0
Normal Plane
The plane through P and perpendicular to the tangent line at P is called the normal plane at P
of the curve. Its equation is ( R − r )  r  = 0 or ( R − r )  t = 0

Principal normal and binormal

The line of intersection of normal plane and osculating plane is called principle normal at P.
The normal lying on the osculating plane at a point P on a curve is called the principal normal at
P denoted by n
Equation of principle normal is ( R − r ) =  n
Note : Normal plane is perpendicular to the osculating plane.
The normal ⊥ r to the osculating plane is called binormal denoted by b
Its equation is ( R − r ) =  b
tˆ and n are ⊥ r and lie on osculating plane, b is ⊥ r to both t and n
The plane containing n and b is called normal plane.
Plane containing b and t is called rectifying plane.
The plane containing tˆ and n is called osculating plane.

• Equation of the rectifying plane is ( R − r )  n = 0

• Equation of the osculating plane is ( R − r )  b = 0
• Equation of the normal plane is ( R − r )  t = 0
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Note : 1.The behavior of tˆ, nˆ , bˆ at a point P on the curve is the same as the unit vectors iˆ, ˆj , kˆ along the
coordinate axes .

2. If the arc length s be measured from P then s = 0 , r (0)  0

 equation of osculating plane is [ R − r (o), r (o), r (o)] = 0
i.e. r(o), r (o) are linearly independent , r(o), r (o) lies in the osculating plane.
3. r , r lies on the osculating plane, therefore r X r is perpendicular to the osculating plane,
This implies r X r is parallel to the binormal
4. r is the direction of tangent , r X r is the direction of binormal, r X (r X r ) is the direction of
principle normal
5.If we choose the arc length as parameter, then r, r, r  r are the directors of the tangent,
principal normal and binormal at a point on the curve.
6.The osculating plane of a plane curve is the same at all points , but the osculating plane
changes from point to point on a space curve.

Curvature
The arc rate of rotation of the tangent is called curvature. The curvature vector is
dt
K= = t  = r  , and the magnitude K =  is called the curvature at P
ds
1
Radius of curvature  =


Torsion : 
The arc rate of rotation of the osculating plane at P is called torsion.
The turns of a osculating plane is same as the turns of its binormal
db db
i.e. torsion vector b = , its magnitude b =  is the torsion. So  = b =
ds ds
1
Radius of torsion  =

Screw curvature
The arc rate of the rotation of the principal normal is called the screw curvature.
dn
The screw curvature vector is given by its magnitude is  2 +  2
ds
dn
i.e. =  2 + 2
ds
Note
It  = 0 or  = 0 , then the osculating plane must have at least four point contact with the curve.

Serrate Frenet formula

 t    0 k 0  t 
    
 n =  −k 0    n 
b   0 − 0  b 
   
dt dn db
t =  n or =  n ; n = −kt +  b or = − t +  b ; b = − n or = − n
ds ds ds

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Theorem: The necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a straight line is the curvature  = 0
at all points of the curve.
Theorem:The necessary and sufficient conditional that a given curve be a plane curve is that  = 0 at all
points.
Definition: If  is non zero then the curve is called a twisted curve.

Formula for  and  of any curve r = r (t )

. ..
r r . .. ...
. .. ...
[ r, r, r ] 2
= ; = ;  2 =  r ', r '', r ''' ;  2 = r '' = r ''. r '' and  r ', r '', r '''= (u )6 [ r, r, r ]
. 3 . .. 2
r r r

Result :The principle normal at consecutive points do not interest unless,  = 0

Theorem :The necessary and sufficient condition for the curve to be a plane curve is
  . .. ...  
 r ', r '', r ''' = 0  also  r , r , r  = 0 
 
   
Example :
1. Calculate the curvature and torsion for the circular helix
 a b
x = a cos u, y = a sin u, z = bu ;  Ans :  = 2 ; 2  , where c2 = a2 + b2
 c c 
2. Find the  , of r = ( u, u 2 , u 3 ) ;
1 3
Answer  = 2(9u 4 + 9u 2 + 1) 2  (9u 4 + 4u 2 + 1) 2 ;  = 3  (9u 4 + 9u 2 + 1).
Theorem: Let the curve be intersection of two surfaces f(x,y,z) = 0 and g(x,y,z) = 0 .Let h = f X g .
H −h . H
If  is the operator r = h ,then  = 3
and  = 2
where H = h X h .
h H
Theorem: The osculating plane at any point P has three point contact with the curve at P.
Theorem: In case if  = 0 or  = 0 , F (0) = 0 so that the plane must have at least four point contact
with the curve.
Cylindrical Helices
Definition
A curve which lies on a cylinder and cuts the generators at a constant angle is called a cylindrical
helix. Helix is also called a curve of constant slope.
Theorem : The necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a helix is that its  and  are in
constant ratio.
Note: If the curvature  and torsion  are both constant then the curve is a circular helix.
Circular helix:A helix which lies on a surface of a circular cylinder is called a circular helix.
Result:1.A right helix of radius a and slope  has 4 point contact with a given curve at the point where
1 1  2 
its curvature and torsion are , then a = 2 and tan  =
   + 2

2.A helix of constant curvature is necessarily a circular helix.
3.If a curve on a sphere is a helix, then the curve is called a spherical helix.
Osculating circle (or) (Circle of curvature)
Definition:The osculating circle at a point P on a curve is the circle which has a three point contact with
the curve at P . The radius of the osculating circle is called the radius of curvature of the curve at P.It is
denoted by 

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Note :1. Since the osculating plane has also three point contact with the curve at P, the Osculating circle
lies in the osculating plane at P .
2. Since the circle of curvature and the curve have the same tangent at P lying in the osculating
plane, the centre of the circle lies on the principal normal at P.
3. The centre of the osculating circle is called the centre of curvature at P.
1
Radius of circle of curvature:  =

The centre of curvature of the curve at P is given by c = r +  n
Where c is the P.V of the centre of circle.
Result:The principal normal to curve is normal to the locus of centre of curvature at those points where
the curvature is stationary.
Osculating sphere: (Sphere of curvature or spherical curvature)
Definition:The sphere which has a 4 points contact with curve at a point P is called the osculating
sphere of at P .
Radius and centre of sphere of curvature
The P.V of the centre of sphere is : c = r +  n +  ' b
The radius osculating sphere: R 2 =  2 +  2  '2
Note: 1.If  is constant then  ' = 0  R2 =  2  R = 
and the centre of osculating sphere coincide with the centre of osculating circle.
2.The centre of the osculating sphere lies in the normal plane on a line parallel to the binormal
called the polar axis. The intersection of the sphere with the osculating plane is the osculating
circle.
3. Radius of spherical curvature of a circular helix is equal to the radius of curvature (since  is
constant)
4.Spherical Helix: If a curve on a sphere is a helix ,then the curve is called a spherical helix.
Locus of centre of osculating sphere
Unless the curve lies on a sphere , the centres of spherical curvature change from point to point
as the point moves on the curve.
Let C be the curve. Let C1 be the locus of centre of osculating sphere, then.
1. t1 = eb , n1 = e1n, b1 = −ee1t where e = e1 = 1
2. t, n, b to C1 are parallel respectively to b, n, t to C.
3.The product of torsion of C and C1 at corresponding points is equal to the product of curvature at
those points (ie 1 =  1 ).
4.If curvature of C is constant then the curvature of C1 is also constant and  = 1 ;  2 =  1
d 2 d
5. 1 =  +  (  1 ) ,  1 = +  ( 1 ).
ds  ds
Results :

1.If a curve lies on a sphere, then  and  are related by + ( 1 ) = 0 (or)

2.if a curve lies on a sphere , the osculating sphere at every point of the curve is the given sphere.
 d
3.The necessary and sufficient condition that a curve lies on a sphere is that + (  1 ) = 0
 ds
4.The radius of spherical curvature of a circular helix is equal to the radius of circular curvature.
5.If the radius of a spherical curvature is constant then the curve lies either on a surface of a
sphere or has constant curvature.
6.The tangent to the locus of the centre of the osculating sphere passes through the centre of the
osculating circle.

7
 r   t '' t  t ''
7.If R is the radius of the spherical curvature then R = = .
 2
 2
Theorem: The radius of curvature 1 of the locus of the centre of curvature is
 2 d  ' 1 2  '2  4 −1/2
1 = [{ ( )− } + 2 4 ] where R is the radius of spherical curvature. And the
R 3 ds  R  R
 1 d R
torsion 1 = 2 [ 2 − { ( )}2 ]1/2
R  ds 
Tangent surface ,Involutes and Evolute of a space curve
The basic differences between the evolutes of a plane curve and those of a space curve
i)The evolute of a plane curve is unique but space curve has infinitely many evolute.
ii)Evolute of the plane curve is defined as the locus of the centres of curvature but evolute of the
space curve is neither the locus of the centres of curvature nor the locus of centres of spherical
curvature
Definition
The surface generated by the tangent lines to a curve C is called the tangent surface of C .
Definition
1.An involutes of a curve C is the C1 , which lies on the tangent surface of C and intersect the
generators orthogonally. (or)
2.It the tangent to a curve C are normal to another curve C1 then C1 is called the involute of
C and C is called an evolutes of C1 .
3.The tangent to C at a point P is orthogonal to the tangent at the corresponding point of C1
4.The involute lies on the tangent surface.
5.The equation of the involutes is: R = r + (c − s )t ( c is constant)
Curvature and torsion of involute :
The curvature 1 and torsion  1 of an involute C1 of C are given by
 2 + 2  '−  '
 = 2
2
; 1 =
1
 (c − s ) 2  (c − s )( 2 +  2 )
Results :
1) The distance between corresponding points of two involutes in constant.
2) Since t is same for different involutes, the tangents at the corresponding points of the involutes
are parallel.
3) The involutes of a circular helix are plane curves since  ,  constant,   ,   = 0  1 = 0
4) The locus of the centres of spherical curvature is an evolutes if and only if the curve is plane
curve.
Definition: If C1 is an involute of the given curve C , then C is defined by the evolute of C1
Betrand Curves : A pair of curves  ,  1 which have the same principal normal are called the Betrand
curves.In other wors if  and  1 are Betrand curves there is a point-to-point correspondence
between  and  1 such that the principal normal is the same at the corresponding points P and P 1 .This
implies that PP1 is the common principal normal of  and  1
1)The distance PP1 between the corresponding points of the two curves is constant.
2)The tangents to  and  1 at the corresponding points are inclined at a constant angle.
3)The binormals at the two corresponding points of  and  1 will also will also include the same
angle
Theorem: If  and  1 are Betrand curves then
1)there exist a linear relation between the curvature and torsion of either curve.
2)the torsion at the corresponding points P and P1 have the same sing and their product is
8
 constant
Spherical indicatrices (Images) :Instead of having the same normal, we can construct curves whose
position vectors are either tˆ, nˆ or bˆ .
Curves lies on a unit sphere are called the Spherical indicatrices
The locus of a point whose PV is equal to the unit tangent t at any point of a given curve is
called the spherical indication of the tangent [such locus lies on the surface of a unit sphere]
The spherical indicatrix of the principal normal
The locus of the point whose PV is equal to the unit principal normal, n̂ at any point of a given
curve is called spherical indicative of the principal normal. (similarly we can define spherical indicatrix
of the binormal).
Curvature and torsion of the spherical indicatrix of tangent
The curvature of a indication is the ratio of the screw curvature to the circular curvature of the
curve.
 2 + 2  '−  '
1 = ; 1 =
  ( 2 +  2 )
Curvature and torsion of the spherical indicatrix of binormal
The ratio of the screw curvature and the torsion of the given curve.
 2 + 2 −( '−  ')
1 = ; 1 =
  ( 2 +  2 )
Curvature and torsion of spherical indicatrix of principal normal
(  '−  ' )
2
11
1 = 1 + 2 2 3 ,  1 =
2

( +  ) 1 12 − 1
Result:1.The tangent to the indicatrix of the tangent to  is parallel to the principal normal at the
corresponding points of 
2. The unit tangent t1 to the spherical indicatrix of the binormal to  is parallel to − n
3. The unit tangent t1 to the spherical indicatrix of the principal normal to  is  b −  t
4.The spherical indicatrix of a curve is a circle iff the curve is a helix.
Intrisic Equation of a space curve or Natural equation of a curve
The equations expressing  and  as function of arcual length s are called intrinsic or natural
equation of a curve. Hence we write the intrinsic equations of a curve as  = f (s) and  = g (s) .

Surface:The single equation f ( x, y) = 0 or y =  ( x) in the plane represents a curve. Similarly in space,

a single equal g ( x, y, z) = 0 (or) z =  ( x, y) represents a surface.
The surface can also be specified by parametric equations. The parametric equation for a surface
be of the from. x = f (u, v), y = g (u, v), z = h(u, v).

Note : The parametric equations of a surface are not unique.

Example : consider
1) x = u + v, y = u − v, z = 4uv
2) x = u, y = v, z = u 2 − v 2
These two equations represent the surface x 2 − y 2 = z .
Ordinary points and singularities
Let r = r (u , v) be the parametric equation of a surface,
If r1  r 2  0 , then the point p(u, v) is ordinary point or regular point.
r r 2 r 2 r
where, r1 = ; r 2 = ; r 21 = , r12 =
u v vu uv

9
 2 r 2 r
r11 = 2 ; r 22 = 2 .
u v
It r1  r 2 = 0 at a point P , we call the point P is singularity of the surface.
Example
Consider the surface x = u + v, y = u + v, z = uv every point on the surface is ordinary point.
Curves On Surfaces:
Let r = r (u, v) be the equation of a surface. r = r (u(t ), v(t )) is a curve lying on the surface. The
equation u = u(t) and v = v(t) are called curvilinear equations of the curve on the surface.

Parametric Curves:
Let r = r (u , v) be the given surface. Let v = c where c is an arbitrary constant. Then the
position vector r = r (u, c) is a function of a single parameter and hence r = r (u, c) represents curve
lying on the surface r = r (u, v) . This curve is called the parametric curve v = c .Similarly r = r (c, v) is a
function of a single parameter and hence r = r (c, v) represents curve lying on the surface r = r (u, v) .
This curve is called the parametric curve u = c
Note: 1.Through every point of the surface, there passes one and only one parametric curve of each
system.
2.No two curves of the same system intersect.
3.The curves of the system u = u0 and v = v0 intersect once but not more than once
4.The parametric curves of the system u = u0 and v = v0 can not touch each other.
5.Two parametric curves through a point p are said to be orthogonal if r1  r2 = 0 at p .
Tangent plane and Surface Normal
Let r = r (u(t ), v(t )) be a curve lying on the surface passing through [u(t),v(t)]. Then the tangent
dr r du r dv du dv
to the curve at any point P on the surface is = . + . = r1 + r2 .
dt u dt v dt dt dt
Definition :1. Tangent to any curve drawn on a surface is called a tangent line to the surface.
dr
2. is a linear combination of the vectors r1 and r2 ,
dt
3. r1 X r2  0 , r1 and r2 are non zero and independent.
4.The tangents to different curves through P on a surface lie in a plane containing two
independent vectors r1 and r2 at P. This plane is called the tangent plane at P.
5.The normal to the surface at P is a line through P and perpendicular to the tangent
plane at P
Note: 1.The equation with position vector r = r (u, v) is either R = r + ar1 + br2 or
( R − r )  ( r + r ) = 0 , where a, b are parameters.
1 2

2.Unit normal N at P is
r r r r
N = 1 2 = 1 2 , where H = r1  r2 and NH = r1  r2
r1  r2 H
3.Equation of the Normal at P is R = r + a(r1 X r2 )
4.The curves bisecting the angles between the parametric curves are given by
E du 2 − G dv 2 = 0 .

First fundamental form (or) metric on a surface

Let r = r (u , v) be the equation of a surface the quadratic differential from
2 2
E du 2 + 2 Fdu dv + Gdv 2 in du , dv where E = r , F = r1.r 2 G = r , is called metric or first fundamental
1 2

form.
10
Geometrical interpretation of the first fundamental form.
It is used to calculate the arc lengths on the surface. The arc length s of the curve has the
following relation with parameters.
2 2 2 2 2
 ds   du   dv   du   dv 
t
du dv du dv
  = E   + 2F . + G   and hence s =  E  dt  + 2 F dt . dt + G  dt  dt
 dt   dt  dt dt  dt  t0    
Special case : On the parametric curve u = constant, du = 0
ds2 = Gdv2 and on the parametric curve v =constant dv = 0 ( ds ) = Edu 2
2

Theorem: The first fundamental form of a surface is positive definite quadratic in du , dv

Relation between the co-efficient of E, F , G and H :
r r
H 2 = EG − F 2 ; H = r1  r 2 , r1 = , r2 =
u v
Example: If x = u, y = v, z = u − v , find H
2 2

(Hints: Find E, F , G and use H 2 = EG − F 2 ; Answer H = 1 + 4u 2 + 4v2

Result
The necessary and sufficient condition for parametric curves to form an orthogonal system is that
F = 0 at each point of the surface.
Angle between the parametric curves
Let r = r (u , v) be the equation of surface with parametric curves. If  be the angle between
them. Then
F r1.r 2 r r H H
cos  = = ; sin  = 1 2 =  tan  =
FG r1 r 2 r1 r 2 EG F
Note:
1) It  = 90o then the two parametric curves are orthogonal
2) If ds represents the element of area on the surface then ds = Hdudv
3) The differential equation of the parametric curves is dudv = 0 .
Direction Coefficients on a Surface:
Let r = r (u , v) be the equation of a surface and let P be any point on the surface. Then we know that
the vectors r1 , r2 are tangents to the parametric curves u = constant and v = constant passes through P.
Let N be the surface normal at P. Then N , r1 , r2 are three linearly independent vectors.
Hence every vector a through P can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of N , r1 , r2 .Thus
there exist unique scalars an ,  and  such that a = an N + r1 + r2
The vector  r1 +  r2 lying in the tangent plane at P of the surface is called the tangential part of a and
 ,  are called the tangential component of a and  ,  are zero iff the vector a is normal to the surface.
Characteristic
Let f ( x, y, z, a) = 0 be the equation of one parameter family of surface ' a ' being the parameter
and which is constent for any given surface.

The curve given by f ( a ) = 0, f ( a ) = 0 is called the characteristics of the surface corresponds
a
to the parameter ' a ' .
Envelope
The locus of characteristics for all values of the parameter is called the envelops of the system of
surfaces.
The equation of the envelops
f
Eliminating ' a ' between f = 0, = 0 we get the equation of the envelope.
a
11
Characteristics line:
The line of intersection of the two consecutive planes is called the characteristic line.
Developable surface :
The envelope of one-parameter family of planes is called developable surface or a developable.
The edge of regression
The curve in which any surface is met by the consecutive surface is called the characteristic of
the envelope.
Every characteristic will meet the next in one or more pts. And the locus of the point is called the
edge of regression (or) cumspidal edges of the envelope.
The edge of regression is a curve which lies on the envelope.

Definition
When the planes f (u) = 0, f (v) = 0 and f (w) = 0 intersect at a point, the limiting position of
the point of intersection of the three planes as v → u and w → u is called the characteristic point
corresponding to the plane u .

The edge of regression

The locus of the characteristic points is called the edge of regression of the developable.
f 2 f
To get the equation of the edge of regression, eliminates ' ' from f = 0, = 0; 2 = 0
 
Result
1) The tangents to the edge of regression are the characteristic lines of the developable.
2) Each characteristic touches the edge of regression.
Envelope
The envelope of surfaces f ( x, y, z, a, b, c) = 0 where a, b, c are parameter connected by the
equation  (a, b, c) = 0 and f and  are homogeneous with respect to a, b, c is found by eliminating
f a f b f c
a, b, c between f = 0,  = 0, = =
 a  b  c
Ruled surface
A ruled surface is a surface which is generated by the motion of one parameter family of straight
lines and the straight lines itself is called its generating line. Cones, cylinders are special forms of ruled
surfaces.
Developable: If the consecutive generators intersect then the surface is called developable.
Definition: The envelope of the family of osculating planes of a space curve is called an osculating
developable.
Result: The space curve is itself the edge of regression of the osculating developable.
Definition: The envelope of the normal planes to the space curve is called the polar developable.
Result : The edge of regression of the polar developable of a space curve is the locus of the
centers of spherical curvature.
Definition; The envelope of the family of the rectifying planes of a space curve is called rectifying
developable.
Result : The equation of the edge of regression of the rectifying developable is
 ( t +  b )
R=r+
  −  
Result : 1) Every space curve is geodesic on its rectifying developable.

2) The necessary and sufficient condition that the rule surface is developable is
t , g , g  = 0 where g = unit vector along generator
 
3)The rule surface is skew, then t , g , g   0 .

12
The equation of the tangent plane to a rule surface
When the equation to the surface is r = r (u , v) the normal to the surface is r1  r 2 and the tangent
( )( )
plane at the point r is R − r . r1  r 2 = 0 (or)  R − r , r1 , r 2  = 0
Results
1) The envelope of a plane whose equation involves one parameter is a developable surface.
2) The osculating plane of the edge of repression at any point P is the tangent plane to the
developable at P .
3) Tangent plane to developable surface contains only one parameter.
4) If the ruled surface is developable, the tangent planes at all points of any generator must be same.
5) The condition that z = f ( x, y) may represent a developable surface iff
 2 z 2 z 2 z 
rt − S = 0 r = 2 ; s =
2
;t = 2 
 x xy y 
6) The curve itself is the edge of repression of the osculating developable.
7) The edge of repression of the polar developable is the locus of the centre of osculating spheres.
8) The rectifying developable of a curve is the polar developable of its involves and conversely.
Second fundamental form
Let r = r (u , v) be the equation of a surface then Ldu 2 + 2Mdu.dv + Ndv2 is called the second
fundamental form
r1  r 2 r1  r 2
Where N = = , N is the unit normal vector to the surface at r (u , v) ;
r1  r 2 H

L = − N1  r1, M = − N1  r 2 =− N2  r1, N = − N2  r 2
(or) L = N  r11 , M = N  r12 , N = N  r 22 , (or)
r , r , r  r , r , r 
L = 11 1 2 , M = 12 1 2 , N = 22 1 2
r , r , r 
H H H
And LN − M = T , (where T is not necessarily positive)
2 2 2

Geometrical interpretation
The value of the 2nd fundamental form Ldu 2 + 2Mdu.dv + Ndv2 at pt P is equal to twice the
length of the ⊥ r from the neighboring point Q on the tangent plane at P
Result
1)  N , r1 , r2  = N .(r1  r2 ) = N .H N = N 2 H = H ( N 2 = 1)

2)  r1 , r2 , r 11  = (r1  r2 )  r11 = H N . r11 = HL

3)  r1 , r2 , r 12  = HM

4)  r1 , r2 , r 12  = HN
E F G
5) A real surface for which the equations = = hold is either spherical or plane.
L M N
6) If L, M , N vanish everywhere on a surface then the surface is part of a plane.
7)The curves of the family  (u, v) = c are the solution of the differential equation
P(u, v)du + Q(u, v)dv = 0 , where P , Q are differential functions which do not vanish simultaneously.
Double family of curves
Pdu 2 + 2Qdu.dv + Rdv 2 = 0 , where P, Q, R are continuous function of u and v and do not vanish
together represents two families of curves on the surface provided Q 2 − PR  0 .
Note (1):The two directions (or two families) given by Pdu 2 + 2Qdu.dv + Rdv 2 = 0 are orthogonal iff
ER − 2FQ + GP = 0 ,

13
Note (2):If  is the angle between the two curves given by the double family Pdu 2 + 2Qdu.dv + Rdv 2 at
1
2H (Q2 − PR) 2
the point (u, v) on the surface, then tan  =
ER − 2FQ + GP
Note(3): The curves bisecting the angle between the parametric curves are given by Edu 2 − Gdv2 = 0

Geodesics on a surface:
Geodesics are special curves on a surface which are curves of the shortest distance. (stationary
length)
Differential equation of geodesics on a surface
Let A and B be 2 point on the surface r = (u , v) . Let us consider all arcs jointing A and B and
let them be given by the equations of the form u = u(t ), v = v(t ), then the geodesies equations are.
d  T  T 1 dT T d  T  T 1 dT T
U=  − =  ;V =  − = ,
dt  u  u 2T dt u dt  v  v 2T dt v
Where 2T = s 2 , 2T =  Eu 2 + 2Fuv + Gv 2 
dT
Theorem:For any curve whether geodesies or not, U and V satisfy the identity uU + vV =
dt
T T
Theorem:For any curve whether geodesics or not U and V satisfy U −V =0
v u
Theorem:The necessary and sufficient condition for a curve on a surface to be geodesic is
T T
U −V = 0.
v u
Theorem:On the general surface a necessary and sufficient condition that the curve v = C be geodesic
E E F F
is EE2 + FE1 − 2 EF1 = 0 ,Where E1 = ; E2 = ; F = r1  r2 , F1 = , F2 =
u v u v
Theorem :On a general surface a necessary and sufficient condition for a curve u = C to be a geodetic
is GG1 + FG2 − 2GF2 = 0
Result:A particle is constrained to move on a smooth surface under no force except the normal reaction,
then its path is a geodesies.
Theorem:The geodesics on a right circular cylinder are helices. i.e. every helix on a cylinder is a of
geodesic and conversely.
Theorem: Curve on a sphere is a geodesic iff it is a great circle.
Result
1. If the parametric curves are orthogonal then the curve v = C will be geodesic iff E2 = 0 for all
values of u and v (i.e. E is function of u only).
2. If the parametric curves are orthogonal then the curve u = c will be geodesic iff G1 = 0 (i.e. iff
G is a function of v only)
d  T  T d  T  T
Canonical geodesic equation: U    − = 0; V   − =0
ds  u  u ds  v  v
Note :
1) If the curves on a surface are not parametric curves, then the sufficient condition form curve to
be geodesic is either U = 0 or V = 0
2) For a parametric curve u = constant, to be geodesic a sufficient condition is U = 0 , and v = c to
be a geodesic the sufficient condition is V = 0 .
3) Any curve u = u(t ), v = v(t ) on a surface r = r (u, v) is a geodesic iff the principal normal at
every point on the curve is normal to the surface.(Normal property of geodesic)
4) A curve on a surface is a geodesic iff the rectifying plane is tangent to the surface.
5) Geodesic equation (using normal property)

14
 1  1 
i) Eu + Fv + E1u2 + E2uv +  F2 − G1  v2 = 0
2  2 
 1  1
ii) Fu + Gv +  F1 − E2  u2 + G1uv + EG2v2 = 0
 2  2
6) Christoffel symbols of the first kind :

2

ijk = ( ri  rj ) + ( ri  rk ) j − ( rj  rk )
1
k
i
= ri  rjk , i , j , k = 1, 2
7) The Christoffel symbols of the 2nd kind:
1jk = H −2 ( G1 jk − F 2 jk ) , 2jk = H −2 ( E2 jk − F 1 jk )
8) For any given family of geodesics on a surface, a parametric system can be chosen so that the
metric takes the form ds 2 = du 2 + G (u, v)dv 2 .
Geodesic curvature
For any curve on a surface the curvature vector at any point P is r  =  n where  is the
curvature and n is the unit principal normal. This can be written as
r  =  r1 +  r2 +  n N … (1)
= n N + Kg
Where  n is called the normal component of r , the normal component  n of r  is called the normal
curvature at p. The vector r1 + r2 = K g with components ( ,  ) is called the geodesic curvature
vector of the curve under consideration.
GU − FV EV − UF
Then  = 2
, =
H H2
Magnitude of K g i.e. K g is called geodesic curvature,
For any curve the geodesic curvature K g is defined as K g = + K g or K g = - K g according as the angle
 
between the tangents and the geodesic curvature vector is + (or) − and K g =   2 +  2 .
2 2
Note :
1) In Christoffel symbols,
 = u + 111u2 + 2112uv + 122v2 ;  = v + 112 u2 + 2122 uv +  222v2
2) With s as parameter
1 U T 1 V T 1 V T 1 U T
= 2 =− 2 ; = 2 =− 2
H v v H u  v H u  u  H v u 
1  T T  1 U ( s) 1 V ( s)
Formula : Kg = 3 
V (t ) − U (t )  ; K g = − =
HS  u v  H v' H u'
Theorem :The geodesic curvature vector of any curve is orthogonal to the curve.
Result
1) The curvature of a geodesic relative to itself is zero. Thus, a curve is a geodesic iff its geodesic
curvature vector K g is zero. i.e. geodesic curvature of a geodesic on a surface is zero and
conversely.
2) When the curve is geodesic, r . is parallel to N and the value of K g = [ N , r ', r ''] = s −3[ N , r , r ]
3) All straight lines on a surface are geodesics.
4) A curve on a plane is a geodesic iff it is a straight line.
5) The geodesic curvatures of the parametric curve v = c, u = c are
1 −3 2 1 −3 2
a = E  2 EF1 − EE2 − FE1  ;  b = G  FG2 + GG1 − 2GF2 
2H 2H

15
 1  1 
6) If the paraematric curves are orthogonal ,  a = −
EG v
( )
E ; b =
EG u
( )
G

7) If (r , ) are the polar co-ordinates of the plane, then its metric is given by ds2 = dr 2 + r 2d 2 .
8) In the geodesic polar co-ordinate system, the curves u = constant are called geodetic circles.
Liouilli’s formule for K g (Geodesic curvature)
d
Kg = + Pu '+ Qv ', where  is the angle between the parametric curves v = constant and curve
ds
2 EF1 − FE1 − EE2 EG1 − FE2
under consideration ,Where P = ;Q =
2 EH 2 EH
−U
Note: 1)  g may also be given by  g =
1+ v '
2) All the straight lines on a surface are geodesics.
3)  ,  g ,  n denotes curvature, geodesic curvature and normal curvature then  2 =  g2 +  n2
Gaussian curvature: The Gaussian curvature K of the surface at any point is defined by
T 2 LN − M 2
K =  a b = 2 = , It is also called specific curvature, sewed curvature or total
H EG − F 2
curvature.
1
Note : The Gaussian curvature at every point of a sphere of radius ' a ' is constant and equal to 2 .
a
Curvature of normal section
A plane drawn through a point an a surface cuts it in a curve called the section of surface. If the
plane is so drawn that it contains the normal to the surface, then the curve is called normal section.
Formula for normal curvature
n = N  r ; n = Lu2 + 2Mu ' v '+ Ndv '2
Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv 2
n =
ds 2
Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv 2
n =
Edu 2 + 2 Fdudv + Gdv 2
First curvature:
EN + GL − 2 FM
The first curvature J is given by J = =  a + b
EG − F 2
[  n has two values they are  a and  b ]
1 EN + GL − 2 FM
Mean curvature: ( a +  b ) = =
2 2( EG − F 2 )
Minimal surface: The surface are called minimal surface if first curvature (or mean curvature) is zero
at all points . The surface will be Minimal if EN + GL − 2 FM = 0
Developable surface:
The surface for which Gaussian curvature K = 0 are called developable surface.
[ K = 0  T 2 = 0  LN − M 2 = 0]
The surface is developable iff the Gaussian curvature K = 0 .
Umbilic or Novel point:
L M N
A point on a surface is called an umbilic if at that point we have = = ; the normal
E F G
curvature  a at a point (u, v) is the direction (du, dv) is given by
Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv 2
n =
Edu 2 + 2 Fdudv + Gdv 2
 at an umbilic the normal curvature is the same in all directions.
16
Result
1) The torsion of a geodesic vanishes at an umbilic
2) The torsion at a geodesic vanishes in the principal direction.
3) If the point is not umbilic than two principal direction which are orthogonal.
4) All the points on a sphere are umbilcs

Meusnier’s Theorem
It  in the angle between the principal normal of the curve and the surface normal N
than  n =  cos  where  n is the normal curvature and  is the curvature.
Lines of curvature
A curve on a surface whose tangents at each points is along a principal directions is called a line
of curvature.
Differential equation of lines of curvature
dv 2 − dudv du 2
( EM − FL)du 2 + [ EN − GL]dudv + [ FN − GM ]dv 2 = 0 or E F G =0
L M N

Result
F = 0 and M = 0 is the necessary and sufficient condition for lines of curvature to the
parametric curves.
Euler’s Theorem
 n =  a cos 2  +  b sin 2  ,  a ,  b are principal curvature and  is the angle which the direction
(du, dv) of the normal section makes with the principal direction dv = 0 .
Rodrigue’s formula
 dr + dN = 0 is the necessary and sufficient condition for a curve on a surface to be a line of
curvature. (where  denotes normal curvature in the direction of dr of the line of curvature)
Result
dN dr
The necessary and sufficient condition for a curve to be a line of curvature is varies as .
ds ds
LN − M 2
Result: Gaussian curvature: K = =  a b
H2
1) Elliptic point: the point p(u, v) is called an elliptic pt if at P, K is positive i.e. LN − M 2  0
(i.e.  a and  b are same sign)
2) Hyperbolic point: If LN − M 2  0 (i.e.  a ,  b are opposite sign)
3) Parabolic point: if K = 0 (i.e. any one of  a (or) b is 0.)
Conjugate direction
Let Q be a point on the surface adjacent to P and let PR be a direction at P parallel to the line
of intersection of the tangent planes at P and Q . Then as Q tends to coincidence with P the limiting
directions of the lines PQ and PR are said to be conjugate direction at P .
Note :
1) The directions (l1 , m1 ) and (l2 , m2 ) at P are conjugate iff Ll1l2 + M (l1m2 + l2 m1 ) + Nm1m2 = 0
2) The condition that the two directions given by Pdu 2 + 2Qdudv + Rdv2 = 0 be conjugate is
LR − MQ + NP = 0
Theorem : is the necessary and sufficient condition for the parametric curves to has conjugates
directions.
Note : Lines of curvature at any point on the surface are in the conjugate direction.

17
The Duplin’s indicatrix
Definition
The section of a surface by a plane parallel to the tangent plane at any point ‘O’ on it and at a
small distance from it is called the Duplin indicatrix at ‘O’.
x2 y 2 1 1
Equation of Dupin indicatrix is + = 2h, z = h where Ra = ; Rb =
Ra Rb a b
Result
1) The necessary and sufficient condition for a surface to be a developable is that the Gaussian
curvature is zero.
2) The curves bisecting the angels between the parametric curves on the surface are given by the
equation Edu 2 − Gdv2 = 0 .
3) The necessary and sufficient condition for a curve on a sphere to be geodetic is that the curve is a
greats circle.
4) The geodesic curvature vector of any curve is orthogonal to the curve.
5) Principle direction of a point are conjugate and orthogonal.
Asymptotic lines
Definition: The directions which are self conjugate are called asymptotic directions and called
asymptotic lines.
Differential equation of an asymptotic line
Suppose at any point (u, v) the direction of a asymptotic line is (du, dv) hence (du, dv) is a self
conjugate direction Ldu 2 + 2Mdudv + Ndv2 = 0 is the differential equation of an asymptotic line.
1) Condition for asymptotic direction are orthogonal iff EN − 2 FM + GL = 0 (1st curvature J = 0)
dr dN
2) The curve r = r (s) is an asymptotic line iff  = 0 . i.e. dr  dN = 0 .
ds ds
3) The asymptotic lines are self-conjugate.
Result:The necessary and sufficient condition that the parametric curves be asymptotic lines are
L = 0, N = 0, M  0
Curvature and torsion of an Asymptotic line:  =  N , r , r   =  N , N , t 
Result:
1) At a pt. on a surface where the Gaussian curvature is negative and equal to K , then the
torsion of the asymptotic lines is  − K
2) The asymptotic lines on the surface z = f ( x, y) are rdx 2 + 2sdxdy + t  dy 2 = 0 and their
s 2 − rt
torsion are 
1 + p2 + q2
3) In the surface of revolution x = u cos v, y = u sin v, z = f (u) the asymptotic lines are
f11du 2 + u f1dv 2 = 0
4) The normal curvature in a direction perpendicular to an asymptotic line is twice the mean
normal curvature (first curvature).
5) At any pints along an asymptotic line normal curvature  n = 0 .
6) If  is the curvature along a direction perpendicular to the asymptotic line then  a +  b =  .
7) The curvature of an asymptotic line is equal to its geodetic curvature.
8) The asymptotic lines on the surface z = y sin x are x = c1 , y 2 = c2 sec x where c1 , c2 are
arbitrary constant.
9) The asymptotic lines of the parabolaoid of revolution z = x 2 + y 2 is du 2 + u 2dv2 = 0
10) All straight lines on a surface are asymptotic lines.
11) The directions of the lines of curvature bisect the angle between the asymptotic directions.
12) The generators of a ruled surface constitute one family of asymptotic lines.
13) The asymptotic lines are orthogonal iff the surface is minimal.
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