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Table of Contents
5. Data Structures
5.1. More on Lists
5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks
5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues
5.1.3. List Comprehensions
5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions
5.2. The del statement
5.3. Tuples and Sequences
5.4. Sets
5.5. Dictionaries
5.6. Looping Techniques
5.7. More on Conditions
5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types
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5. Data Structures
This chapter describes some things you’ve learned about already in more detail, and
adds some new things as well.

5.1. More on Lists¶

The list data type has some more methods. Here are all of the methods of list
objects:

list.append(x)
Add an item to the end of the list. Similar to a[len(a):] = [x].

list.extend(iterable)
Extend the list by appending all the items from the iterable. Similar to a[len(a):]
= iterable.

list.insert(i, x)
Insert an item at a given position. The first argument is the index of the element
before which to insert, so a.insert(0, x) inserts at the front of the list, and
a.insert(len(a), x) is equivalent to a.append(x).

list.remove(x)
Remove the first item from the list whose value is equal to x. It raises a
ValueError if there is no such item.

list.pop([i])
Remove the item at the given position in the list, and return it. If no index is
specified, a.pop() removes and returns the last item in the list. It raises an
IndexError if the list is empty or the index is outside the list range.

list.clear()
Remove all items from the list. Similar to del a[:].

list.index(x[, start[, end]])

Return zero-based index in the list of the first item whose value is equal to x.
Raises a ValueError if there is no such item.

The optional arguments start and end are interpreted as in the slice notation and
are used to limit the search to a particular subsequence of the list. The returned
index is computed relative to the beginning of the full sequence rather than the
start argument.

list.count(x)
Return the number of times x appears in the list.

list.sort(*, key=None, reverse=False)

Sort the items of the list in place (the arguments can be used for sort
customization, see sorted() for their explanation).

list.reverse()
Reverse the elements of the list in place.

list.copy()
Return a shallow copy of the list. Similar to a[:].

An example that uses most of the list methods:

>>>
fruits = ['orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'banana', 'kiwi', 'apple', 'banana']
fruits.count('apple')
2
fruits.count('tangerine')
0
fruits.index('banana')
3
fruits.index('banana', 4) # Find next banana starting at position 4
6
fruits.reverse()
fruits
['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange']
fruits.append('grape')
fruits
['banana', 'apple', 'kiwi', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple', 'orange', 'grape']
fruits.sort()
fruits
['apple', 'apple', 'banana', 'banana', 'grape', 'kiwi', 'orange', 'pear']
fruits.pop()
'pear'
You might have noticed that methods like insert, remove or sort that only modify
the list have no return value printed – they return the default None. [1] This is a
design principle for all mutable data structures in Python.

Another thing you might notice is that not all data can be sorted or compared. For
instance, [None, 'hello', 10] doesn’t sort because integers can’t be compared to
strings and None can’t be compared to other types. Also, there are some types that
don’t have a defined ordering relation. For example, 3+4j < 5+7j isn’t a valid
comparison.
5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks
The list methods make it very easy to use a list as a stack, where the last element
added is the first element retrieved (“last-in, first-out”). To add an item to the
top of the stack, use append(). To retrieve an item from the top of the stack, use
pop() without an explicit index. For example:

>>>
stack = [3, 4, 5]
stack.append(6)
stack.append(7)
stack
[3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
stack.pop()
7
stack
[3, 4, 5, 6]
stack.pop()
6
stack.pop()
5
stack
[3, 4]
5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues
It is also possible to use a list as a queue, where the first element added is the
first element retrieved (“first-in, first-out”); however, lists are not efficient
for this purpose. While appends and pops from the end of list are fast, doing
inserts or pops from the beginning of a list is slow (because all of the other
elements have to be shifted by one).

To implement a queue, use collections.deque which was designed to have fast appends
and pops from both ends. For example:

>>>
from collections import deque
queue = deque(["Eric", "John", "Michael"])
queue.append("Terry") # Terry arrives
queue.append("Graham") # Graham arrives
queue.popleft() # The first to arrive now leaves
'Eric'
queue.popleft() # The second to arrive now leaves
'John'
queue # Remaining queue in order of arrival
deque(['Michael', 'Terry', 'Graham'])
5.1.3. List Comprehensions
List comprehensions provide a concise way to create lists. Common applications are
to make new lists where each element is the result of some operations applied to
each member of another sequence or iterable, or to create a subsequence of those
elements that satisfy a certain condition.

For example, assume we want to create a list of squares, like:

>>>
squares = []
for x in range(10):
squares.append(x**2)

squares
[0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81]
Note that this creates (or overwrites) a variable named x that still exists after
the loop completes. We can calculate the list of squares without any side effects
using:

squares = list(map(lambda x: x**2, range(10)))

or, equivalently:

squares = [x**2 for x in range(10)]

which is more concise and readable.

A list comprehension consists of brackets containing an expression followed by a

for clause, then zero or more for or if clauses. The result will be a new list
resulting from evaluating the expression in the context of the for and if clauses
which follow it. For example, this listcomp combines the elements of two lists if
they are not equal:

>>>
[(x, y) for x in [1,2,3] for y in [3,1,4] if x != y]
[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]
and it’s equivalent to:

>>>
combs = []
for x in [1,2,3]:
for y in [3,1,4]:
if x != y:
combs.append((x, y))

combs
[(1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 4)]
Note how the order of the for and if statements is the same in both these snippets.

If the expression is a tuple (e.g. the (x, y) in the previous example), it must be
parenthesized.

>>>
vec = [-4, -2, 0, 2, 4]
# create a new list with the values doubled
[x*2 for x in vec]
[-8, -4, 0, 4, 8]
# filter the list to exclude negative numbers
[x for x in vec if x >= 0]
[0, 2, 4]
# apply a function to all the elements
[abs(x) for x in vec]
[4, 2, 0, 2, 4]
# call a method on each element
freshfruit = [' banana', ' loganberry ', 'passion fruit ']
[weapon.strip() for weapon in freshfruit]
['banana', 'loganberry', 'passion fruit']
# create a list of 2-tuples like (number, square)
[(x, x**2) for x in range(6)]
[(0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), (4, 16), (5, 25)]
# the tuple must be parenthesized, otherwise an error is raised
[x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
File "<stdin>", line 1
[x, x**2 for x in range(6)]
^^^^^^^
SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target?
# flatten a list using a listcomp with two 'for'
vec = [[1,2,3], [4,5,6], [7,8,9]]
[num for elem in vec for num in elem]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9]
List comprehensions can contain complex expressions and nested functions:

>>>
from math import pi
[str(round(pi, i)) for i in range(1, 6)]
['3.1', '3.14', '3.142', '3.1416', '3.14159']
5.1.4. Nested List Comprehensions
The initial expression in a list comprehension can be any arbitrary expression,
including another list comprehension.

Consider the following example of a 3x4 matrix implemented as a list of 3 lists of

length 4:

>>>
matrix = [
[1, 2, 3, 4],
[5, 6, 7, 8],
[9, 10, 11, 12],
]
The following list comprehension will transpose rows and columns:

>>>
[[row[i] for row in matrix] for i in range(4)]
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]
As we saw in the previous section, the inner list comprehension is evaluated in the
context of the for that follows it, so this example is equivalent to:

>>>
transposed = []
for i in range(4):
transposed.append([row[i] for row in matrix])

transposed
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]
which, in turn, is the same as:

>>>
transposed = []
for i in range(4):
# the following 3 lines implement the nested listcomp
transposed_row = []
for row in matrix:
transposed_row.append(row[i])
transposed.append(transposed_row)

transposed
[[1, 5, 9], [2, 6, 10], [3, 7, 11], [4, 8, 12]]
In the real world, you should prefer built-in functions to complex flow statements.
The zip() function would do a great job for this use case:

>>>
list(zip(*matrix))
[(1, 5, 9), (2, 6, 10), (3, 7, 11), (4, 8, 12)]
See Unpacking Argument Lists for details on the asterisk in this line.
5.2. The del statement
There is a way to remove an item from a list given its index instead of its value:
the del statement. This differs from the pop() method which returns a value. The
del statement can also be used to remove slices from a list or clear the entire
list (which we did earlier by assignment of an empty list to the slice). For
example:

>>>
a = [-1, 1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
del a[0]
a
[1, 66.25, 333, 333, 1234.5]
del a[2:4]
a
[1, 66.25, 1234.5]
del a[:]
a
[]
del can also be used to delete entire variables:

>>>
del a
Referencing the name a hereafter is an error (at least until another value is
assigned to it). We’ll find other uses for del later.

5.3. Tuples and Sequences

We saw that lists and strings have many common properties, such as indexing and
slicing operations. They are two examples of sequence data types (see Sequence
Types — list, tuple, range). Since Python is an evolving language, other sequence
data types may be added. There is also another standard sequence data type: the
tuple.

A tuple consists of a number of values separated by commas, for instance:

>>>
t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!'
t[0]
12345
t
(12345, 54321, 'hello!')
# Tuples may be nested:
u = t, (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
u
((12345, 54321, 'hello!'), (1, 2, 3, 4, 5))
# Tuples are immutable:
t[0] = 88888
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment
# but they can contain mutable objects:
v = ([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
v
([1, 2, 3], [3, 2, 1])
As you see, on output tuples are always enclosed in parentheses, so that nested
tuples are interpreted correctly; they may be input with or without surrounding
parentheses, although often parentheses are necessary anyway (if the tuple is part
of a larger expression). It is not possible to assign to the individual items of a
tuple, however it is possible to create tuples which contain mutable objects, such
as lists.
Though tuples may seem similar to lists, they are often used in different
situations and for different purposes. Tuples are immutable, and usually contain a
heterogeneous sequence of elements that are accessed via unpacking (see later in
this section) or indexing (or even by attribute in the case of namedtuples). Lists
are mutable, and their elements are usually homogeneous and are accessed by
iterating over the list.

A special problem is the construction of tuples containing 0 or 1 items: the syntax

has some extra quirks to accommodate these. Empty tuples are constructed by an
empty pair of parentheses; a tuple with one item is constructed by following a
value with a comma (it is not sufficient to enclose a single value in parentheses).
Ugly, but effective. For example:

>>>
empty = ()
singleton = 'hello', # <-- note trailing comma
len(empty)
0
len(singleton)
1
singleton
('hello',)
The statement t = 12345, 54321, 'hello!' is an example of tuple packing: the values
12345, 54321 and 'hello!' are packed together in a tuple. The reverse operation is
also possible:

>>>
x, y, z = t
This is called, appropriately enough, sequence unpacking and works for any sequence
on the right-hand side. Sequence unpacking requires that there are as many
variables on the left side of the equals sign as there are elements in the
sequence. Note that multiple assignment is really just a combination of tuple
packing and sequence unpacking.

5.4. Sets
Python also includes a data type for sets. A set is an unordered collection with no
duplicate elements. Basic uses include membership testing and eliminating duplicate
entries. Set objects also support mathematical operations like union, intersection,
difference, and symmetric difference.

Curly braces or the set() function can be used to create sets. Note: to create an
empty set you have to use set(), not {}; the latter creates an empty dictionary, a
data structure that we discuss in the next section.

Here is a brief demonstration:

>>>
basket = {'apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana'}
print(basket) # show that duplicates have been removed
{'orange', 'banana', 'pear', 'apple'}
'orange' in basket # fast membership testing
True
'crabgrass' in basket
False

# Demonstrate set operations on unique letters from two words

a = set('abracadabra')
b = set('alacazam')
a # unique letters in a
{'a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd'}
a - b # letters in a but not in b
{'r', 'd', 'b'}
a | b # letters in a or b or both
{'a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
a & b # letters in both a and b
{'a', 'c'}
a ^ b # letters in a or b but not both
{'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l'}
Similarly to list comprehensions, set comprehensions are also supported:

>>>
a = {x for x in 'abracadabra' if x not in 'abc'}
a
{'r', 'd'}
5.5. Dictionaries
Another useful data type built into Python is the dictionary (see Mapping Types —
dict). Dictionaries are sometimes found in other languages as “associative
memories” or “associative arrays”. Unlike sequences, which are indexed by a range
of numbers, dictionaries are indexed by keys, which can be any immutable type;
strings and numbers can always be keys. Tuples can be used as keys if they contain
only strings, numbers, or tuples; if a tuple contains any mutable object either
directly or indirectly, it cannot be used as a key. You can’t use lists as keys,
since lists can be modified in place using index assignments, slice assignments, or
methods like append() and extend().

It is best to think of a dictionary as a set of key: value pairs, with the

requirement that the keys are unique (within one dictionary). A pair of braces
creates an empty dictionary: {}. Placing a comma-separated list of key:value pairs
within the braces adds initial key:value pairs to the dictionary; this is also the
way dictionaries are written on output.

The main operations on a dictionary are storing a value with some key and
extracting the value given the key. It is also possible to delete a key:value pair
with del. If you store using a key that is already in use, the old value associated
with that key is forgotten. It is an error to extract a value using a non-existent
key.

Performing list(d) on a dictionary returns a list of all the keys used in the
dictionary, in insertion order (if you want it sorted, just use sorted(d) instead).
To check whether a single key is in the dictionary, use the in keyword.

Here is a small example using a dictionary:

>>>
tel = {'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139}
tel['guido'] = 4127
tel
{'jack': 4098, 'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127}
tel['jack']
4098
del tel['sape']
tel['irv'] = 4127
tel
{'jack': 4098, 'guido': 4127, 'irv': 4127}
list(tel)
['jack', 'guido', 'irv']
sorted(tel)
['guido', 'irv', 'jack']
'guido' in tel
True
'jack' not in tel
False
The dict() constructor builds dictionaries directly from sequences of key-value
pairs:

>>>
dict([('sape', 4139), ('guido', 4127), ('jack', 4098)])
{'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
In addition, dict comprehensions can be used to create dictionaries from arbitrary
key and value expressions:

>>>
{x: x**2 for x in (2, 4, 6)}
{2: 4, 4: 16, 6: 36}
When the keys are simple strings, it is sometimes easier to specify pairs using
keyword arguments:

>>>
dict(sape=4139, guido=4127, jack=4098)
{'sape': 4139, 'guido': 4127, 'jack': 4098}
5.6. Looping Techniques
When looping through dictionaries, the key and corresponding value can be retrieved
at the same time using the items() method.

>>>
knights = {'gallahad': 'the pure', 'robin': 'the brave'}
for k, v in knights.items():
print(k, v)

gallahad the pure

robin the brave
When looping through a sequence, the position index and corresponding value can be
retrieved at the same time using the enumerate() function.

>>>
for i, v in enumerate(['tic', 'tac', 'toe']):
print(i, v)

0 tic
1 tac
2 toe
To loop over two or more sequences at the same time, the entries can be paired with
the zip() function.

>>>
questions = ['name', 'quest', 'favorite color']
answers = ['lancelot', 'the holy grail', 'blue']
for q, a in zip(questions, answers):
print('What is your {0}? It is {1}.'.format(q, a))

What is your name? It is lancelot.

What is your quest? It is the holy grail.
What is your favorite color? It is blue.
To loop over a sequence in reverse, first specify the sequence in a forward
direction and then call the reversed() function.
>>>
for i in reversed(range(1, 10, 2)):
print(i)

9
7
5
3
1
To loop over a sequence in sorted order, use the sorted() function which returns a
new sorted list while leaving the source unaltered.

>>>
basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
for i in sorted(basket):
print(i)

apple
apple
banana
orange
orange
pear
Using set() on a sequence eliminates duplicate elements. The use of sorted() in
combination with set() over a sequence is an idiomatic way to loop over unique
elements of the sequence in sorted order.

>>>
basket = ['apple', 'orange', 'apple', 'pear', 'orange', 'banana']
for f in sorted(set(basket)):
print(f)

apple
banana
orange
pear
It is sometimes tempting to change a list while you are looping over it; however,
it is often simpler and safer to create a new list instead.

>>>
import math
raw_data = [56.2, float('NaN'), 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, float('NaN'), 47.8]
filtered_data = []
for value in raw_data:
if not math.isnan(value):
filtered_data.append(value)

filtered_data
[56.2, 51.7, 55.3, 52.5, 47.8]
5.7. More on Conditions
The conditions used in while and if statements can contain any operators, not just
comparisons.

The comparison operators in and not in are membership tests that determine whether
a value is in (or not in) a container. The operators is and is not compare whether
two objects are really the same object. All comparison operators have the same
priority, which is lower than that of all numerical operators.
Comparisons can be chained. For example, a < b == c tests whether a is less than b
and moreover b equals c.

Comparisons may be combined using the Boolean operators and and or, and the outcome
of a comparison (or of any other Boolean expression) may be negated with not. These
have lower priorities than comparison operators; between them, not has the highest
priority and or the lowest, so that A and not B or C is equivalent to (A and (not
B)) or C. As always, parentheses can be used to express the desired composition.

The Boolean operators and and or are so-called short-circuit operators: their
arguments are evaluated from left to right, and evaluation stops as soon as the
outcome is determined. For example, if A and C are true but B is false, A and B and
C does not evaluate the expression C. When used as a general value and not as a
Boolean, the return value of a short-circuit operator is the last evaluated
argument.

It is possible to assign the result of a comparison or other Boolean expression to

a variable. For example,

>>>
string1, string2, string3 = '', 'Trondheim', 'Hammer Dance'
non_null = string1 or string2 or string3
non_null
'Trondheim'
Note that in Python, unlike C, assignment inside expressions must be done
explicitly with the walrus operator :=. This avoids a common class of problems
encountered in C programs: typing = in an expression when == was intended.

5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types

Sequence objects typically may be compared to other objects with the same sequence
type. The comparison uses lexicographical ordering: first the first two items are
compared, and if they differ this determines the outcome of the comparison; if they
are equal, the next two items are compared, and so on, until either sequence is
exhausted. If two items to be compared are themselves sequences of the same type,
the lexicographical comparison is carried out recursively. If all items of two
sequences compare equal, the sequences are considered equal. If one sequence is an
initial sub-sequence of the other, the shorter sequence is the smaller (lesser)
one. Lexicographical ordering for strings uses the Unicode code point number to
order individual characters. Some examples of comparisons between sequences of the
same type:

(1, 2, 3) < (1, 2, 4)

[1, 2, 3] < [1, 2, 4]
'ABC' < 'C' < 'Pascal' < 'Python'
(1, 2, 3, 4) < (1, 2, 4)
(1, 2) < (1, 2, -1)
(1, 2, 3) == (1.0, 2.0, 3.0)
(1, 2, ('aa', 'ab')) < (1, 2, ('abc', 'a'), 4)
Note that comparing objects of different types with < or > is legal provided that
the objects have appropriate comparison methods. For example, mixed numeric types
are compared according to their numeric value, so 0 equals 0.0, etc. Otherwise,
rather than providing an arbitrary ordering, the interpreter will raise a TypeError
exception.

Footnotes

[1]
Other languages may return the mutated object, which allows method chaining, such
as d->insert("a")->remove("b")->sort();.
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