Fundamentals of

Electric Circuits
Chapter 16

Copyright © 2017 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without
the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 Overview
• This chapter will apply the Laplace transform
to circuit analysis.
• The equivalent models for the resistor,
capacitor, and inductor will be introduced.
• Setting up proper initial conditions will be
covered.
• Transfer functions and state variables are
also discussed.
• Finally, circuit stability and network
synthesis will be covered.
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 Circuit Element Models
• We will now look at how to apply Laplace
transforms to circuit.
1. Transform the circuit from time domain to
the s-domain.
2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, source transformation,
superposition, or any circuit analysis
technique with which we are familiar.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution
and thus obtain the solution in the time
domain.
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 Circuit Element Models II
• Only the first step in the process is new.
• As was done in phasor analysis, we
transform a circuit from time domain to the
frequency or s-domain.
• For a resistor, the voltage current
relationship in the time domain is:
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡)

• Taking the Laplace transform:

𝑉 𝑡 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠)

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 Inductors
• For an inductor
𝑑𝑖(𝑡)
𝑣 𝑡 =𝐿
𝑑𝑡
• Taking the Laplace Transform:
1 𝑖 0−
𝐼 𝑠 = 𝑉 𝑠 +
𝑠𝐿 𝑠

• Note here that the initial conditions can be

represented either as a voltage or as a
current source

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 Inductors-1
• Here are the equivalent circuit elements
including the sources for the initial
conditions.

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 Capacitors
• For a Capacitor
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶
𝑑𝑡
• Taking the Laplace Transform:
1 𝑣 0−
𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐼 𝑠 +
𝑠𝐶 𝑠

• Note here that the initial conditions can also

be represented either as a voltage or as a
current source

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 Capacitors-1
• Here are the equivalent circuit elements
including the sources for the initial
conditions.

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 Initial Conditions
• One significant advantage of the Laplace
transform is that it includes both stead-state
and initial conditions.
• This allows for obtaining both the steady-
state response as well as the transient
response.
• The s-domain equivalent elements can be
readily used in first and second order
circuits.

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 Zero Initial Conditions
• In many applications, we will assume the
initial conditions are zero.
• The resistor of course stays the same.
• For the inductor and capacitor, the equations
are simplified:
Resistor 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑅𝐼(𝑠)
Inductor 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐿𝐼(𝑠)
1
Capacitor 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑠𝐶

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 Impedances
• We can define the impedance in the s-
domain as:
𝑉(𝑠)
𝑍 𝑠 =
𝐼(𝑠)
• Thus, the three elements will have the
following impedances:
Resistor 𝑍 𝑠 =𝑅
Inductor 𝑍 𝑠 = 𝑠𝐿
1
Capacitor 𝑍 𝑠 =
𝑠𝐶

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 Admittance
• In the s-domain, the admittance is also
simply the reciprocal of the impedance:
1 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 = =
𝑍(𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)

• Use of the Laplace transform in circuit

analysis facilitates the use of various signals
sources, such as:
– Impulse
– Step
– Ramp
– Exponential
– Sinusoidal
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 Dependent Sources
• The models for dependent sources and op-
amps are easy to develop.
• Dependent sources have a linear output
based on the input.
• In the Laplace transform, multiplying the
time-domain equation by a constant results
in the same constant multiplied against the
Laplace transform.
• Op amps get treated like resistors; they
multiply a voltage times a constant.
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 Circuit Analysis
• Using the s-domain to analyze circuits is
relatively easy.
• Converting from time domain to s-domain
results in complicated equations based on
derivatives and integrals into simple
multiples of s and 1/s.
• One need only use algebra to set-up and
solve the circuit equations.
• All theorems and relationships developed for
DC work in the s-domain.
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 Transfer Functions
• The transfer function is a key concept in
signal processing because it indicates how a
signal is processed as it passes through a
network.
• The transfer function relates the output of a
circuit to a given input, assuming zero initial
conditions.
𝑌(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 =
𝑋(𝑠)

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 Transfer Functions II
• There are four possible transfer functions:
𝑉𝑜 𝑠
𝐻 𝑠 = Voltage gain =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐼𝑜 𝑠
𝐻 𝑠 = Current gain =
𝐼𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑉𝑜 𝑠
𝐻 𝑠 = Impedance =
𝐼𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐼𝑜 𝑠
𝐻 𝑠 = Admittance =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)

• It is possible for a circuit to have many

transfer functions.

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 Transfer Functions III
• Each transfer function can be found in two
ways:
• The first is to assume any convenient input
X(s).
• Then use any circuit analysis technique
(current or voltage division, nodal analysis,
etc…)
• Find the output Y(s)
• Take the ratio.

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 Ladder Method
• The other way is to apply the ladder method,
which involves walking our way through the
circuit.
• Here, we assume the output is 1V or 1A as
appropriate.
• Use Ohm’s law of KCL to obtain the input.
• The transfer function becomes unity divided
by the input.

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 State Variables
• So far we have only looked at techniques for
analyzing system with only one input and
only one output.
• Many systems have more than one input or
output.
• The state variable method is a very important
tool for analyzing such highly complex
systems.

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 State Variables-1
• In the state variable model, we specify a
collection of variables that describe the
internal behavior of the system.
• These variables are known as the state
variables of the system.
• They are variables that determine the future
behavior of a system.
• They are a reflection of the current state of
the system, without requiring the history of
the system.
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 State Variables-2
• The standard way to represent a state
variable is to arrange them as a set of first
order differential equations.
𝑥ሶ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑧

• And the output equation is:

𝑦 = 𝐶𝑥 + 𝐷𝑧

• The transfer equation is found by taking the

Laplace transform of the first equation.
𝐻 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴)−1 𝐵

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 State Variables-3
• There are three steps to applying the state variable
method:
1. Select the inductor current i and capacitor voltage v
as the state variables, making sure they are
consistent with the passive sign convention.
2. Apply KCL and KVL to the circuit and obtain circuit
variables (voltages and currents) in terms of the
state variables. This should lead to a set of first-
order differential equations necessary and sufficient
to determine all state variables.
3. Obtain the output equation and put the final result in
state-space representation.

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 Applications
• The Laplace transform certainly plays an
important role in circuit analysis, however
that is not the only area where it has
applications.
• It also has applications in signal processing
and control systems.
• Two examples we will look at are:
– Network stability
– Network synthesis

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 Circuit Stability
• A circuit is stable if its impulse response is
bounded (i.e. h(t) converges to a finite value)
as 𝐭 → ∞.
• The circuit is considered unstable if it grows
without bound as 𝐭 → ∞.
• Since the transfer function is the Laplace
transform of the impulse response h(t), H(t)
must meet certain requirements in order for
stability to hold.

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 Circuit Stability II
• H(s) may be written as:
𝑁(𝑠)
𝐻 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠)

• Where the zeroes and poles of

H(s) are often located in the s
plane.
• For stability:
– The degree of N(s) must be less
than the degree of D(s)
– All the poles of H(s) must have
negative real parts.

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 Circuit Stability III
• A circuit is therefore considered sable if all
the poles of its transfer function lie in the left
half of the s plane.
• An unstable circuit never reaches steady
state because the transient response does
not decay to zero.
• One important fact from this is that steady
state analysis is only applicable to stable
circuits.
• A circuit with only passive elements cannot
be unstable.
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 Network Synthesis
• Network synthesis may be regarded as the
process of obtaining an appropriate network
to represent a given transfer function.
• This is more easily done in the s-domain
than in the time domain.
• The process is the reverse of network
analysis.
• Given a transfer function, find a suitable
network.

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 Network Synthesis-1
• It is important to note that there may be
cases where there are multiple answers, or
no answers at all.
• This is because there can be more than one
circuit that gives the same output.
• But, in network analysis, a single circuit has
only one output.

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 King Abdulaziz University
EE 301 – Electrical Circuits and Systems

Ch 16: Applications of the

Laplace Transform-Part 2

Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

Circuit Analysis in The 𝑠𝑠-Domain

1. Circuit Analysis in 𝑠𝑠-domain:
o Conversion of complex time domain relationships into the 𝑠𝑠-domain simplifies the process.
o In the 𝑠𝑠-domain, derivatives and integrals become straightforward multipliers of 𝑠𝑠 and 1/𝑠𝑠.
o This transformation enables us to solve circuit equations using algebra.
o All DC circuit theorems and relationships are applicable in the 𝑠𝑠-domain.

2. Equivalent Circuits:
o These circuits, which include capacitors and inductors, are exclusive to the 𝑠𝑠-domain.
o They cannot be converted back into the time domain (The results obtained from the s-domain
analysis can be transformed back to the time domain using inverse Laplace transforms.)

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Example 16.4

Consider the circuit in Fig. 16.12(a). Find the value of the voltage
across the capacitor assuming that the value of 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡𝑡) = 10𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)V
and assume that at 𝑡𝑡 = 0, −1 A flows through the inductor and
+ 5 V is across the capacitor
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Example 16.4
1. Circuit Transformation:

o The circuit is transformed into the 𝑠𝑠-

domain in Figure 16.12 (b). Initial
conditions are incorporated in this
representation.
2. Nodal Analysis:

o We aim to find 𝑉𝑉1 , which also represents

the capacitor voltage in the time domain.
o As 𝑉𝑉1 is the only unknown node voltage,
we only need to write and solve one
equation.
Nodal Equation:

10 𝑣𝑣(0)
𝑉𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑉 − 0 𝑖𝑖(0) 𝑉𝑉
1 −
𝑠𝑠 + 1 + + 𝑠𝑠 = 0
10 5𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 1
3 0.1𝑠𝑠
This term is the current
4 through the inductor
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Example 16.4

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Example 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Practice Problem 16.4

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Example 16.6

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Example 16.6

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Example 16.6

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Example 16.6

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Example 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

The initial energy in the circuit of Fig. 16.17 is zero at = 0. Assume that 𝑣𝑣𝑠𝑠 = 360𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡)V. (a) Find
𝑉𝑉𝑜𝑜 (𝑠𝑠) using the Thevenin theorem.
(b) Apply the initial- and final-value theorems to find 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 (0) and 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 (∞). (c) Obtain 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡).
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Practice Problem 16.6

• Apply KVL in the circuit to find
current flowing through the circuit
𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 (𝑠𝑠) as shown below:

360 1
− + 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 (𝑠𝑠) + 4𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 (𝑠𝑠) = 0
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
Therefore,

360
𝐼𝐼𝑋𝑋 (𝑠𝑠) =
5𝑠𝑠 + 1

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Practice Problem 16.6

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Questions

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 King Abdulaziz University
EE 301 – Electrical Circuits and Systems

Ch 16: Applications of the

Laplace Transform

Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

 Prepared by Dr. Baheej Alghamdi

Chapter 16 Learning Outcomes

• By using the information and exercises in this chapter you will be

able to:
1) Understand and use effectively circuit element models in the s-
domain.
2) Understand how to perform circuit analysis in the s-domain and
how to transform the results back into the time domain.
3) Understand what a transfer function is and how it is used.

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Introduction
• The Laplace transform is a powerful mathematical tool for analysis, synthesis, and design.
• The Laplace Transform converts differential equations, which can be difficult to solve, into algebraic
equations, which are generally easier to handle.
• It allows us to understand the functionality of circuits and systems by viewing them in the s-domain.
• This chapter will provide an in-depth exploration of working with circuits in the s-domain and will also
briefly touch on physical systems. The table below highlights the key difference between circuit analysis
techniques in this chapter and the previous chapters:
Laplace Transform (Chapter 16) Phasors (Chapters 13 & 14)
Applicability Can handle both AC and DC circuits. Only applicable to AC circuits with
sinusoidal sources.
Transient Response Can analyze both transient and steady Cannot analyze transient responses,
state responses. only steady-state.
Nonlinear Elements Can handle nonlinearity (though Cannot handle nonlinear elements.
solutions may be complex).
Arbitrary Inputs Can deal with arbitrary inputs, not just Only suitable for sinusoidal inputs.
sinusoids.
Frequency Domain Analysis Provides a comprehensive frequency Provides a simplified frequency domain
domain representation. representation.
Complexity of Calculations More complex calculations, but more Simpler calculations, but more limited
general results. applicability.

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Laplace Transform Pairs

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Introduction
• Consider the simple series RLC circuit below:

• Writing KVL for the above closed loop circuit, we obtain the following differential equation :

• This is a second-order linear differential equation. It is linear because it only involves the function I(t) and
its derivatives to the first and second degree, and these are not multiplied together. The coefficients L, R,
and 1/C are constants with respect to the function I(t) and its derivatives.

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Introduction
• The Laplace transform of the differential equation for a series RLC circuit can be obtained by
applying the Laplace transform to each term in the differential equation. The Laplace transform of a
derivative is given by:

Initial condition
for the current.

Initial condition
for the rate of
change of
current.

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Introduction
Thus, the LaPlace transform the second order differential equation:

• This is an algebraic equation,

which is easier to handle
compared to the time domain
second order differential
7 equation.
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Circuit Element Models

• Steps in Applying the Laplace Transform for circuit analysis:
1. Transform the circuit from the time domain to the 𝑠𝑠-domain.
2. Solve the circuit using nodal analysis, mesh analysis, source transformation, superposition, or any
circuit analysis technique with which we are familiar.
3. Take the inverse transform of the solution and thus obtain the solution in the time domain.

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Circuit Element Models

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Circuit Element Models

Time-Domain Element Time-Domain Equation S-Domain Element S-Domain Equation
Resistor (R) 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) Resistor (R) 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)

Inductor (L) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) Impedance 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(0)

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Capacitor (C) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1
Impedance 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 𝑣𝑣(0)
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) ⋅ +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

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Circuit Element Models

Time-Domain Element Time-Domain Equation S-Domain Element S-Domain Equation
Resistor (R) 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) Resistor (R) 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑅𝑅 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠)

Inductor (L) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) Impedance 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) − 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(0)

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐿𝐿
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Capacitor (C) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 1
Impedance 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 1 𝑣𝑣(0)
𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝑉(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) ⋅ +
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

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Example 16.1

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Example 16.1

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Example 16.1

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Example 16.1

From LaPlace lookup table:

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Example 16.1

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Practice Problem 16.1

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Practice Problem 16.1

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Practice Problem 16.1

• There is no direct
solution through
the LaPlace lookup
table, so we use
partial fractions.

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Practice Problem 16.1

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Practice Problem 16.1

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Example 16.2

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Example 16.2

• Initial conditions (see slide 10)

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Example 16.2

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Example 16.2

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Practice Problem 16.2

Find 𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 (𝑡𝑡) in the circuit shown in Fig. 16.9. Note that, since the voltage
input is multiplied by 𝑢𝑢(𝑡𝑡), the voltage source is a short for all 𝑡𝑡 < 0 and
𝑖𝑖𝐿𝐿 (0) = 0.
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Practice Problem 16.2

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Practice Problem 16.2

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Practice Problem 16.2

S terms

Constant terms

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Practice Problem 16.2

• Substitute for A and B:

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Example 16.3

In the circuit of Fig. 16.10(a), the switch moves

from position 𝑎𝑎 to position 𝑏𝑏 at 𝑡𝑡 = 0. Find 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡)
for 𝑡𝑡 > 0.

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Example 16.3
1-The initial current through the inductor is given as 𝑖𝑖(0) = 𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 (The current source is in series with the
inductor). For 𝑡𝑡 > 0, the circuit is transformed to the 𝑠𝑠-domain, incorporating the initial condition in
the form of a voltage source as 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿(0) = 𝐿𝐿𝐼𝐼𝑜𝑜 .

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Example 16.3

Same Equation

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Example 16.3

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Practice Problem 16.3

The switch in Fig. 16.11 has been in position 𝑏𝑏 for a long time. It is moved to
position 𝑎𝑎 at 𝑡𝑡 = 0. Determine 𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) for 𝑡𝑡 > 0.
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Practice Problem 16.3

• The switch is in position 𝑏𝑏 for a long time. The initial voltage across capacitor is
𝒗𝒗(𝟎𝟎) = 𝑽𝑽𝒐𝒐 At 𝑡𝑡 = 0, switch is at position 𝑎𝑎.

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Practice Problem 16.3

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Practice Problem 16.3

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Questions

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