Intelligent

Transportation
Systems
Intelligent
Transportation
Systems:

Concepts and Cases

By

Sundaravalli Narayanaswami
Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases

By Sundaravalli Narayanaswami

This book first published 2023

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2023 by Sundaravalli Narayanaswami

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-9124-7

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-9124-0
 ýēɉĭúĭŊİɋÿĭċĭĮć
One who moves, understands the path
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Exhibits .......................................................................................... ix

List of Figures............................................................................................ xi

List of Tables ............................................................................................ xii

Preface ..................................................................................................... xiv

Module 1 Trends, Challenges and Opportunities

1.1 Overview and Challenges ..................................................................... 2

1.2 Purpose of ITS Deployment ............................................................... 16
1.3 Determinants of ITS ........................................................................... 31

Module 2 Anatomy and Framework of Development

2.1 Role of Information and Communication Technology ....................... 44

2.2 Big Data Processing and Storage ........................................................ 51
2.3 ITS: Operational Framework .............................................................. 67
2.4 ITS: Automation and People Framework ........................................... 76
2.5 ITS: Policy Framework ...................................................................... 88
2.6 ITS: Business Framework .................................................................. 92
2.7 ITS: Innovation Framework ............................................................. 104

Module 3 Integrating Requirements Planning, Design

and Development

3.1 Technological Elements of ITS ........................................................ 122

3.2 Building Blocks of ITS ..................................................................... 133
3.3 System Design .................................................................................. 145
3.4 Capacity Planning ............................................................................. 160
3.5 Operations Planning and Control...................................................... 170
3.6 Transit Signal Priority ...................................................................... 185
3.7 ITS Project Management .................................................................. 193
3.8 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations ....................................... 209
3.9 Connected Vehicles .......................................................................... 220
3.10 Operational Safety Applications ..................................................... 259
viii Table of Contents

Module 4 ITS: Business and Policy Perspective

4.1 Strategic Business Planning.............................................................. 270

4.2 Pricing and Revenue Management ................................................... 284
4.3 Sustainability of ITS Operations ...................................................... 293
4.4 Role of State and Regulatory Bodies ................................................ 302
4.5 Public-private Partnerships in ITS .................................................... 309
4.6 System Security and Privacy ............................................................ 319
4.7 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure ........................... 331
4.8 Emerging Trends .............................................................................. 346
 LIST OF EXHIBITS

Exhibit 1.2.1 ITS User Services ............................................................... 26

Exhibit 1.2.2 Dallas Area-Wide ITS Plan Area ........................................ 26
Exhibit 1.2.3 Dallas Area Transportation Problems and User Service
Solutions ............................................................................................. 28
Exhibit 1.3.1 Showing Agency ITS Funding, Budget Trends in the US
by Agency Type, 2010 ........................................................................ 39
Exhibit 1.3.2 Showing Key Transportation Legislation Funding Bills ..... 40
Exhibit 1.3.3 Percentage of Metropolitan Areas in Which Incident,
Travel Time, and Travel Speed Information Were Disseminated
to the US Public in 2007 ..................................................................... 41
Exhibit 2.1.1 Components and Mechanism in Service Innovation ........... 49
Exhibit 2.3.1 The Location of Poznan, Poland ......................................... 72
Exhibit 2.3.2 a Black Box for an Automobile .......................................... 72
Exhibit 2.3.2 b Working of a Black Box .................................................. 73
Exhibit 2.3.3 ITS Poznan Project Implementation ................................... 74
Exhibit 2.3.4 Total Funds Earmarked for Investments in ITS Projects .... 75
Exhibit 2.4.1 Paris Subway Driving Cabin ............................................... 82
Exhibit 2.4.2 Various Grades of Automation ........................................... 83
Exhibit 2.4.3a Map Showing the Cities with Automated Metro Lines,
as of 2013 ............................................................................................ 84
Exhibit 2.4.3 b Graph Showing the Kilometers of Automated Metro
in 2013, by City .................................................................................. 85
Exhibit 2.4.4 The Project Timeline........................................................... 86
Exhibit 2.4.5 Pictures of the New Line 1 Trains ...................................... 87
Exhibit 3.1.1 Arterial Road Selection Criteria ........................................ 130
Exhibit 3.1.2 Non-intrusive and Intrusive Technologies: Data Collection,
Advantages, and Disadvantages........................................................ 131
Exhibit 3.2.1 Project Management Plan Goals ....................................... 142
Exhibit 3.2.2 Capital Cost and Cash Flow Summary ............................. 143
Exhibit 3.2.3 Implementation Schedule of the Congestion Management
Plan Program..................................................................................... 144
Exhibit 3.4.1a Location of Tiger Brennan Drive and the Surrounding
Areas ................................................................................................. 166
Exhibit 3.4.1b A Zoomed-in Image of the Location ............................... 167
Exhibit 3.4.2 Data Analysis .................................................................... 168
x List of Exhibits

Exhibit 3.4.3 Images of Tiger Brennan Road ......................................... 169

Exhibit 3.5.1 Goals Developed for Each Functional Area of ITS .......... 177
Exhibit 3.5.2 Matrix of Strategic Plan Goals and Market Packages ....... 179
Exhibit 3.5.3 Cost Summary for Projects by Fiscal Year ....................... 180
Exhibit 3.5.4 Cost Summary for Projects by Highway District .............. 181
Exhibit 3.5.5 Map Showing the Twelve Kentucky Highway Districts ... 182
Exhibit 3.5.6 ITS Organizational Structure in Kentucky, as of April
2000 .................................................................................................. 183
Exhibit 3.7.1a Five Key Phases in a Project ........................................... 200
Exhibit 3.7.1b Detailed Explanation of the Tasks under Each Phase ..... 201
Exhibit 3.7.2 List of Key Stakeholders along with Their Descriptions .. 202
Exhibit 3.7.3 A Flow Chart Showing the Implementation Strategy ....... 203
Exhibit 3.7.4 A Flow Chart Showing the Components of Mysore ITS .. 204
Exhibit 3.7.5a Images Showing KSRTC Online Portal in Two Languages,
i.e., English and Kannada ................................................................. 205
Exhibit 3.7.5b Images Showing Various Technologies and Initiatives
Used in the Mysore ITS .................................................................... 206
Exhibit 3.7.6 The Cycle Showing the Entire Mysore ITS ...................... 207
Exhibit 3.7.7 Highlights of Mysore ITS ................................................. 208
Exhibit 3.8.1 Freight Transportation Information................................... 219
Exhibit 3.9.1 CV Pilot Deployment in Downtown Tampa ..................... 240
Exhibit 3.9.2 Accident on Corridor I-80 Wyoming Corridor ................. 242
Exhibit 3.9.3 Wyoming I-80 Corridor CV Map ..................................... 244
Exhibit 3.9.4 Wyoming 511 App Interface............................................. 246
Exhibit 3.9.5 RTIS: Signages and Boards .............................................. 249
Exhibit 3.9.6 RTIS: Probe Vehicle Data ................................................ 250
Exhibit 3.10.1 Different Categories of Responses for Security Violation
on Transportation Systems ................................................................ 265
Exhibit 4.1.1 Spokane Valley, Washington ............................................ 276
Exhibit 4.1.2 Goals and Objectives ........................................................ 277
Exhibit 4.1.3 Detailed Assessment of Needs .......................................... 278
Exhibit 4.1.4 Recommended ITS System Components .......................... 279
Exhibit 4.1.5 Detailed Cost Estimates for the Identified Projects........... 281
Exhibit 4.1.6 The City’s Physical Architecture Subsystems, and Related
Equipment Packages ......................................................................... 282
Exhibit 4.4.1 Government’s Long-term Goal and Contribution of ITS.... 307
Exhibit 4.4.2 Role of New Zealand Transport Agency in ITS
Development ..................................................................................... 308
Exhibit 4.5.1 BRTS Network in Ahmedabad ......................................... 316
Exhibit 4.5.2 PPP Responsibility Matrix ................................................ 317
Exhibit 4.5.3 Budget Details: Ahmedabad BRTS .................................. 318
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.2.1 Big Data, IoT and Cloud Computing ................................... 52

Figure 2.2.2 ITS Traffic Flow Model ....................................................... 55
Figure 2.2.3 Big Data Architecture for ITS .............................................. 60
Figure 2.2.4 Hadoop and Spark Ecosystem .............................................. 62
Figure 2.2.5 Framework of Apache Spark Using Hadoop Database ........ 63
Figure 2.6.1 Value Proposition for ITS .................................................... 96
Figure 3.3.1 Relationships between Framework, Regional Architecture,
ITS Standards, Projects ..................................................................... 146
Figure 3.3.2 Process of Creating ITS Architecture ................................. 147
Figure 3.3.3 Architecture Overview ....................................................... 151
Figure 3.3.4 Illustration: ITS Architecture Relationship ........................ 153
Figure 3.3.5 Systems Engineering Vee Diagram for ITS Projects ......... 155
Figure 3.3.6 Customized Service Package for New York City RTPIS
Program............................................................................................. 158
Figure 3.9.1 Concept of Connected Vehicles ......................................... 221
Figure 3.9.2 Illustration of V2X ............................................................. 226
Figure 3.9.3 Illustration of a CV-technology-equipped Vehicle ............ 228
Figure 3.9.4 Location of Three Pilot Test Sites across the United
States ................................................................................................. 231
Figure 3.9.5 Timeline and Phases of Project Development .................... 232
Figure 3.9.6 NYCDOT Deployment ...................................................... 234
Figure 4.2 1 A Singapore ERP Gantry ................................................... 289
Figure 4.2.2 On-Board Unit (OBU) Fixed inside a Car .......................... 289
Figure 4.7.1 EV Sales Penetration Trend (2020-2030)........................... 336
Figure 4.7.2 The EV Value Chain and Ecosystem in India .................... 341
Figure 4.8.1 A MaaS Schematic ............................................................. 350
Figure 4.8.2 MaaS Topologies: With and Without Bundling ................. 352
Figure 4.8.3 Sydney Trail Timeline ........................................................ 362
Figure 4.8.4 Plans Provided by CRC Consortium .................................. 363
Figure 4.8.5 Interaction of Key Players within MaaS Ecosystem .......... 366
Figure 4.8.6 MaaS Governance Models ................................................. 368
Figure 4.8.7 MaaS Regulation Framework: A Schematic ...................... 374
Figure 4.8.8 Key Contribution at Each Level of MaaS .......................... 376
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1.1 Countries and ITS Implementation .......................................... 3

Table 1.1.2 Inherent Challenges Present in the Indian Transportation
System................................................................................................. 12
Table 1.1.3 Reasons for the Inapplicability of Various ITS Techniques
in the Indian Context........................................................................... 12
Table 1.2.1 Key Requirements of a Sustainable Transport System .......... 18
Table 2.2.1 Big Data Source and ITS Characteristics .............................. 57
Table 2.2.2 Big Data Approaches and ITS Applications .......................... 58
Table 2.2.3 Comparison of Hadoop and Spark Features .......................... 64
Table 2.6.1 Projects and Funding Sources................................................ 94
Table 2.6.2 Benefits of Traveler Information ........................................... 99
Table 2.6.3 Benefits of Traffic Control and Management ...................... 100
Table 2.6.4 Benefits of Public Traffic Management............................... 101
Table 2.6.5 Benefits of Enforcement ...................................................... 102
Table 3.2.1 Goals and Objectives of the Proposed Congestion
Management Plan ............................................................................. 136
Table 3.5.1 Approved Market Packages ................................................. 173
Table 3.5.2 List of Projects Recommended for Implementation
in Kentucky ....................................................................................... 174
Table 3.9.1 SAE Levels and Connected Vehicles .................................. 222
Table 3.9.2 Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS)
and Automated Driving Functions .................................................... 224
Table 3.9.3 Applications Deployed on the NYC Vehicles ..................... 235
Table 3.9.4 Applications Deployed on the Tampa, FL, Vehicles ........... 238
Table 3.9.5 Applications Deployed on the Wyoming Vehicles .............. 245
Table 3.9.6 Details of a Few ITS Projects under C-ITS Initiative Post
2015 in Europe .................................................................................. 253
Table 4.2.1 Different Road Pricing Types .............................................. 286
Table 4.2.2 Fee Collection Methods ....................................................... 287
Table 4.6.1 ITS Security and Privacy Issues .......................................... 320
Table 4.6.2 Security Attacks, Classification, Countermeasures,
and Advantages ................................................................................. 327
Table 4.7.1 List of Cities in the EVI Global EV Pilot City Program...... 332
Table 4.7.2 FAME II Incentives—Investment Rollout Plan
(FY20 to FY22) ................................................................................ 335
 Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases xiii

Table 4.7.3 Status of E-Vehicles’ Adoption in the Indian States ........... 337
Table 4.7.4 Challenges in E-Vehicles’ Adoption in India ...................... 342
Table 4.7.5 Smart Charging Systems ..................................................... 344
Table 4.8.1 Information and Service Availability in the MaaS
Platform ............................................................................................ 354
Table 4.8.2 Routing Data by Transport Services Integrated in a MaaS
Platform ............................................................................................ 355
Table 4.8.3 Booking Processes and Data in the MaaS Platform............. 355
Table 4.8.4 Worldwide MaaS Service Providers .................................... 357
Table 4.8.5 Whim Subscription Packages .............................................. 359
 PREFACE

Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) are sometimes referred to as smart

transportation. In recent times, this is one of the most intriguing topics, and
is equally discussed by academics, practitioners, and policy makers.
Academia finds it interesting because the field is emerging and there is good
scope for advanced technology and research. Practitioners find it interesting
because there is a strong belief that the field has enough potential to enhance
productivity and, thereby, improve profitability. Policy makers find it
interesting because most ITS are based on emerging technologies and
innovative models that can help achieve national goals and priorities, if well
utilized.

However, it is worthwhile to realize that there is a huge gap between the

technology-driven research, practice, and policy facets of ITS. Most of the
available texts and literature on ITS focus on these facets in silos, neglecting
the interdependencies of each other; understandably so, as each of these
facets is held by stakeholders that may not have a comprehensive
perspective and purview of ITS. An academic, or a research, organization
works only on the prospects of advanced technologies, with little consideration
of implementation challenges and policy directives. A corporation, or a
practitioner, focuses more on productivity and commercial gains for the
organization rather than the wholesome goals that the state may aim for.
Governments, as stakeholders, are concerned about framing policies that
address equity, sustainability, and national development; their reliance on
the research and corporate world is high and, in turn, the policies framed by
the governments impact what research and practice can deliver and
contribute to the state goals.

Through various chapters in this text, it is argued that ITS are demonstrations
of Industry 4.0 standards in the transportation service sector. Management
philosophers have popularly termed the industrial revolution as four phases
of milestone development and growth. The current stage is Industry 4.0,
where systems productivity is enhanced through information and
communications technology (ICT) and the internet of things (IoT). In that
context, there are discussions on scope and possibilities through advanced
technologies in the transportation sector.
 Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases xv

ICT enables communication between three entities—vehicle, infrastructure,

and systems—in any transportation domain. It helps in informed decision
making for all the stakeholders. The socioeconomic development of a
country is directly dependent on the transportation system. Typically, most
discussions on ITS provide a systemic perspective that covers the following:

1. Advanced Traffic Management Systems (ATMS)

2. Advanced Traveler Information Systems (ATIS)
3. Advanced Vehicle Control Systems (AVCS)
4. Commercial Vehicle Operations (CVO)
5. Advanced Public Transportation Systems (APTS)
6. Advanced Rural Transportation Systems (ARTS)

This book focuses on the synergies of all three facets of ITS, based on the
managerial and business perspectives of ITS. The coverage is comprehensive
and relevant to all types of stakeholders of ITS.

1. Financial viability of the project

2. Social aspect of the project (technically safe and secure systems)
3. Policy making aspects

The essence of the text deals with the application of technology in a local
context. The focus will be on the feasibility of these technologies in different
cities. For instance, a particular technology can be applicable in Mumbai
but not in Patna.

Challenges of ITS
ITS require people who are highly skilled in areas such as finance,
engineering, securities, data science, etc. How people engage together
makes it interesting. Another aspect to ponder is the need for a particular
technology. Do we really need to have intelligent systems? Resoundingly,
yes. Intelligent systems are safer and have fewer emissions. They also help
in reducing congestion in the system.

One of the main areas of study will be that of congestion; in this textbook,
congestion is analyzed from a supply–demand perspective. Why are cities
congested? Demands for better mobility choice have consistently increased
around the globe but resources have not kept up the pace with the growing
demand. Reasons vary from poor urban planning, poor infrastructure, and
lack of pace in developing infrastructure to meet the current and future
xvi Preface

demands. The bottom line is that the civil infrastructure is unable to meet
and keep up with the pace in which mobility demands increase.

What can the government do to reduce congestion? By and large, the onus
of providing good mobility solutions lies with the state authorities. Despite
the governance and administrative constructs in different nations,
challenges on the ground are real and large; however, urban congestion and
reasonable mobility service in sparsely populated regions are common
across the globe. Approaches to tackle the situation might be different and
should be relevant to the context. A long term and sustainable solution lies
with better urban planning designs, such as a hyper-local model. Not every
city has been able to develop such urban designs, as city growth in many
developed cities is organic and driven by various forces. Shared mobility
systems, inducing behavior changes, and e-commerce are driving the urban
mobility systems in completely different trajectories. State-level policies
attempt to regulate such developments and enforce laws that help enhance
trust and security in systems. State-level decisions happen at multiple levels:
policy, strategic, tactical, operational, and real-time.

What kind of considerations go into decision making? The cost of

congestion, time taken to build infrastructure, cost of building infrastructure,
streamlined integration of existing infrastructure with newer developments
(Greenfield Project vs Brownfield Project), safety and security of assets,
and people are primary considerations in state decisions. There are other
objectives, too, such as growth and planning of industries, and socioeconomic
needs, that contribute to ITS development. Most decisions involve a long-
term vision and national priorities dictated by governance structures. ITS
are considered to address and resolve issues that arise in real time in a
dynamic environment, which is very distinct from civil infrastructure-based
transportation systems. Hence, ITS begin where civil infrastructure fails.

ITS: The Elephant in the Room

While transportation-related challenges are prevalent across the globe,
solutions are poorly planned and implemented—the elephant is in the room.
However, since ITS are multidisciplinary, the scope and possibilities of
what ITS can offer to alleviate transportation challenges are understood
independently rather than holistically. This is metaphorically paralleled
with blind men trying to identify an elephant by touching and feeling the
animal. Professionals, based on their own expertise, perceive and classify
ITS under their own domains: i) civil engineers understand ITS as
construction, ii) computer science graduates ascertain ITS as a software-
 Intelligent Transportation Systems: Concepts and Cases xvii

based solution for transportation, iii) transportation engineers consider ITS

as a vehicular technology, iv) legal professionals see ITS as a matter of the
law, v) HR and OB professionals perceive ITS from a people–behavior
perspective, vi) business management professionals look at the finance and
management aspects of ITS, vii) operations research professionals handle
ITS as model development, and viii) policy planners treat ITS as state
intervention for transportation. None of these is complete and comprehensive,
but only a partial and narrow view of the larger problem. This is one of the
fundamental aspects of ITS. To develop meaningful solutions for real-world
problems, it is necessary for decisionmakers from various backgrounds to
work together to develop solutions that are contextually relevant and
adoptable in a local ecosystem.

Are developed nations better off? Unfortunately, no. In fact, developed

countries are less enterprising in experimenting with novel solutions for
various reasons. Risk-awareness and stake of safety and security are more
significant in developed countries. Hence, developing countries are usually
the proponents of innovative solutions. The usability of a novel system
cannot be evaluated unless it is deployed in a real-life setting. Developing
countries are more amenable to experimentation and trials. Therefore, no
country leads or lags in terms of real ITS that totally resolve all their local
problems.

This textbook, Intelligent Transport Systems: Concepts and Cases, is

organized into four modules; multiple chapters are included in each module,
with each chapter focused on a specific theme with illustrated cases from
across the globe. The first module is on ITS trends, challenges, and
opportunities; an overview of ITS is presented, followed by the challenges
in ITS development, the purpose of ITS deployment, and a final chapter on
determinants of ITS. The second module covers the anatomy and
framework of ITS development; the role of ICT, big data processing,
storage, and analytics are discussed in this module. A framework for ITS
development—comprising operations, technology, policy, business, and
innovation—is also presented. Each topic is substantiated with brief real-
life illustrations. The third module is on integrating requirements—
planning, design, and development; here, most of the operational
challenges, and scope for addressing these challenges using innovative
technologies and models, are covered. The chapters in this module are ITS
technology elements, building blocks, system design, capacity planning,
operations planning, maintenance and control, signaling and priority,
project management, fleet and commercial vehicle operations, safety, and
security. The last module presents the business and policy perspectives of
xviii Preface

ITS: strategic business planning, pricing and revenue management,

sustainability of ITS operations, role of state and regulatory bodies, PPPs in
ITS development, e-vehicles and their impacts, and emerging trends.

This book is an outcome of my personal academic experience in understanding

and teaching the topic to various cohorts of students. I have known and
learnt a lot from my audience; much more than what I, personally, was able
to teach my students. Several academic projects done by my students, over
the years, have enriched my knowledge with newer aspects. Priyanshu Raj,
Lavanya Chintagunta, Harsh Gupta, and Arpit Kanv supported me with
background research. Harshad Parmar, IIM Ahmedabad handles all my
administrative tasks and I count on his support, as ever. Meenakshi read the
first draft and helped me with the first round of proof reading and several
suggestions to improve the language flow. Ms Lorna Pierce did the
cumbersome task of a final professional editing and proofreading the full
text; my gratitude to both of them. Adam Rummens was an excellent
support from the publishing team, and it was a pleasure to interact with him.
The Research and Publications division of my employer, the Indian Institute
of Management Ahmedabad, provided some funding support for this work.
I am immensely thankful to all.

I owe a lot to my family, my parents, two most beautiful daughters, husband,

and my brother who have stood by me through thick and thin. They are very
precious to me, and I am extremely grateful to have them in my life. My
students are the constant source of my energy in my professional space. I
am also thankful to them.
 MODULE 1

TRENDS, CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

 CHAPTER 1.1

ITS: AN OVERVIEW AND CHALLENGES

Introduction
Efficiency and safety of transport systems in developed economies have
long leveraged the potential of information and communication technology
(ICT). Developing economies often lack a good quality transport
infrastructure that can i) support the deployment of intelligent transportation
systems (ITS), and ii) harness the full potential of advancements of ICT
applications. Fast-paced deployment of ITS in developing countries is
largely influenced by the socioeconomic and environmental safety
requirements. Developed nations, like the United States, Japan, and regions
like Europe, had created a well-established network of transport
infrastructure by the 1990s and are, since, implementing ITS to further
improve the network’s efficiency and safety. Today, such countries have
reached the real-world trial and implementation of advanced ITS
applications. Interestingly, traffic congestion continues to plague these
countries, mainly due to ever-growing mobility demands and the inability
of the civil traffic infrastructure to cater to the increasing demands; despite
the availability of technologically advanced transport systems solutions,
rigid government policies and norms reduce the implementation pace.
Developing countries stand at an advantage of procuring advanced traffic
and ITS technologies from them, in addition to gaining a better clarity of
the pros and cons of such advanced technologies. However, the fundamental
challenge is to create design transformations of the systems to suit the
contextual relevance and functional requirements that are locally unique.
There are fundamental geographical, technological, practical, and cultural
factors that make the exact replication of western ITS standards and system
architectural practice difficult for developing nations, including India and
China.

For instance,
 Overview and Challenges 3

භ uncoordinated spatial and infrastructural development

භ diversity in the types of vehicles and range of vehicular velocities
(pedestrian, bicycle, LMVs, HMVs, animal carts, etc.)
භ lack of lane discipline, mostly due to contrast in cultural practices
භ high population density
භ insufficient legislations, weak enforcement of rules and regulations

Table 1.1.1 represents an overview of a study that presents the number of

countries that are grouped region-wise and the percentage implementation
of ITS applications in those countries, based on the International Monetary
Fund report of 2018.

Developing countries Number of Percentage of ITS

(regional groups) countries applications
Middle East (including
15 35 %
Egypt)
Emerging and developing
19 27 %
Asia
Developing countries in
10 19 %
Europe
Latin America 17 12 %
North Africa (excluding
6 8%
Egypt)
Sub-Saharan Africa 48 7.5 %

Table 1.1.1: Countries and ITS Implementation

Source: El Mokaddem, Jawab and Saad (2019)

Types of Challenges
ITS implementation in developing nations is very complex. Some
challenges are consistent while others are unique to a country or region. The
characteristics and prospects of ITS services and applications are distinct
from those of conventional transport applications. These challenges are
often based on the prerequisites for the deployment of the subsystem. Some
challenges are technical in nature, due to the inherent characteristics of the
ITS subsystem; some are contextual to a region and others may be
application specific. For instance, whole ITS systems usually have high
budget requirements while certain subsystems, like automatic vehicle
identification (AVI) and automatic vehicle location (AVL), are not only
capital intensive but also require public endorsement. Furthermore, it is also
4 Chapter 1.1

essential that each subsystem complements the other. A good example

would be the use of CCTV. Despite the lack of legal regulations and
discipline, CCTV-based video capturing can be deployed for data collection
for motorized traffic on a road. In developing countries, there is a lot of
unorganized traffic penetration, which is cumbersome to track and regulate.
In other words, ITS development challenges are technical, managerial,
financial, legal, social, and political; this makes ITS studies engaging and
meaningful for researchers and practitioners to use to develop pragmatic
systems and solutions. Technical barriers can be classified as inadequate
knowledge about i) artificial intelligence (AI) operations, ii) capabilities of
big data storage, analysis, and techniques, and iii) the absence of standards
and protocols that support interoperability to complement effective and
streamlined transport network operations. Non-technical barriers relate to
the sociopolitical and legal aspects, such as poor enforcement of rules and
regulations, and weak governance mechanisms.

The overall challenges of ITS in developing nations can be broadly

classified into the following categories:

1. Lack of Legal Structures, Regulatory, and Governance Mechanisms

One of the most fundamental requirements and characteristics of ITS is data

collection, access, and analysis. Additionally, data collection and processing
are required to be real-time and secure for all stakeholders. It is imperative
to establish data regulation policy and governance structures that ensure
transparency in user data collection and sharing. Most developing countries
lack a regional-level framework, such as the General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union, or a state-level framework, like
the City of Los Angeles Department of Transportation’s (LADOT’s)
Mobility Data Specification (MDS), to create a favorable environment for
ITS deployment.

2. Lack of Institutional Will

Public transport authorities play a crucial role in the deployment and

maintenance of ITS. There is a need to create a synergy between the public
and private sectors, which, in turn, requires the restructuring of the
institutional framework and ensures the overall capacity building for the
operation and management of ITS. Setting up of a unified transport
authority at a state level and developing a national ITS data repository can
help mitigate implementation delays and eliminate the multiplicity of
decision-making agencies at various levels.
 Overview and Challenges 5

3. Inadequate Infrastructure and High Implementation Cost

ITS are considered technology-driven systems that can enhance transport

network efficiency through informed decision making by various
stakeholders for the optimal utilization of the existing infrastructure.
Developing nations have a weakly coordinated spatial and infrastructural
development, resulting in poor traffic services. Apart from transport
network infrastructure, ICT infrastructure, like data storage units, enhanced
wireless networks, etc., should also be well established to ensure efficient
operations. Huge funds might be required to design, develop, deploy, and
operate ITS.

4. ITS Technology Readiness and Maturity

It is very crucial to understand that regional context impacts the

specifications of the deployed ITS. Any outsourced technology/component
needs to be calibrated and customized to match the local setting.
Homogeneity of the deployed components is also essential to avoid issues
related to system nonconformity and interoperability with the existing
systems. As ITS include multiple stakeholders and technologies from
various sectors, like the automobile industry, transport agency, equipment
manufacturers, etc., the interpretation of ITS differs for each stakeholder;
interfacing among the many ITS subsystems can be a huge challenge.

5. User Behavior and Transport Professionals’ Awareness

User acceptance plays a crucial role to ensure proper trust and collaboration.
It is essential to ensure knowledge sharing, with respect to new ITS
technologies and initiatives, among different stakeholders. Most of the
drivers in the public transport sector or logistics sector are not matured;
there is a huge gap in education, training, and skill development for
operating ITS equipment onboard and on transport practices. It is also
essential for transport sector professionals to remain aware of regional
characteristics—like the challenges faced due to the presence of informal
transportation—before implementing best practices from other countries.

Indian Context and the Current State of ITS in India

The growth rate is one of the highest in the world, when compared to other
cities in the developing world. The high rate of urbanization results in high
daily demands for citizen mobility for their occupational requirements,
which results in a high number of private vehicles in urban areas throughout
6 Chapter 1.1

the country, owing to a subpar public transport system. With the increase in
per capita GDP, there has been a significant rise in the income levels of
people, which results in high vehicular traffic and demand for better
transport infrastructure. Apart from all these, the high amount of rural to
urban migration also plays a prominent role in vehicular demand increase
and, thus, the transportation infrastructure. Indian urban areas are not
equipped enough to sustain the escalating number of vehicles and, as a
result, many cities face heavy traffic congestion. This has become a
universal problem that needs to be addressed by policy makers and urban
authorities.

As per the Government of India data, the transportation sector is a major

contributor to the GDP. Currently, its share is around 6.7 %, which is
expected to reach around 12 % in 2026 (Rawal 2015). It would be one of
the biggest employment-providing sectors. As per the World Bank data,
currently, around 32 % of the population resides in urban areas, which is
expected to grow to 40 % by 2030. There will also be a contribution of
around 75 % of the GDP by the urban population. Over the past few
decades, India has experienced an enormous growth in vehicular traffic, as
the number of registered vehicles has surged from 0.3 million, in 1951, to
142 million, in 2011, with a CAGR of 9.9 %, between 2001 and 2011
(Rawal 2015). Monetary damages suffered due to congestion and poor roads
are as high as $6 billion a year in India (World Bank).

The main reason behind traffic congestion in India is the fact that road
capacity and other transport infrastructure have not kept pace with
increasing demands and vehicular traffic. Traffic-related challenges in a
developing country, such as India, are mainly due to i) failure of civil
infrastructure development, proportionate with growing demands, and ii)
lack of regulation.

Successful application of ITS can help achieve an efficient, effective,

satisfactory, and sustainable multi-modal transport system that will
integrate vehicles and management systems through well-established
technologies. The purpose behind the deployment of ITS projects in India
is to i) provide multiple choices for mobility, and ii) analyze and integrate
new emerging technologies to achieve sustainable, reliable, affordable, and
efficient transportation that provides public safety and conserves time and
energy.

The Indian government has invested about €1.6 million (§ $1.6 million) to
implement ITS, which resulted in improved traffic regulations, a reduction
 Overview and Challenges 7

of road accidents and congestion by 52 %, and an increase in new road

infrastructure, by 26 %, and road upgrades, by 17 %. (Sengupta 2014). At
present, there are no fully developed ITS applications with traffic
management centers in India. However, a few small-scale ITS applications
have been implemented in India in some metropolitan cities like Bengaluru,
Pune, New Delhi, and Chennai. Most of these projects are pilot projects,
curated for future large-scale implementation of ITS projects. These are
stand-alone projects, which focus on limited functions of ITS, like traffic
signal management, public transportation management, organized parking
management, and highway toll collection. The ITS program in India mainly
focuses on stand-alone deployments of area-wide signal control, advanced
public transportation, parking information, etc.

Some of the existing applications of ITS are given below:

1. Advanced Traffic Management System (ATMS)

The first trial of an ATMS in India was introduced in the city of Chennai,
Tamil Nadu, in 2009; this involved a trial run of the fully automated traffic
regulatory management system (TRMS), involving the usage of
surveillance cameras. Automatic number plate reader (ANPR) cameras
were installed, while pan tilt zoom (PTZ) cameras were deployed in ten out
of twelve busy junctions identified. Traffic police also planned to install
forty CCTV cameras at various junctions.

2. Advanced Public Transportation System (APTS)

One application implemented in the APTS areas is the GPS vehicle tracking
system in public transport buses (Bengaluru, Chennai, and Indore) to
monitor vehicle routing and frequency so that passengers’ waiting time for
buses is reduced and there is less uncertainty and frustration. Display boards
with high quality LEDs in wide-view angle are provided at bus stops so that
passengers can read the information easily. It displays the number and
destination of the approaching bus, expected time of arrival, and messages
of public interest.

3. Automated Traffic Control (ATC)

ATC has been set up in many cities in India, including Delhi, Pune,
Mumbai, and Chennai. The ATC project of Mumbai focused on
synchronizing major junctions with financial aid from the World Bank.
Similarly, the Chennai traffic police set up the city’s first ATC system at
twenty-six major traffic signals around the new secretariat complex. The
8 Chapter 1.1

system monitors and regulates traffic without any manual intervention and
helps police regulate VIP routes.

4. Automatic Traffic Information Service (ATIS)

The main objective of implementing ATIS is to inform road users of latest

traffic updates and better management of traffic through SMS, the internet,
and radio. A few cities, like Bengaluru (through the internet and SMS),
Hyderabad (through the internet and SMS), Chennai (through FM radios)
and Delhi (through the traffic people), have initiated technology-enabled
traffic information systems.

5. Bus Rapid Transport System (BRTS)

In India, the cities that have been selected for implementing BRTS include
Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Rajkot, Pune, Jaipur, Indore, Vijayawada, and
Vishakhapatnam. Pune was the first to experiment with a BRTS but the
Ahmedabad BRTS is the earliest and most successful rapid transport system
in terms of public adoption. In 2009, the Ahmedabad BRTS became India’s
first fully featured BRT service with median stations, central control, level
boarding, signal priority, vehicle tracking, and automatic fare collection.

6. Electronic Toll Collection (ETC)

The ETC is designed to detect if a vehicle is registered in a toll payment

program. It alerts enforcers to toll payment violations and debits the exact
fee from the user account. The technologies used in ETC are automatic
vehicle identification (AVI), automatic vehicle classification (AVC), video
enforcement system (VES), and vehicle positioning system (VPS). ETC
systems are deployed in the cities of Kharagpur (NH 6 Toll Road),
Ahmedabad-Mumbai Highway (RFID-based), Chandigarh (pilot project on
Chandigarh), Parwanoo (NH 5), Delhi (Delhi–Gurgaon Expressway), and
Chennai (IT Corridor).

7. Advanced Parking Management System (APMS)

The first parking management system was set up by the New Delhi
Municipal Council (NDMC) at Palika Parking, in Connaught Place, having
a capacity of 1,050 cars and 500 two wheelers, with electronic parking
guidance and VMS smart card. This system permits vehicle users to be
guided by a wide range of sensors, lights, signboards, and directional
displays to the closest vacant space existing in the parking lot and to identify
 Overview and Challenges 9

the vehicle’s location at the time of exit. Also, automated multi-level

parking in Sarojini Nagar Market was established.

8. B-TRAC Bengaluru

B-TRAC refers to the Bangalore Traffic Improvement Project, 2010. The

five-year project began in 2010. The project was initiated by Bengaluru
traffic police in the central area of Bengaluru city. The objective was to
reduce traffic congestion by 30 %, reduce accidents by 30 %, achieve a
significant reduction in pollution, achieve substantial compliance with
traffic laws, and to set up an effective trauma care system.

The development and deployment of ITS is a strenuous task in all parts of

the world. On the technology side, they have accurate and comprehensive
real-time traffic data as their input. Various traffic detectors are commonly
used all over the world, including sensors based on radar, magnetic,
infrared, inductive, laser and video, AVI, VPS, and AVL. Even though these
are proven and are widely accepted data collection technologies for traffic
conditions, it is possible that they might not work for Indian traffic
conditions due to various reasons such as inconsistency of vehicle types and
the absence of lane discipline. It should be noted that for any data collection
technique to be adopted in India, it must consider the heterogeneity of the
users, the large number of pedestrians, the absence of lane-based traffic, and
the synchronicity of Indian roads, which consists of two-, three-, four-, and
multiple-wheel vehicles. Sometimes, even stray animals on the streets are
to be considered.

Issues and Challenges in ITS Development in India

The rapid growth of the Indian economy has resulted in an enormous
increase in the use of personal vehicles. In 2007–08, alone, 9.6 million
motorized vehicles were sold in India and, during the same period, the
cumulative growth of the passenger vehicles segment in India was 12.7 %
(Venajakshi, Ramadurai and Anand 2010). A World Bank study states that
almost 600 million people will inhabit Indian cities, while only about twenty
cities, with an overall population of about half a million, are expected to
have an organized public transport system. It is expected that India will
surpass China as the fastest growing car market within the next few years.
The economy-induced automobile growth is coupled with extensive rural-
to-urban migration, making the situation more critical and leading to a
greater demand for transport infrastructure. In 2001, India had thirty-five
cities with a population of more than one million, which has been increasing
10 Chapter 1.1

continuously, indicating a need for urgent attention towards the

improvement and management of the transportation system through the
application of ITS in Indian cities. Several small-scale ITS projects have
already been introduced in various cities in India and a few are underway,
but most of these are single-city pilot projects focused on isolated
deployments. To date, there is no fully developed comprehensive ITS
application in India. It shows that much more needs to be done towards the
adoption and implementation of ITS projects in India. As per the study
conducted by the World Bank, the deployment of ITS in the developing
world (including India) faces some significant complications that must be
addressed if ITS are to be widely applied. However, the lack of adequate
research as well as concern for cost effectiveness are still global challenges
(Krishnan, Winnie and Diehl 2015). The following are the core reasons
behind the lack of ITS development in India:

1. Interoperability: In multi-agency projects, the various client agencies

may not have any mandate to share data, and, even if exchanged, it may
not conform to standardized formats.
2. Data analysis: Even when data systems are integrated and standardized,
the capacity of agencies in developing countries, like India, is often
challenged by the task of analyzing raw data, which yields useful results.
3. Documenting effectiveness: The relationship between ICT and transport
benefits has not received enough systematic research.

Some of the main issues facing the deployment of ITS in developing

countries, like India, are an underdeveloped road network, explosive
urbanization and growth, lack of resources for maintenance and operation,
severe budget restrictions, less demand for automation, lack of interest
among government decision makers, and lack of users’ awareness; a list is
presented in table 1.1.2. There are some inherent challenges and threats
present in the Indian transportation system that need to be addressed before
making any further way for implementing ITS in urban areas (Grant
Thornton 2016).
 Overview and Challenges 11

Inadequate and
Transport emissions Inadequately
inefficient public
and air implemented
transport
quality ITS
infrastructure
Inadequate and Emission of greenhouse Inadequate setups for
insufficient publicgases. electronic toll
transport. India is still following collection and traffic
Traffic and road BS IV as opposed to monitoring.
congestion. EURO 6, implemented Very few ITS and
in European countries, multi-level parking
which is equivalent to systems.
BS VI.
Table 1.1.2: Inherent Challenges Present in the Indian Transportation
System
Source: Authors’ compilation

ITS have a very wide range of applications but in the Indian context the
challenges of traffic sensing applications emerge as the priority. The ITS
technique of traffic sensing can be broadly classified into two categories:

1. Fixed sensor-based techniques

This technique uses various sensors that are mounted on the roadside
infrastructure. These sensors are often referred to as roadside units (RSUs).
The two main techniques under this are:

Dual-loop detector-based congestion detection

In this method, a pair of inductive loop detectors are used, which re-identify
the vehicles based on their length. It measures the time taken by the
reidentified vehicle to travel between two detectors, which, in turn, gives an
estimate of the congestion present on the road section. This technique
requires a large number of detectors to be installed along the road, resulting
in extensive capital investment. Furthermore, the algorithm of these systems
is often developed with the assumption that consecutive vehicles maintain
a lane-based approach for a long distance, which becomes an unrealistic
assumption in the Indian context, where over taking and random halting of
public vehicles is a common scenario.

Image sensor-based congestion detection

This method uses image-processing techniques, based on the feeds from

CCTV deployed, to measure the amount of congestion. The level of
12 Chapter 1.1

congestion is identified by the time duration taken for an image to change.

With constant advancement in technologies, various deep learning
algorithms are being implemented in this method to improve its
effectiveness. Yet, there are challenges in terms of placement and
distribution of cameras to capture the disorderly traffic on the Indian roads.

2. Probe vehicle-based techniques

Probe vehicles refers to vehicles that are installed with various sensors, like
GPS, accelerometer, gyroscope, etc., to measure traffic conditions, road
situations, etc. It usually employs two methods: a predictive approach and
a localization approach.
Low
Lane Freeway variation
Installation
Techniques system traffic in vehicle
cost
assumption assumption speed
assumption
Dual-loop
detector-based
High Yes No No
congestion
detection
Image sensor-
based congestion High Yes No No
detection
Travel time
prediction for Low No Yes Yes
freeways
Cellphone-based
travel time Low Yes Partial Yes
prediction
Kalman filtering
technique (KFT)-
Low Yes No Yes
based bus arrival
time prediction

Table 1.1.3: Reasons for the Inapplicability of Various ITS Techniques in

the Indian Context
Source: Sen et al. (2009)

Table 1.1.3 is a tabulation for the reasons for the inapplicability of various
ITS techniques in the Indian context. The traffic condition in India is highly
uncertain, chaotic, and faces heavy congestion. The deployment of
conventional ITS techniques, prevalent in developed nations, requires
 Overview and Challenges 13

assumptions, such as uniform speed of vehicular traffic, presence of

freeways, and lane-based vehicle movement, which do not hold true in
Indian scenarios. Moreover, the fixed sensor technique requires huge
investment in terms of installation and maintenance, due to which it cannot
be deployed. Therefore, some of these techniques need to be modified and
curated to match the characteristics of Indian roads.

Historical trends of ITS in India show that the country is capable and has a
high potential for the ITS market. Most of the ITS technologies in developed
nations are successfully adopted, implemented, and functional; however,
implementing these ultra-modern technologies in India is quite challenging.
Some of the challenges are listed below:

1. Indian traffic conditions, such as heterogeneity in vehicle types and

lack of lane discipline, are major obstacles in implementing any data
collection technology for traffic conditions.
2. No single organization is in charge of transport infrastructure in
urban or rural areas, because of this, there is an overlapping of
responsibilities and an absence of coordination between the
horizontal and vertical levels of authorities, or organizations, in
transportation services management. This is one of the major reasons
for the failure of transportation projects.
3. Vehicle ownership is still low, compared to other countries, even
though it has been growing exponentially over the past few decades.
The number of vehicles present on the streets of India is expected to
outnumber those in China in a couple of years.
4. Public transit is completely lacking or overloaded in most of the
cities; at the same time, new public transit projects are in progress in
major cities, with weakly prepared designs, as per users’ needs and
requirements.
5. There are no standards adopted for ITS in the Indian context; there
is no single governmental organization that oversees ITS standards
development.
6. There are a huge number of mobile phone users in India. More than
one billion people use mobile phones, but the number of smartphone
users and people with internet connectivity is too low.
7. There is a lack of well-defined policies, guidelines, and regulations
on ITS, and procedural compliance on ground-level implementation
of ITS projects is poor, at times.
8. Development of a nation-wide ITS data archive is, yet, incomplete.
9. ITS development in India is less likely to be successful than in other
countries because of geographical, cultural, and practical differences,
14 Chapter 1.1

and the user characteristics and existing infrastructure make it

infeasible to directly adopt ITS models of other countries.
10. The high cost of ITS safety systems is a major barrier for
implementing them on a wide scale. However, there is an inherent
resistance among a large section of the urban population for paying
additional charges.

Apart from these challenges in developing ITS in India, there are a few
limitations for implementing ITS in the Indian scenario, like availability of
inadequate real-time data, lack of dynamic traffic prediction models,
improvised information strategies, ineffective utilization of network
capacity, disjointed implementation, and lack of empathy for user needs and
requirements.

In the last few decades, efforts have been made for the engagement of ITS
in various cities of India, as discussed earlier. The current scenario of ITS
in India indicates that there is a need for a systematic approach to developing
better quality ITS. The benefits of ITS can only be realized if the projects
are fully developed and functional at a city- or network-level, and
implemented on a larger scale; but not as pilot projects or small-scale
projects or corridor/street-level projects. ITS developments hold a huge
potential in many countries, including India. The steps that can help in
overcoming the issues in ITS implementation in India can be the evolution
of national ITS standards for various elements and application; formulation
of single ITS regulatory authority to monitor, regulate, and document
ongoing and upcoming ITS projects in India with detailed design and cost-
benefit aspects of the project; setting up fully functional traffic management
centers; involving multiple stakeholders and interaction between academia,
government agencies and industries for a better and more effective decision-
making process and successful implementation of ITS; evolving a set of
methodologies for automatic data collection techniques, while considering
the characteristics of Indian users, roads and traffic patterns; developing a
national ITS data archive; improving current infrastructure for successful
functioning of ITS; developing models and algorithms suitable for ITS
development and implementation. Advanced technologies can be procured
from developed countries and can be customized to Indian needs. The need
for the hour is the state support and stake-holder’s endorsement.
 Overview and Challenges 15

References
El Mokaddem, Y., F. Jawab and L. E. Saad. 2019. “Intelligent
Transportations Systems: Review of Current Challenges and Success
Factors: The Case of Developing Countries.” International Colloquium
on Logistics and Supply Chain Management, LOGISTIQUA 2019, 12–
14. https://doi.org/10.1109/LOGISTIQUA.2019.8907308.
Grant Thornton. 2016. Smart Transportation—Transforming Indian Cities.
New Delhi: Exhibitions India Group and Grant Thornton.
Krishnan, R., W. Winnie and A. Diehl. 2015. Advances and Challenges in
Intelligent Transportation, The Evolution of ICT to address Transport
Challenges in Developing Countries. World Bank Group.
Rawal, T. 2015. “Intelligent Transportation Systems in India—A Review.”
Journal of Development Management and Communication 2 (3).
Sen, R., V. Sevani, P. Sharma, Z. Koradia and B. Raman. 2014. “Challenges
In Communication Assisted Road Transportation Systems for
Developing Regions.” Third ACM Workshop on Networked Systems for
Developing Regions (NSDR’09), a Workshop in SOSP’09, Big Sky,
Montana, USA, 11 Oct 2009 (May).
Sengupta, Dibyendu. 2012. Intelligent Transport Systems in India. New
Delhi, India: European Business and Technology Centre (EBTC).
Venajakshi, L., G. Ramadurai and A. Anand. 2010. Intelligent
Transportation System in India, Synthesis Report on ITS. IIT Madras,
Department of Civil Engineering, Chennai: Centre of Excellence in
Urban Transport, Transportation Engineering Division.
 CHAPTER 1.2

PURPOSE OF ITS DEPLOYMENT

Introduction
With rapid urbanization, transport infrastructure often fails to meet the ever-
growing daily mobility demands and infrastructure development is not in
pace with demand rise, especially in the large urban centers. Increasing land
prices force citizens to move and reside in peripheral regions; for
occupational reasons, citizens are compelled to commute to the commercial
localities, which are in the city centers. The United Nations has projected
that two thirds of the world’s population will be urbanized by 2050—or an
increase of 2.5 billion in current urban communities. One in eight people
currently live in one of the twenty-eight so-called mega-cities that hold over
ten million inhabitants (ETSI). With an unprecedented growth in urban
sprawl over the last two decades, the issues of road congestion, user safety,
inefficient public transports systems, poor services, inadequate parking
spaces, and increased environmental pollution have driven the urgent
development of ITS and services. ITS combine various ICTs to optimize
urban mobility by reducing the need for extensive investment in physical
infrastructure, increasing user safety, enabling controlled flow of vehicular
movement on the streets, mitigating congestion scenarios, and decreasing
the demand for private vehicles in the cities. ITS are synonymous with
sustainable mobility and transport systems as they eliminate the key
challenges of information, management, and services in the transport sector,
by providing secure, faster, convenient, efficient, and environmentally
friendly solutions. ITS development is also a key feature of smart city
development. Vehicles are an essential component of smart cities; smart
cities should be able to sense objects and events in the environment and
respond appropriately—they not only assist in vehicle traffic management
but also represent a tool for capturing real-time, relevant information used
in resource management (Meneguette, De Grande and Loureiro 2018). The
United States of America, Japan and also European nations, which are in an
advanced stage of ITS implementation, are more focused towards aspects
of vehicle-centric safety and transport efficiency (like V2V or V2C
technologies), while the priority of nations such as China and India is to
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 17

leverage technology advancements to mitigate traffic congestion and

enhance system efficiency. In this chapter, ITS deployment at the national
level (China) and the regional level (Dallas, TX) is discussed in detail.

Benefits and Applications of ITS

Transportation is a complicated service delivery process. The ITS
applications are broadly based on three basic elements apart from numerous
evolving algorithm and operation technologies. They are:

1. Data collection technologies: The performance of ITS are dependent

on the amount of quality data that is generated. The data needs to be
accurate and comprehensive. The key data collection technologies
are either infrastructure-based, like CCTVs, sensors, inductive loops,
etc., or probe-vehicle-based, like GPS, user cell, or other ICT
equipment on board the vehicle.
2. Communication technologies: The collected data from different
sources needs to be transferred and processed for an in-depth
analysis, which is made possible, today, only because of
advancements in technologies. Huge amount of data needs to be
collected in a dynamic and real-time environment. Data storage
requirements are large; processing and communication need to be
very rapid and immediate. The communication methods differ in
terms of requirement, price, and working process. With fast-paced
development of ICT, the use of telephone lines for communication
has become obsolete and is, to a great extent, replaced by advanced
technologies like GPRS (2G, 3G) or 5G. One of the most preferred
communication technologies that is widely popular in wireless
communication among vehicles is vehicular ad hoc NETworks
(VANETs).
3. Data storage and management system: The relay of huge amounts of
real-time data needs to be stored together and processed and
provided to the user almost in real-time. This data also needs to be
stored to make predictions like the most congested time of the day
on the road network, amount of daily traffic, etc.
18 Chapter 1.2

Table 1.2.1 shows the key requirements of a sustainable transport system

and which ITS category and applications cater to those requirements.

Requirement for
sustainable ITS category Specific ITS applications
transport
භ Real-time traffic information
Advanced and route guidance system
Reliable transport Traveler භ Navigation systems and
1.
system Information rerouting assistance
System (ATIS) භ Roadside weather
information systems
භ Cooperative collision
warning
Reduction in rate of භ Slow vehicle indications
accident occurrence Advanced Driver භ Vision enhancement and
2. to ensure safety of Assistance automated vehicle operations
vehicles, drivers and Systems (ADAS) භ Lane change messages, speed
nearby pedestrians. control, reverse parking
assistance, and intersection
collision warnings
භ Traffic operations centers
Advanced and traffic control
To increase the
Transportation භ Dynamic traffic signs
3. efficiency of traffic
Management භ Incident detection and traffic
management
Systems (ATMS) law enforcement
භ Variable message signs
භ Electronic toll collection
Economical public භ Usage-based fee systems like
ITS-Enabled
transport system and Vehicle Miles Travelled
Transportation
4. efficient revenue (VMT) system
Pricing Systems
collection and භ Congestion pricing and fee
(ITSETPS)
monitoring based (HOT) lanes
භ Variable Parking Fees
භ Real-time status information
for public transit system
භ Automatic vehicle location
Coordination and භ Demand-responsive transport
Advanced Public
service operation management and shared
5. Transportation
enhancement of transport management
System (APTS)
public transport භ On-trip public transport
information and trip
reservation, personal
information
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 19

භ Fatigue monitoring systems

Reduction in vehicle Emergency භ Overspeed warning systems,
6. accidents and Management භ Automatic crisis response
fatality System (EMC). alert to authorities: eCall
system
Advanced භ Collision warning for
Vehicle Control vehicles, Intelligent Speed
Systems (AVCS) Adaptation, and other
/ applications under Vehicle-
7. Smart systems
Fully Integrated to-Infrastructure (V2I) and
Intelligent Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V)
Transportation integration
(FIIT)
භ Vehicle administrative
process
භ Automated roadside safety
Enhanced Commercial
support
operational Vehicle
8. භ On-board safety monitoring
capabilities of Operations
භ Commercial fleet
commercial vehicles (CVO)
management
භ Automated diagnostic
systems
Provide information about
Advanced Rural connectivity options and remote
Connecting urban
9. Transportation road conditions and other safety
centers with suburbs
System (ARTS) enhancement information for
the user

Table 1.2.1: Key requirements of a sustainable transport system

Source: Author’s compilation

Thus, ITS performance can be measured based on the following criteria:

1. Enhanced mobility
2. Reduced traffic congestion
3. Environmental impact mitigation
4. Reduced accident severity and fatality rate
5. Transport infrastructure management
6. Reliability and predictability of transport network
7. Improved security
8. Operational efficiency of user and operator
20 Chapter 1.2

ITS Development in China

The development of ITS in China has a history of over thirty years. China
started the research and development of ITS in 1980 with the Highway Toll
Collection System. China established the National Engineering Technology
Research Centre of ITS in 1999. National strategies in China, like the Tenth
Five-Year Plan (2001–2005) and the Eleventh Five-Year Plan (2006–2010),
focused on key ITS development, like the establishment of operation and
management, integrated information service, dedicated short-range
communication and standard specification intelligent traffic management,
dynamic guidance technology, large-scale complicated traffic data integration
access management technology, trans-regional networked electronic toll
collection technology, and transport monitoring technology, etc. The Traffic
Management Command and Control System, set up for the Beijing 2008
Olympic Games, and the Electronic Toll Collection System (ETC), in
Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei Region, showcase that ITS development in
China from 2006 to 2010 was focused on solving the key issues and aspects
like agent-based and vision-based technologies; traffic modelling, control,
and simulation; communication- and location-based services; and driving
safety and assistance, etc.

The ITS development in China is focused on the following aspects:

1. Active vehicle safety and intelligent vehicles

2. Vehicle road network synergy
3. Integrated traffic management and emergency systems
4. Cooperative driving for platoons
5. Intelligent transportation management

The presence of cloud computing technologies, wide coverage of wireless

networks, huge market potential, and wide-scale trails, serving as research
and advanced experimental platforms since 2001, have assisted China in
achieving a sustained growth in the areas of intelligent vehicle, smart
infrastructure, and driver behavior.

ITS Deployment in the Dallas Region

Dallas is the fourth most populous metropolitan area, and a major city, of
the US state of Texas. The city ranks ninth in the US and third in Texas in
terms of population. As per the US Census 2010, the city had a population
of 1,197,816. The city is the largest economic center of the twelve county
DFW metroplex metropolitan areas. In 2014, the metropolitan economy
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 21

surpassed Washington, DC, to become the fifth largest economy in the US

and tenth largest economy in the world.

Dallas is the largest inland metropolitan area in the US and lacks any
navigable link to the sea. The construction of the interstate highway system
strengthened Dallas’ eminence as a transportation hub, with four major
interstate highways converging in the city and a fifth interstate loop around
it. Dallas developed as a strong industrial and financial center, and a major
inland port, due to the conjunction of major railroad lines, interstate
highways, and the construction of Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport,
one of the largest and busiest airports in the world.

After successful completion of the interstate highway systems, the focus of

the officials at the federal level has shifted from constructing new roadways
to achieving more efficient use from the existing transportation system. The
passing of the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA)
gave a new direction to the approach for transportation development. It
emphasized the integration of existing transportation systems with modern
technology and methods to improve the regional transportation system. It
provides funding for the state and local transportation authorities to begin
developing and implementing ITS. The Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) has identified twenty-nine user services for potential implementation
through state and local transportation agencies to achieve better utilization
of the existing transportation network (see Exhibit 1.2.1 for the list of
identified user services).

Background
The ITS Plan for Dallas started long before the project was officially
initiated. Two committees, the Transportation Management Team (TMT)
and the Mobility Technical Committee (MTC), had been meeting, monthly,
to address specific transportation problems, such as safety and operational
problems, in the Dallas area. These two committees basically comprised of
transportation professionals who had an interest in emerging ITS applications.
A subcommittee with representatives from both the TMT and MTC groups
was constituted for advanced research on ITS development and to explore
additional funding possibilities to improve transport services in the Dallas
region.

Several cities already have centrally managed traffic signal management

systems, but an area-wide approach had never been considered. In the early
70’s, a few small-scale and specific efforts had been tested and implemented
22 Chapter 1.2

in Dallas but, for various reasons like funding and reconstruction of major
freeways, they were unable to develop large-scale, integrated regional ITS.
So, when the opportunity for the FHWA’s early deployment ITS Planning
funds came up, the ITS subcommittee moved quickly to develop a proposal
for the Dallas area. This quick response from the subcommittee, regarding
the development of ITS, reflected their vision for Dallas transportation
system, and it showed that the planning for developing ITS was already
initiated, even before the project was officially rolled out.

For the purpose of developing area-wide ITS for Dallas, the planning area
was taken to be Dallas County and the municipalities that directly touch the
county to the north, south, and east of the county boundaries. The area
comprises approximately 2,600 sq km with a population exceeding two
million. There are nearly 500 km of freeways in the Dallas area-wide ITS
plan area, with 200 km in Dallas and the remaining distributed among
twenty-four other cities (See Exhibit 1.2.2 for the Dallas area-wide ITS
development plan area). Complementing the ongoing ITS efforts in Dallas,
the project-planning staff also established close contact with the Texas
Department of Transportation (TxDOT) personnel to coordinate their work
in successful ITS implementation for the Dallas region. As the Fortworth
urban area is in a different highway district, it was excluded from the project
and a separate plan for transportation management centers was proposed for
the Fortworth region; however, the two transportation management centers
of Dallas and Fortworth will be interlinked.

Purpose of ITS Deployment in Dallas

The transportation problems faced by Dallas were not very different from
the problems that existed in other American cities. The Dallas area faces the
transportation problems typical of a large urban area: traffic congestion and
its associated problems of increased travel time, vehicle emission,
environmental degradation, air pollution, fuel consumption, and the
potential for traffic accidents are not unique to this area. Apart from these
problems, lack of mobility, disconnects between transportation modes,
budgetary constraints, and traffic fatalities were also some of the challenges
that needed to be addressed.

Traffic congestion was the biggest problem not only in Dallas but in the
entire USA. The Texas Transportation Institute estimated that, in a single
year, the nation wasted approximately 4.2 billion hours stuck in traffic and
burned 2.8 billion gallons of gas. Public agencies have two choices while
facing this dilemma of unmet needs: add more pavement or look for smarter
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 23

alternatives that use existing systems more efficiently. It was realized that
the region’s highways had reached their capacity, money and room for
major expansion are hard to come by. ITS was undoubtedly the most viable
solution for all these transportation problems to some extent, and the city of
Dallas was ready for this transformation.

Without undertaking any major construction projects, the Dallas area-wide

ITS plan was determined to address those problems and to propose
resources to mitigate them (Exhibit 1.2.3 shows the problems facing the
Dallas area and the approaches to mitigate them).

During the development stage of the proposal for the ITS plan project for
the Dallas area, a steering committee representing Dallas County, area
cities, TxDOT, and other transport-related public undertaking agencies was
created to formulate the goals and objectives of the ITS plan for the Dallas
area. Working with the steering committee, the following goals were
established for the Dallas area:

1. Reduction of congestion caused by freeway accidents

2. Reduction of general congestion and the resultant delay, emissions,
and fuel consumption
3. Deployment of seamless transportation systems
4. Promotion and support of multi-modal transportation and of high
occupancy vehicles
5. Reduction of vehicle miles travelled

The stated objectives, as defined in the proposal for the ITS plan project for
Dallas area:

1. Set up a steering committee at the broader level, including

representatives of the responsible transportation agencies in the
Dallas area, as well as transportation-oriented business, whether
goods movement, passenger or information services.
2. Assess the existing transportation management and communication
linkages in the region and within the Dallas area and explore the
potential of existing ITS technology to bring improvements to the
Dallas transportation system, both short-term, and long-term.
3. Identify technical, physical, legal and institutional barriers to
cooperation, communication, and coordination, and, accordingly,
provide the recommendations to resolve them, which will facilitate
the implementation of ITS.
24 Chapter 1.2

4. Formulate an implementable, integrated, area-wide, multi-modal,

multi-jurisdictional ITS Plan for Dallas under the guidance of the
steering committee, including the private sector as a partner and
facilitator of the development process, and maintain sufficient
flexibility to incorporate emerging trends and technologies in the
development plan.
5. Identify projects for implementation, prepare methodology and
proposals, refine costs, and identify private and public funding
mechanisms and sources.
6. Define criteria for project evaluation, cost-benefit analysis of the
project, priority areas, and implementation plans at each stage.

Existing Dallas Area-Wide ITS Deployment

1. Traffic Signal Systems

There are around 2,200 signal locations within the Dallas planning area, out
of which 55 % are in the city of Dallas. TxDOT primarily maintains and
operates approximately 210 signals in smaller cities. Approximately 75 %
of the existing traffic signals in the area are in coordinated subsystems.
Signal management by the central system is only possible at approximately
45 % of the signals in the area. The cities of Richardson, Plano, Garland,
Farmers Branch, Irving, Carrollton, and Addison have closed-loop systems
with central control by a personal computer, and Dallas has a central
computer system.

2. Closed-Circuit Television Monitoring

Presently, only three cities (Richardson, Plano, and Garland) have the
capability to monitor traffic with closed-circuit television, via their
community access television (CATV) system, which is basically a cable
television. A few more cities, like Carrollton, Mesquite, Dallas, Farmers
Branch, and Grand Prairie, have committed funding to install surveillance
cameras in the coming future. TxDOT has cameras planned for installation
at fourteen locations on the US 75 (North Central Expressway) to be
installed, as part of the US 75 reconstruction, and at ten to twelve locations
on the IH 635 north, as part of the High Occupancy Vehicle Lane
construction.
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 25

3. Courtesy Patrols / Mobility Assistance Patrols

Monday through Friday, from 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM, five patrol vehicles
on freeways, countywide, are presently being operated by TxDOT. In
addition, two patrol vehicles on freeways, countywide, on weekends from
4:00 PM to midnight, are also operated by TxDOT.

4. Changeable Message Signs

Twenty-six changeable message signs (CMS) on freeways, or on major

streets approaching freeways, are currently operated by TxDOT. Out of
these twenty-six CMS, thirteen are permanent and the rest are all portable
signs provided by the US 75 construction contractors.

5. Control Centers

TxDOT’s Dallas District Headquarters, in Mesquite, controls the CMS.

Control center hardware, including CCTV monitors and controls, will be
installed in a transportation management satellite building, near the
interchange of US 75 and IH 635, with CCTV and other equipment being
installed. The Dallas Area Traffic Management Centre (DATMC) for all
freeway corridors is to be installed and operated at a central site. Cities with
the traffic signal management system will establish a communication link
with TxDOT’s transportation management satellite and, ultimately,
TxDOT’s DATMC.
26 Chapter 1.2

Exhibit 1.2.1: ITS User Services; Source: Author’s compilation

Type of Service Individual User Services

Public Transportation Management
Public Transportation En-Route Transit Information
Management Personalized Public Transit
Public Travel Security
Pre-Trip Travel Information
En-Route Driver Information
Route Guidance
Ride Matching and Reservation
Travel and Traffic
Traveler Services Information
Management
Traffic Control
Incident Management
Travel Demand Management
Emissions Testing and Mitigation
Electronic Payment Electronic Payment Services
Commercial Vehicle Electronic
Clearance
Automated Roadside Safety Inspections
On-Board Safety Monitoring
Commercial Vehicle
Commercial Vehicle Administrative
Operations
Processes
Hazardous Materials Incident
Notification
Commercial Fleet Management
Emergency Notification and Personal
Emergency Management Security
Emergency Vehicle Management
Longitudinal Collision Avoidance
Lateral Collision Avoidance
Intersection Collision Avoidance
Advanced Vehicle Safety Vision Enhancement for Crash
Systems Avoidance
Safety Readiness
Pre-Crash Restraint Deployment
Automated Vehicle Operations
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 27

Exhibit 1.2.2 Dallas Area-Wide ITS Plan Area

28 Chapter 1.2
Exhibit 1.2.3: Dallas Area Transportation Problems and User Service Solutions
Problem Solution Conventional Approach ITS User Services
භ Increase roadway භ New roads භ Traffic control
capacity (vehicular
throughput)
භ New lanes භ Incident management
1. Traffic congestion භ Increase passenger භ HOV lanes—Car pooling භ En-route transit information
throughput භ Fixed-route transit භ Public travel security
භ Reduce demand භ Flex-time programs භ Travel demand management
භ Improve roadway geometry
(increase radius of curvature,
widen lanes, etc.)
භ Remove road obstacles to
improve sight distances
භ Traffic signals, protected left-
hand turns at intersections
භ Emergency notification and
2. Traffic accidents,
personal security
injuries, and භ Improve safety භ Fewer at-grade crossings
fatalities
භ Emergency vehicle management
භ Driver training
භ Incident management
භ Sobriety check points
භ Lighten dark roads to improve
visibility / better lighting
භ Reduce speed limits and post
warnings in areas prone to
adverse conditions
 Purpose of ITS Deployment 29

භ Provide user-friendly භ Expand fixed-route transit and භ Pre-trip travel information

3. Lack of mobility
access to quality paratransit services භ En-route transit information
and accessibility
transportation services භ Radio and TV traffic reports භ Public transportation management
4. Disconnected
භ Pre-trip travel information
transportation භ Improve intermodally භ Static inter-agency agreements
modes භ En-route transit information
5. Transportation
following
භ Improve disaster භ Review and improve existing භ Hazardous material incident
response plans emergency plans notification
emergencies
භ Increase in
6. Vehicle-based air transportation system භ More efficient conventional
pollution and fuel efficiency, reduce vehicles භ Incident management
consumption travel and fuel භ Regulations
consumption
30 Chapter 1.2

References
Carvell, J. D., E. J. Seymour, C. H. Walters and T. R. Starr. 1996. Dallas
Area-wide Intelligent Transportation System. Texas: Texas Transportation
Institute.
Ory, D. T., W. R. Stockton and C. M. Walton. 2000. ITS IN TEXAS:
DEPLOYMENT SUMMARY AND CASE STUDY OF DEPLOYMENT
METHODOLOGIES. Texas: Texas Department of Transportation.
Seymour, E., et al. 2014. TXDOT ITS STRATEGIC PLAN 2013. Texas:
Texas A & M Transportation Institute.
Meneguette, R., E. De Grande and A. F. Loureiro. 2018. Intelligent
Transport System in Smart Cities. Retrieved from
http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-93332-0.
 CHAPTER 1.3

DETERMINANTS OF ITS

“The history of ITS was greatly influenced by specific champions

who pushed the branding of ITS and created a much-needed consciousness
of what ITS can do.”
—Scott McCormick, President of the Connected Vehicle Trade Association

Introduction
The increasing mobility and safety challenges in the US transportation
system have become a big concern for the agencies managing the
transportation system. According to a recent study, it has been estimated
that the cost of traffic congestion in US cities for 2005 was $78 billion, with
4.2 billion hours of delay and 2.9 billion gallons of fuel wasted (Shrank,
David and Lomax 2007). During the same year, there were 5.4 million
crashes and fatalities on US highways increased to 43,443 (FHWA Safety
2007). In 2006, the public transportation systems provided 10.1 billion trips,
the highest in forty-nine years (American Public Transportation Association
n.d.). Freight volume on US highways is expected to increase to 22.8 billion
tons by 2035, up from 11.5 billion tons in 2002 (US DOT 2006).

In most of the US cities, financial resources available to fund all the

transportation projects that are needed to improve the transportation system
are insufficient. The states are not capable of providing enough fund to these
projects. Apart from the funding constraints, there has been a growing
concern towards the negative impacts associated with the construction and
use of the transportation system. This has led to efforts by the government
and transportation agencies to find alternative mobility solutions that are
environmentally sustainable and economically feasible, resulting in
developing strategies for the efficient utilization of the existing transportation
systems.

Over the past few decades, technological advancement and growth of

information and communication technology have redefined the approach to
improve urban transportation systems. Integration of advanced technologies
32 Chapter 1.3

in both the existing transportation infrastructure and in vehicles has been

one of the most important and successful strategies for improving the
efficiency and safety of the existing transportation system. The US has
developed a national architecture that provides guidance, to states willing to
implement an ITS, of what functions and communications technologies are
necessary to be compatible with other such systems. Despite all the efforts
made by the government, public agencies, and private companies, the US
still lags in developing and deploying nationwide, efficient ITS. In this
chapter, the determinants that shaped the development of ITS in the US and
why it lags among the global leaders in ITS deployment, despite being the
most powerful nation in the world, are discussed.

Why ITS?
ITS improve transportation mobility and safety, enhance productivity, and
reduce negative environmental impact through the integration of advanced
technologies into the existing transportation system’s infrastructure and the
vehicles themselves (ITS Overview). ITS are basically sets of tools that
facilitate connected, integrated, and automated transportation systems that
are information-intensive for better customer centricity and better
responsiveness to the needs of users and operators. They provide a proven
set of strategies for addressing the existing challenges of transportation
systems, while accommodating the growth in transit ridership and freight
movement.

The transportation problems faced by cities in the US—like traffic

congestion and its associated problems of increased travel time, vehicle
emission, environmental degradation, air pollution, fuel consumption, and
the potential for traffic accidents—are similar to the problems existing in
other cities of developed nations. Apart from these problems, lack of
mobility, disconnects between transportation modes, budgetary constraints,
and traffic fatalities are also some of the challenges that need to be
considered.

Traffic congestion was the biggest problem in the US. The Texas
Transportation Institute estimated that, in a single year, the nation wasted
4.2 billion manhours and burned 2.8 billion gallons of gas, while getting
stuck in traffic. The government, public agencies, and private investors have
two choices while facing this dilemma of unmet needs: add more pavements
or look for smarter alternatives that use existing systems more efficiently. It
was realized that in most of the urban areas, highways had reached their
capacity for major expansion. While many thought that improving
 Determinants of ITS 33

transportation systems solely meant repairing aging infrastructure or

building new roads, the future of transportation lies not only in these efforts,
but also in the deployment of ITS technologies. ITS are perceived as the
most suitable solution in the US for all these transportation problems, and
the government of the US was determined to improve transportation
services.

Determinants of ITS: The US

Developing and deploying ITS faces a range of challenges, including
system interdependency, funding, scale, network effect, institutional,
political, and other challenges. Some challenges are inherent in all
countries, others are specific challenges in the context of the US.

Despite being the most powerful nation in the world, the US lags behind
global leaders—particularly Japan, Singapore, and South Korea—in ITS
deployment, in terms of real-time traffic information by transportation
agencies, progress on vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle to vehicle
(V2V) integration, adoption of computerized traffic signals, and
maximizing the effectiveness of its already installed system. This has been
mainly because of two key factors that prevailed in the context of the US: a
continued lack of adequate funding for ITS and lack of the right
organizational system to drive ITS, particularly the lack of a federally led
approach. For developing and deploying ITS, every state has its own
approach that has prevailed to date. Implementation of ITS in the US varies
enormously by state and region, thus, tending to be irregular, isolated,
incremental, and not connected to a nationally integrated ITS. In the specific
context of the US, a few of the major determinants that shaped the present
state of the ITS environment are listed:

1. Socioeconomic Environment

The early 2000’s recession caused a decline in economic activity, mainly in

developed countries. The recession affected the US to a large extent, which
shifted the focus to making the most efficient use of the highway system
and vehicle fleet. During the same period, advancement in communication
and information technology systems and applications was happening at a
rapid rate. All these factors, ultimately, led to innovative research initiatives
and an explosion of new transportation apps with improved geographic
location and mapping systems, in the form of user-friendly mobile and in-
vehicle user interfaces. Primarily, ITS applications were considered in the
context of automated purposes and connected vehicles (CVs).
34 Chapter 1.3

2. Funding, Procurement and Partnership

Financial resources available to fund all the transportation projects are

limited. The states are not capable of allocating enough funds to these
transportation projects. Considering today’s volatile economy, the
capability of an agency to sufficiently fund projects is a dichotomy. Changes
in existing process may be viable or new methods or improvements might
need to be considered to deliver timelier and quicker ITS deployment when
there is a projected technological and cost-effective advantage.

With respect to how agencies can manage ITS funds and budgets prudently,
a survey of ITS deployment by the Research and Innovative Technology
Administration was conducted in 2010; it indicated that many states still
maintain separate budgets for ITS deployments and related costs (see
Exhibit 1.3.1 for budget trends in the US).

Apart from public-sector funding, the ITS development in the US has

attracted many private investors and companies. In most of the states, ITS
is being developed on the public-private partnership (PPP) model and
technical support is provided by private companies.

3. ITS Policy Development in the US

There are various transportation legislation bills in the US (see Exhibit

1.3.2 for a list of transportation legislation funding bills prevailing in the
US). Back in the day, federal activity regarding ITS began with the
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) of 1991. This
act established a federal program to research, develop, and operationally test
ITS and promote their implementation. ISTEA originally authorized $659
million to ITS for the fiscal years 1992 to 1997 (US Department of
Transportation, Research and Innovative Technology Administration, “The
Federal ITS Program Mission”). After that, the Transportation Efficiency
Act for the twenty-first century (TEA-21), passed in 1998, authorized a
similar amount ($1.3 billion) through the 2003 fiscal year. Again, in 2005,
Congress enacted the Safe, Accountable, Flexible, Efficient Transportation
Equity Act: A Legacy for Users (SAFETEA-LU). It ended the ITS
deployment program at the close of the 2005 fiscal year but continued ITS
research at $110 million annually through to the 2009 fiscal year. Since
ending the ITS deployment program, the federal ITS effort has been much
more focused on research than on a deployment role. The US Department
of Transportation estimates that states and localities annually invest $500
million to $1 billion in ITS projects in the US (USDOT 2006).
 Determinants of ITS 35

The ITS Management Council (a corporate style board of directors)

develops and directs federal ITS policy. As of May 2006, the Research and
Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), within the USDOT, took
responsibility for the strategic direction and management oversight of the
DOT’s ITS program. Activity is coordinated through the ITS Joint Program
Office (JPO), which is comprised of program managers and coordinators of
DOT’s multi-modal ITS initiatives.

The focus of the USDOT’s ITS program is on intelligent infrastructure,

intelligent vehicles, and the creation of ITS through integration with and
between these two components. The federal ITS effort focuses on
Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance, Integrated Vehicle based
Safety Systems, Integrated Corridor Management Systems, Clarus (roadside
weather condition monitoring), Emergency Transportation Operations,
Mobility Services for all Americans, and Electronic Freight Management.

On July 6, 2012, President Obama signed MAP-21 into law. It funded

surface transportation programs at over $105 billion for fiscal years 2013
and 2014. MAP-21 continued support for the ITS program by restoring the
ITS research budget to $100 million per year and establishing a Technology
and Innovation Deployment Program for $62.5 million per year. MAP-21
changed the focus of ITS activities by directing the Secretary of
Transportation to encourage the deployment of ITS technologies that will
improve the performance of the national highway system.

4. Provision of Real-time Traffic Information

The US notably trails other world leaders in the provision of publicly

available, real-time traffic information to citizens (see Exhibit 1.3.3 for the
percentage of metropolitan areas in the US disseminating real-time
information to the public). In 2005, after realizing that real-time traffic
information can be used to improve traffic flow and congestion, Congress
enacted a legislation requiring the USDOT to establish the Real-time
System Management Information Program to provide states the capability
to monitor traffic and travel conditions on major highways, and share that
information. The Federal Highway Administration issued a rule proposing
requirements for states to make certain traffic information available,
specifically travel speed, travel time, and incident notification, on major
highways, maintaining the data quality standards, including standards for
timeliness, accuracy, and availability of that traffic information.
36 Chapter 1.3

5. Vehicle Infrastructure Integration in the US

Over the past fifteen years, a primary focus of US ITS policy has been an
initiative initially called Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII). The
objective of the VII initiative was to deploy and enable a communications
infrastructure that supports V2I, as well as V2V, communications for a
variety of vehicle safety applications and transportation operations
(Intelligent Transportation Society of America). At the end of 2007, the
USDOT announced the VII program would undergo a full reassessment.
The DOT opened every aspect of the VII program—from providers,
technologies, and wireless communications methods to business models and
public-private partnerships—to re-evaluate it and implement it more
effectively at a broader level.

6. Research and Technological Advancement

The CV safety pilot model deployment occurred from 2012 to 2013. It was
the largest real-world test of CV technology to date, with over 2,700
participating vehicles using wireless safety technology. After analyzing data
from the pilot program, the US implemented V2V technology across the
nation. A major success in the world of CVs occurred in 2015, when the
USDOT announced the selection of three CV deployment sites as
participants in the CV pilot development program. In August 2010,
Washington State Department of Transportation (WSDOT) launched the
Active Traffic and Demand Management (ATDM) system to reduce
collisions associated with congestion and blocked lanes. The USDOT’s
Application for the Environment: Real-time Information System (AERIS)
research program develops advanced vehicle applications that reduce
transportation’s impact on the environment. It employs a multi-modal
approach and encourages the development of technologies and applications
that reduce fuel use and resulting emissions. There is also an emerging trend
for private companies to invest in automation. In the race to automation,
traditional automobile companies are joined by tech giants like Google and
Apple. The Apple iGo car sharing service concept is one of the most
successful examples. Google’s self-driving car project is another widely
known initiative in the automated vehicle space.

Absence of Nationwide Integrated ITS

The US has pockets of regions with strong ITS applications, including the
use of variable rate highway tolling, electronic toll collection, certain
advanced traffic management systems, such as ramp metering, and an active
 Determinants of ITS 37

private sector market in telematics and travel information provision. There

are many factors that are responsible for the efficient development and
deployment of ITS in the US. Despite being the most powerful nation in the
world, the US still lags behind the global leaders in terms of ITS because of
financial, technical, and institutional constraints. Some major reasons are
listed below.

1. There is a huge lack of coordination between different public

transportation agencies and jurisdictions, because of which there is
no proper sharing of resources and the roles of individual agencies
are being threatened.
2. There is a lack of financial resources to fund all the transportation
projects, mainly due to economic considerations and lobbying by
vested interest groups.
3. Every state has its own approach to developing and deploying ITS,
because of which there is no successful implementation of integrated
ITS nationwide.
4. US still lags behind global ITS leaders in terms of technological
advancement. The US needs to buy the advanced technologies used
in ITS from other countries.
5. The organizational structure for ITS development and deployment is
not clearly defined.
6. There is a need to develop ITS stakeholder policies to ensure
efficiency, consistency, and interoperability in deploying integrated
systems.
7. Operations management programs, as well as maintenance
programs, are ineffective and inadequate in ITS deployment.
8. There is no formal data-sharing policy and data archiving systems
are inadequate among traffic managers.
9. There is no proper consideration of PPP-based unique financing
methods as ways to cover costs for transportation projects.
10. There is no rigorous testing prior to deployment of an ITS project,
which results in the needs of the users and customers not being met.
11. There is an exclusion of the rural environment from ITS
development planning and a lack of utilization of national ITS
architecture.
12. There is a lack of public participation in the planning process.
38 Chapter 1.3

Conclusion
Every country has unique problems and challenges in transportation
systems management and some of them are common across countries, but
many issues are local and specific to each country. Over the past few years,
deploying ITS is an emerging trend worldwide and is a proven solution to
address several transportation problems. ITS in the US are, certainly, not
too successful, but are a good demonstration of systemic development and
of how an ITS environment is designed and planned. Transportation
problems prevailing in the US are not very different from other developed
countries. Like the rest of the developed nations, the US also chose to
develop ITS to find a solution, to its existing transportation systems, that
could be environmentally and economically sustainable. Despite having the
national architecture for ITS, the US has not been able to develop advanced,
integrated nationwide ITS. There is no coordination between state
transportation agencies, every state has its own problem and its own
approach to develop and deploy ITS. At the apex level, there is no exclusive
policy or act regulating the development of ITS; responsibilities of agencies
regarding ITS deployment are not clearly defined. Lack of funding for
transportation projects is also one of the major reasons that ITS have not
been implemented at the desired and required scale. The US still lags behind
Japan, Singapore, and South Korea in terms of technological advancement
in ITS. As the US is moving towards a more intelligent and connected
transportation system, it is important to reflect on the history of the field,
adopt best practices, identify trends and their historical implications, and
benchmark both the positive and negative outcomes of the evolving status
of ITS.
 Determinants of ITS 39

Exhibit 1.3.1 Number of Various Agencies and Their Budget Trends for
ITS Components as of 2010
ITS Funding Freeway Toll Transportation Arterial Transit
and Budget Management Collection Management Management Management
Practices Agencies Agencies Centers Agencies Agencies

Separate
budget for 83 39 134 76 26
ITS

Track budget
separately for
59 30 88 46 18
ITS
deployments
Track budget
separately for
ITS
74 23 98 45 13
operations
and
maintenance
Track budget
separately for
traffic
64 29 87 56 2
management
or operations
center
Source: Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA), US
40 Chapter 1.3

Exhibit 1.3.2 Showing Key Transportation Legislation Funding Bills

Source: US Department of Transportation

 Determinants of ITS 41

Exhibit 1.3.3 Percentage of metropolitan areas in which incident, travel

time, and travel speed information were disseminated to the US public in
2007

Type of Information Freeways Arterial Roads

Incident 87% 68%

Travel Time 36% 19%

Travel Speed 32% 16%

References
American Public Transportation Association. n.d. Public Transportation
Ridership Statistics.
Auer, A., S. Feese and S. Lockwood. 2016. HISTORY OF INTELLIGENT
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM. Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation, Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program
Office.
Barbaresso, J., G. Cordahi, D. Garcia, C. Hill and K. Wright. 2014.
USDOT’s Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) ITS Strategic Plan
2015-2019. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation,
Intelligent Transportation Systems, Joint Program Office.
Ezell, S. 2010. Explaining International IT Application Leadership:
Intelligent Transportation Systems. The Informatition Technology &
Innovatition Foundatition.
Maccubin, R. P., B. L. Staples, F. Kabir, C. F. Lowrence, M. R. Mercer, B.
H. Philips and S. R. Gordon. 2008. Intelligent Transportation Systems
Benefits, Costs, Deployment, and Lessons Learned. Washington, DC:
US Department of Transportation.
Schrank, David, and T. Lomax. 2007. Urban Mobility Report. Texas: Texas
A & M University, Texas Transportation Institute.
US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Office of Safety. 2007. FHWA
Safety.
US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Freight Management and
Operations. 2006. Freight Facts and Figures 2006.
US DOT, ITS Joint Program Office. n.d. ITS Overview.
 MODULE 2

ANATOMY AND FRAMEWORK

OF DEVELOPMENT
 CHAPTER 2.1

ROLE OF INFORMATION AND

COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Introduction
In the twenty-first century, information and communication technology
(ICT) is rapidly evolving and playing a huge role in our everyday lives.
Now, it is globally accepted that ICT can be a great tool for development. It
can improve economic opportunities, governance, delivery of services, and
benefit social change. The low costs and high functionality of ICT systems
have a deep effect in increasing the population of internet users and
nurturing the growth of e-commerce.

In the transportation field, the use of ICT is crucial in the quest to achieve a
sustainable urban transport. With advancement in ICT, the popularity of
smart mobile devices, and developments in cloud technology have increased
public demands for real-time traffic information updates, transport-related
internet and mobile applications, and integrated transportation data. ICT is
a great influencer in people’s mobility and travel choices as well as travel
experience. ICT-based monitoring infrastructure is a major player for traffic
management and traveler information services. The primary goal of ICT in
the transport sector is to use all available data to depict an accurate picture
of the live traffic situation, especially congestion. Broadly, connected ICT
infrastructure consists of three dimensions: i) systems for collection of data
such as monitoring and positioning systems, ii) systems and protocols for
communicating data (e.g., between traffic control centers and to and from
vehicles), and iii) quality of the data such as accuracy and timeliness.

ICT infrastructure is a prerequisite for the deployment of Intelligent

Transport Systems’ (ITS) services, providing relevant and high-quality data
from systems that monitor the road’s status. ITS integrate functions with the
ICT industries to make transportation services more convenient, safe, and
efficient. ITS—like car navigation systems and vehicle information and
communication systems (VICS), which provide drivers with traffic
information—have begun to find their way into private vehicles. In
 Role of Information and Communication Technology 45

commercial vehicles, it is now easy to track the location, as well as the

condition, of vehicles and freight and to apply such information to optimize
travel routes and freight arrival times. In addition, there is a great potential
for the use of electronic tags (RFID) and Dedicated Short Range
Communication (DSRC) systems, such as the ETC system used to collect
highway tolls, and the integrated fair mechanism and parking fees
collection.

Taipei Smart City

Taipei is the capital city and a special municipality of Taiwan, officially
known as the Republic of China (ROC). Taipei is the economic, political,
educational, and cultural center of Taiwan, and one of the major hubs of the
Chinese-speaking world. Considered to be a global city, Taipei is a part of
a major high-tech industrial area; railways, high speed rails, highways,
airports, and bus lines connect Taipei with all parts of the island. Taipei is
one of the smartest cities in the world.

The government of Taipei city is determined to provide a convenient

mobility service to its citizens. They released a comprehensive long-term
plan for city development, as seen in metropolises like Seoul, Tokyo,
London, and Amsterdam. Today, Taipei’s service innovations have established
it as one of the smartest cities in the world. Several services use various ICT
to make the citizens mobility comfortable, safe, and sustainable. Taipei has
installed various ICT-based programs, such as triple play in telecommunication
to enhance municipal cloud services, an intelligent traffic system, and a
public safety program.

Public transport systems account for a substantial portion of different

transport modes in Taipei city. Taipei Station serves as the comprehensive
hub for the subway, bus, conventional rail, and high-speed rail. A
contactless smartcard (Easy Card) can be used for all modes of public transit
as well as several retail outlets. The Easy Card is read via proximity sensory
panels on buses and in MRT stations.

Role of ICT in Development of Taipei ITS

The idea of smarter transport systems in Taipei is not something new; ITS
are globally recognized to improve urban transportation systems by
integrating smart technologies. ITS typically integrate communications,
sensing, traffic management, information technology, and control, thereby,
46 Chapter 2.1

improving coordination between different transportation systems and

enhancing safety, efficiency, and passenger comfort. The major functions
of the complete ITS in Taipei include i) the traffic surveillance and
information center, ii) the transportation system’s vision system, iii)
intelligent traveler and information and safety assistance, iv) audio machine
interface, v) intelligent vehicle control and safety assistance, vi) advanced
communication network, vii) automated smart car driving, viii) inter-
vehicle video conference, and ix) smart agent-based travel information.

There are various ICT components in Taipei ITS (see Exhibit 2.1.1 for
components and mechanism of ICT in service innovation). Using these ICT
components, for an ICT-enabled service innovation in a smart city area, the
following are achieved.

1. Ubiquitous Deployment

It is a mechanism that contains basic ICT components. The government of

Taipei has deployed a city-wide ICT-based mechanism. Free Wi-Fi,
monitoring cameras, smart payment using Easy Card, self-service stations
for rental bikes, MRTS, RFID tags, and readers for security, in addition to
the manual keys, are implemented throughout the whole city.

2. On-time Resource Control

This ICT-based mechanism ensures that all resources in the smart city work
reliably and on time. This mechanism enables citizens to have better
decision making and better mobility planning for an easy, safe, and
comfortable commuter experience. The system manages by tracking road
conditions, number of vehicles, and estimated mileage. Real-time data
collection and analytics are employed for dynamic estimation of real-time
scenarios, and to propose changes in road conditions, to enhance customer
experience.

3. Data Value Development

Data value development deals with the design and development of

complementary applications to support smart city management. It allows
developers in the smart city to open data access of all ITS-related data, and
also to allocate application program interfaces (APIs) for developers.
 Role of Information and Communication Technology 47

4. Behavioral Pattern

The concept of smart city is a dynamic process—once the city becomes

smart it then focuses on becoming smarter by using ICT components
appropriately. A smart city can never cease to upgrade their services.
Understanding behavioral patterns of users plays a key role in understanding
the system and helps in further development or improvement of services.
The city of Taipei also focused on the same details. By analyzing the
citizens’ travel patterns and usage of services, improving the quality of
services became much easier.

5. Navigation Control

The objective of this mechanism is to control all kinds of vehicles, including

public transport and commercial vehicles. To fall under the category of
smart city, it is important to use technologies like digital maps and GPS to
analyze real-time traffic volume for reducing congestion. Undoubtedly,
congestion is one of the major problems and a common issue in a densely
populated city like Taipei. The city has already deployed GPS in all the
public transport vehicles with automatic announcement of the approaching
stations. The system relates to alert system using LED text displays. The
city also has an advanced vehicle control and safety system (AVCSS), such
as the anti-collision warning system, which has been installed in all the
public transport, personal, and commercial vehicles. Also, they have audio
signals at every intersection, and they recently developed a vulnerable
individual protection service (VIPS) system with separate bike and
pedestrian lanes.

6. Information Center

The information center is one of the most important components of any

smart city, and Taipei has a well-networked and high-technology
information center: through several internet-based media, such as websites,
mobile applications, social media accounts, social media platforms and
cloud storages, real-time information is communicated to all stakeholders.

7. Service Monitoring

In order to maintain the quality of services, sustainable monitoring becomes

very important. By using real-time information systems and other ICT-
based systems, Taipei monitors all services to ensure the quality of services
and to make continuous improvements. YouBike is a mass transportation
service in Taipei that uses back-end management to properly run the service.
48 Chapter 2.1

8. Management Control

Management control generally refers to the mechanism that monitors and

controls the transportation systems. It allows the city to maintain the quality
of public transportation services and makes it more stable and efficient. This
mechanism also makes it feasible for upgradation. To address transport-
related issues, environmental impacts and pollution, the city promoted the
use of bicycles and non-motorized transportation. An integrated ICT has
been established in the city of Taipei by coupling bicycle manufacturers,
system platform operators, and logistics and maintenance providers; 24/7
rental stations have been set up throughout the city. To make this initiative
successful and get public endorsement, user registration and rental
procedures have been simplified, and a smart bicycle management system
has been set up through back-end cloud computing.

Conclusion
Advancement in ICTs has an enormous influence on today’s transportation
systems. The transportation systems around which the modern world has
been built are on the verge of an extraordinary transformation based on
recent advancement in ICT and other technologies; this may save billions
of dollars by facilitating far better utilization of existing transportation
infrastructure. Governments need to assume an active leadership role to
deploy such emerging technologies. Smart cities of the future will only be
those that embrace and integrate ITS in their existing systems. As depicted
through the case of Taipei city, an ICT-based interconnected and integrated
mechanism is important for developing ITS in any city. ICT acts as the
backbone and heart of ITS; it provides a supporting environment to develop
ITS. It is representing an emerging infrastructure platform—making driving
and traffic management better and safer for everyone—from which a whole
host of new products and services are likely to emerge, many of which can
barely be imagined today.

References
Alamsyah, N., T.-C. Chou, T. D. Susanto. 2016. “ICT-MECHANISMS OF
INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM IN TAIPEI CITY AS
A SMART CITY.” International Journal of Computer Science &
Information Technology (IJCSIT) 8 (3). doi:10.5121/ijcsit.2016.8305
Executive Yuan, R.O.C. (Taiwan). 2017. Government Plans to Develop
Intelligent Transportation Systems.
 Role of Information and Communication Technology 49

http://english.ey.gov.tw/News_Hot_Topic.aspx?n=4635A87F2197A89
5&sms=3E25961B493A668D.
YOSHIMOTO, R., and T. NEMOTO. 2005. “THE IMPACT OF
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY ON
ROAD FREIGHT TRANSPORTATION.” THE COMPUTERIZATION
OF TRANSPORTATION 29 (1).

Exhibit 2.1.1: Components and Mechanisms in Service Innovation

ICT Components ICT-Enabled Service Innovation

Mechanism
Internet connection,
ubiquitous Wi-Fi,
wireless Ubiquitous
communication, Deployment
cameras, vehicle
sensors, self-service
station, smart Service
payment cards, RFID Development
tags, and RFID
readers.
Traffic behavior
statistical analysis,
district closed-circuit
television cameras On-time Resource
(CCTV) systems, Control
monitoring of specific
road sections, and
analysis of commuting
time.
Open data and API Data Value
for developers. Development Service Integration
Data mining, data
visualization, and Behavioral Pattern
GPS data traces of
human movement.
Digital maps, GPSs, Navigation Control
and real-time traffic
analysis.
50 Chapter 2.1

Cloud guide system,

official website, social Information Center Supportive Service
media, and mobile Innovation
apps.
Real-time information
system, voice-call Service Monitoring
service, and back-end
management.

Control center, Management Control

logistics, and
maintenance
management.
Source: Alamsyah, Chou and Susanto (2016)
 CHAPTER 2.2

BIG DATA PROCESSING AND STORAGE

Introduction
Processed data in the digital age is termed as “information.” With large-
scale digitization of our everyday activities and ICT advancements, the
amount of transportation and mobility data generated by human activities is
far more than the storage capacity and computational ability of systems to
process it on a real-time basis. The high penetration of smartphones,
sensors, and the internet has resulted in massive amounts of data generation.
Smart transport infrastructure systems generate and acquire huge quantities
of real-time data from different sources like road sensors, cameras, GPS,
mobile, radio frequency identification readers (RFID), etc., to be processed,
stored, managed, interpreted, aggregated, and analyzed to enhance user
experience and assist transport service providers in the decision-making
process. This huge amount of structured and unstructured data sets
generated from various sources poses great challenges in processing using
traditional data processing tools; owing to their huge volume and
complexity, such data is termed as big data. As the ITS produces high-
volume, -velocity, -value, -variety, and -veracity data, storing, processing,
and visualizing it has become a key challenge in ITS development. Due to
issues like data inconsistency, redundant and obsolete data, harmonizing
large volumes of data coming from multiple sources makes data processing
a difficult task. Every component in ITS behaves like a data provider and
consumer. Current levels of ITS deployments have limited functionality in
terms of data monitoring and analysis. There is a requirement to develop
innovative applications and processes to collect, clean, interpret, process
and transform these real-time data into information to better support
decision making and efficiency in transport systems. Traditional data
retrieval and management techniques like SQL and other technologies like
Hadoop and MapReduce are further developed as NoSQL-distributed
processing models. Moreover, predictive analysis techniques are a
compounding factor in big data analysis, so as to assist data collection,
pattern deduction, processing, and analysis to make useful interpretations in
addressing and resolving transportation issues. From a transportation
52 Chapter 2.2

perspective, big data handling not only provides solutions to resolve

conventional challenges, such as traffic congestion, increased accident
risks, etc., but also provides an opportunity to develop a safer, cleaner and
more efficient transport. Traffic management is one of the scenarios where
data has played a crucial role, even before the introduction of the big data
concept. The increased spatial-temporal resolution of traffic data due to
advanced computational processes and big data technologies has resulted in
better traffic management than with traditional systems. IOT, cloud
computing and big data have become the key technological components of
data-intensive services and applications in ITS, and the interdependency is
illustrated in Figure 2.2.1.

Figure 2.2.1: Big data, IoT and Cloud Computing

Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)

Big Data and ITS

The concepts of data mining, data harvesting, data warehouse, and data
analytics have been common practices in the past few years but big data
techniques are comparatively new. The principles of distributed computing
(PARAM from C-DAC) were conceived long before big data; however, big
data has offered size and magnitude to data processing within budgetary
constraints. The concept of predictive modelling has also evolved with
 Big Data Processing and Storage 53

emerging big data technologies. Many businesses have built data warehouses
and analytical platforms based on their historical and transactional data
sources to support sales and distribution and improve logistics but big data
has enabled these businesses to manage data as a new kind of business
potential. Use of big data technologies in ITS is hoped to enable efficient
sharing of geographic vehicle monitoring, and traffic data across various
agencies and across nations.

Big data is pertinent to three major issues with respect to transportation data:
data storage, data analysis, and data management. Distributed data architecture
in big data systems has the inbuilt ability to handle the expanding volume
of data. Since data is stored and replicated on different nodes, a single large
task is divided into several smaller tasks and processed in parallel; agility
and fault tolerance play a key role in such data processing as the amount of
data is massive and diverse in nature (structured, semi structured or
unstructured). (Mounica and Lavanya 2019).

The analytical models of big data can be broadly classified into three
categories:

1. Descriptive Analytics: Attempts at condensing and extracting useful

information from the data set and discarding irrelevant data from the
big data cluster. Typical approaches include pattern recognition and
statistical distribution methods to deduce useful patterns and make
useful inferences. These techniques are broadly used in traffic
monitoring, safety systems, and vehicle detection for automated
vehicles.
2. Predictive Analysis: Applied on a regulated data set where learning
algorithms are applied to establish a relationship between a target
variable and previously observed patterns or features. Learning
models, over time, can learn to infer and predict new target variables
for new input data, which might not be similar to any of the previous
examples over which the model was built. Such models are very
widely used in ITS, particularly by ride sharing platforms, such as
Uber, and traffic forecasting systems.
3. Prescriptive Analysis: Utilizes the information gained from both
descriptive and predictive analytics. It uses optimization techniques
to make informed decisions from a range of possibilities using
operational research, computational intelligence and mathematical
programming. Prescriptive analysis is widely used in active traffic
management, logistics optimization, and user-driven passenger
information systems.
54 Chapter 2.2

The Application of Big Data Technology in Intelligent

Traffic
Big data technology provides the technical ability to collect, analyze, and
process the transport data for development and application of ITS. Big data
applications can be broadly classified:

1. Traffic Flow Prediction for Better Planning and Management

The key requirement for effective traffic management and planning is

accurate and updated information related to the traffic flow. Big data
provides insight in terms of customer needs and demand on various routes
in the network. The monitoring and processing of real-time data and
previously stored data can be used to predict the traffic flow in real-time.
This will help the transport providers to better allocate their resources to
improve the planning of efficient routes, schedules, and frequency of
transportation modes. This data can also be used by the transport app
developers to help the user select the most efficient route with shortest
possible travel time. With the advancement of technologies, AI methods are
also used to undertake planning and demand modelling. Figure 2.2.2
represents the typical process flow for a traffic-flow prediction method (Zhu
et al. 2018). To obtain the effective data set, the original ITS data is first
pre-processed. With the pre-process data, a traffic-flow model is created
using a chosen data mining or analytic approach. The traffic-flow model
assists traffic management authorities in making decisions and receives
input from actual traffic flows in order to regularly calibrate the model.
 Big Data Processing and Storage 55

Figure 2.2.2: ITS Traffic-flow Model

Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)

Canaud et al. offer a real-time traffic-flow prediction model based on

probability hypothesis density filtering. Antoniou et al. offer a data-driven
computational method for local traffic flow condition prediction. Lu et al.
use the simulated annealing genetic method and fuzzy c-means (SAGA-
FCM) to create a traffic-flow condition grouping model.

2. Public Transport Operation Efficiency and Predictive Maintenance

Big data analytics can help to better streamline public transport services
planning to meet the demands of the user. The data can be used to predict
the daily OD trip patterns to understand travel behavior. In Istanbul, Turkey,
operational big data from automated fare collection (AFC) systems is used
for transportation planning management. Various research works in MIT
also highlight how data from London AFC can be used to enhance the rail
transport planning and operation. This data, combined with other data sets
from users, will help transportation apps to create an integrated travel
56 Chapter 2.2

planning and booking interface, including rail, buses, private cars, and other
FMLM modes like bicycle, e-scooter, etc. By lowering travel time, traffic
congestion, pollution, and greenhouse-gas emissions, big data analytics in
these transportation apps produces significant economic advantages. For
example, the opening of TfL data has resulted in the development of over
two hundred travel apps, creating a value proposition of fifteen to fifty-eight
million pounds per year.

Furthermore, the data from on-board units and other sensors installed on the
vehicle can be used to predict the optimal maintenance schedule for the
vehicle components like brakes, tires, and exhausts, etc. It will assist in
taking pre-emptive measures before the failure point is approached and
minimize maintenance costs. This will increase vehicle reliability and
reduce breakdown incidents during operations. Data from the probe vehicle
can also help in assessing infrastructure conditions of the route like
pavement degradation, track geometry, etc. Additionally, using historical
and aggregate traffic data, the overall operation efficiency of the transport
system can be enhanced by better traffic predictions and techniques like
congestion-based toll pricing.

3. Event Response Management and Safety Improvements

Efficient traffic data analyses can help authorities to take proactive steps to
draft policies and take measures to prevent and mitigate life threatening
accidents. Analysis of big data can improve emergency response time to a
huge extent. It can assist in predicting accident-prone areas and help create
user awareness while traveling on a particular route. It can help authorities
to effectively respond and make informed decisions to questions regarding
alternate means of transportation in the event of any disruptions. Big data
analysis will assist transport planners to create transport systems and
infrastructures that are resilient. Various studies have been undertaken to
show the efficiency of big data analytics in traffic accident analysis. Bédard
et al. determined the respective effect of driver, crash, and vehicle
characteristics to the fatality risk of drivers by using a multivariate logistic
regression algorithm. Results indicated that seat belt use, vehicle speed
reduction, and decrease in the number and severity of driver-side impacts
could prevent traffic accidents. Using measured traffic-flow data, Golob and
Recker studied the relationships between weather, lighting conditions,
traffic flow, and urban freeway accidents, with a multivariate statistical
model. Xiong et al. introduced classification and regression trees (CART),
logistic regression, and multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) to
perform analytical operations on motor vehicle accident injury data. Lee and
 Big Data Processing and Storage 57

Mannering presented a method that uses zero-inflated count models and

nested logit models to analyze run-off-roadway accident frequency and
severity on a 96.6 km section of highway in Washington State. They
highlighted certain measures that can be taken to decrease the frequency of
run-off-roadway accidents (Zhu et al. 2018).

Table 2.2.1 represents the big data sources and their characteristics in ITS.

Source Medium Data characteristics

Smart cards Smart cards used in OD flow, travel time
metros, buses and parking
etc.
GPS Vehicle GPS, apps using Vehicle position,
GPS like google maps travel time, vehicle
speed, vehicle density
Video Traffic surveillance Vehicle position,
camera travel time, vehicle
speed, vehicle
density, vehicle
classification
Roadside sensor Induction loops, Vehicle position,
equipment on toll plaza, travel time, vehicle
LIDAR, microwave radar, speed, vehicle
road tubes density, vehicle
classification
Floating car On board units, OD flow, travel time,
reader transponders, license plate vehicle position
readers
Wide area Airborne sensors, cellular OD flow, travel time
sensors device tracking
Connected and Multiple sensors Travel time,
automated supporting CAV coordinate speed,
vehicles operations vehicle speed, vehicle
acceleration, safety
data
Passive Social media, mobile Travel time, OD flow
applications phone
Other sources Smart grid, smart meters Vehicle location,
vehicle details
Table 2.2.1: Big Data Source and ITS Characteristics
Source: Author’s compilation
58 Chapter 2.2

Table 2.2.2 represents the big data approaches used for various applications
in ITS.

Category Application Year Big data

approach
Driver Multi-sensor data fusion for 2012 Big data fusion
assistance instrumented vehicles
and Efficient vehicle design 2015 Big data
instrumented analytics
vehicles Driving data fusion 2016 Big data fusion
techniques
RDMP framework for 2016 Big data
ADAS platform
Driving tendency 2016 Big data
recognition method analytics
Behavior and vehicle 2016 Big data
dynamics risk analysis framework and
policies
Mobile agents for data 2017 Vehicular
management in vehicular networks
network
Traveler Big Data schemes in social 2016 Big data social
information transportation system Transportation
Guidelines to pioneer public 2016 Big data services
transport
Roadway Roadway control 2016 Big data
operation environmental footprint analytics
and Traffic congestion on 2016 Big data
management limited access roadways analytics
Road traffic operation 2016 Big data
Traffic Traffic-flow prediction 2015 Big data
management based on deep learning predictive
analysis
RC evolution patterns 2015 Big data real-
time analysis
OD matrix generation 2017 Big data
analytics
Transit Route-planning services 2016 Big data
management optimization analytics
Bus planning 2016 Big data
analytics
 Big Data Processing and Storage 59

General traffic planning 2016 Big data

using IoT analytics
Safety analysis based on 2016 Big data
simulation
Pedestrian planning 2017 Big data
analytics
Measuring and monitoring 2017 Big data fusion
transit system performance and analysis
Emergency Detection of incidents into 2016 Big data social
and incident public infrastructure sensor data
management Predict safety risks over rail 2016 Big data
incident data analytics
Resilience of taxi and 2016 Big data
subway trips
Transport Assessment of external 2013
Big data fusion
modes force acting on ship and analytics
Condition-based 2015 Big data
maintenance railway system streaming
analysis
Railway risk analysis 2015 Big data
visualization
Table 2.2.2: Big Data Approaches and ITS Applications
Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)

Big Data Architecture for ITS

Big data is collected from different sources as structured data, like JSON
and XML, and as unstructured data in the form of images, sound, and
videos. These varied kinds of data are distributed in different systems to
make dynamic decisions. Due to the data’s characteristics, specific big data
architecture for ITS is used to analyze and store the process. Collected data
is converted into a homogenous format and subjected to a type of data
integration process known as extract, transform, load (ETL).

The architecture of big data analytics in ITS, as illustrated in Figure 2.2.3,

can be divided into three layers:

1. Data collection layer: This forms the fundamental base of the big
data architecture for ITS. It consists of data from sources such as
induction loop detectors, video surveillance systems, remote sensing
60 Chapter 2.2

applications, radio frequency and microwave radars, identification

data, and GPS, GPRS, etc.
2. Data analytics layer: This layer forms the core computing layer of
the architecture system. This layer is largely responsible for
acquiring data from the collection layer and then implementing
different big data analytics techniques and platforms to undertake
data storage, harvesting, mining, analysis, management, and
dissemination.
3. Application layer: This is the uppermost layer of the architecture
system. This layer categorizes and generates structured information
for different transport requirements, like traffic-flow prediction,
traffic guidance, signal control, and emergency rescue, etc., based on
the deduction from the data process results from the analytics layer.

APPLICATION
LAYER
DATA Traffic-flow
COLLECTION DATA prediction
LAYER ANALYTICS Public
Roadside LAYER transport
sensors Data storage planning
Floating car Data Asset
sensors management maintenance
Smart card Data mining Signal control
Video Data Traffic
surveillance harvesting guidance
RFID Data analysis Traffic
anomaly
GPS Data sharing detection
Social media
Operation
management

Figure 2.2.3: Big Data Architecture for Intelligent Transport Systems

Source: Torre-Bastida et al. (2018)
 Big Data Processing and Storage 61

The data collection layer transfers structured, unstructured, and mixed data
to the data analytics layer. Once the data analytics layer receives the data, it
categorizes the data, removes redundancies, clears the data, and distributes
the useful data in a structured manner. Once this is done, various
mathematical computation techniques, including descriptive analysis and
predictive analysis, are used to extract underlying details and probable
patterns. Using this analysis, the application layer then provides the final
output, specific to user demands, like identifying high traffic congestion
areas, predicting volume of traffic flow at different hours of the day,
highlighting accident prone areas, implementing traffic control, etc., to
assist in efficient traffic management.

The collected data in ITS is usually stored in the NoSQL database. These
databases are compatible with a distributed database system and ideal for
big data architecture as they offer faster read-based query processing than
SQL databases. To allow rapid data processing, the big data platform makes
use of a distributed file system and parallel computing capabilities. NoSQL
works on the fundamentals of CAP theorem, which states that a distributed
database cannot provide certainty on more than two of the following:
capability, availability, and partition tolerance. This means that the database
needs to satisfy either i) CA capability and availability, ii) AP availability
and partition tolerance, or iii) CP capability and partition tolerance.

There are four distinct categories of the NoSQL database:

1. Key-value-based: It is a non-relational database that assigns simple

key values to the stored data. The data in the tables retrieved is based
on the unique identification key value pairs of each record. Examples
are Redis and Riak.
2. Document-based: This is usually used for data that is semi-structured
or unstructured. Xml or Json is used to store the data in the form of
documents. By employing the same document-model format as their
application code, document databases make it easier for developers
to store and query data. However, as the data is saved in document
form, reading of data is a time-consuming process. Examples are
MongoDB, CouchDB.
3. Columnar-based: These databases are ideal for aggregate functions,
online processing websites, and data collection based on timestamps.
This data is stored in columns and related columns are grouped under
one family. To refer data from any single column each row will have
a row ID. This database significantly reduces the amount of data to
be loaded from a fisk and reduces the overall I/O requirements of the
62 Chapter 2.2

disk. This database is suitable for data warehousing and big data
processing. Examples are Cassandra and Hbase.
4. Graph-based: It addresses the limitations of the relational databases.
This database represents and stores data in the form of graphs with
nodes, edges, and attributes to undertake semantic searches. An
example is Neo4J.

Big data architecture has two popular open-source software framework

ecosystems: Hadoop and Spark.

Hadoop Ecosystem: This ecosystem is ideal for analyzing data from

sources like GPS, smart card, sensors, social media, etc., in ITS and it is
illustrated in Figure 2.2.4. It is preferred where there is a requirement for
batch processing and data lakes. It applies ETL (extract, transfer, load)
methodology using tools such as HIVE, PIG and SQOOP. Transformation
rules are applied to the extracted data depending on the technical and
functional requirements of the user. This aggregated data is then hoarded in
the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).

Spark Ecosystem: This ecosystem is effective for applications that have

real-time data processing requirements like vehicle speed detection, vehicle
identification, real-time warning, etc. Spark adapts well to machine-learning
tasks as it allows data by the user to be loaded and queried repeatedly into
a cluster memory. The Spark ecosystem works with stream processing and
in-memory computing competence, along with resilient distributed dataset
(RDD), for high-speed execution (Ranjani and Sridhar 2016).

A) HADOOP ECOSYSEM B) SPARK ECOSYTEM

Figure 2.2.4: Hadoop and Spark Ecosystem

Source: Ranjani and Sridhar (2016)
 Big Data Processing and Storage 63

Real-time data processing is a key requirement of ITS to be fulfilled by the

big data processing platform. The Hadoop system proves to be inefficient
in transport data management for applications like dynamic toll
management where real-time decision making is required. Thus, a
combination of both Hadoop and Spark will provide more efficiency in
selection and analysis of data sets.

Figure 2.2.5: Framework of Apache Spark Using Hadoop Database

Source: Ranjani and Sridhar (2016)

Figure 2.2.5 shows an example of a typical framework of Apache Spark

using a Hadoop database. The real-time processing of data is executed by
the Spark streaming process while the Hbase (Hadoop database) increases
the efficiency of data retrieval by performing high-level feature extraction
and creating indexes for massive data sets. Spark Core has distributed
computational potential to carry out offline tasks. Apache SQOOP is a
widely used data injection system that is used to transfer data between
mainframes and big data process systems. A comparison of the Hadoop and
Spark system is presented in Table 2.2.3.
64 Chapter 2.2

Features Hadoop Spark

Data Supports batch processing Supports batch processing
processing and stream processing
Stream Supports large data sets in Supports micro batches
engine batches
Data flow Supports chain of stages, Supports DAG (Direct
one output of a stage is Acyclic Graph)
input for the next stage
Performance Performance is slow Better performance
because of batch because of stream
processing processing
Memory Configurable memory Automating memory
management management management
line of code Higher number of lines of 90 % less lines of code
code. than Hadoop

Machine Depends on external tools It has own machine

Learning like Apache Mahout learning library MLIB
SQL support Apache Hive helps to run Spark SQL helps to run
SQL queries SQL queries
Easy to use Hand code required for Easy to program because
each operation of high-level operators
Compatibility Compatible with Spark Compatible with Hadoop
eco-system ecosystem
Cost Less expensive hardware Expensive because it
requires more RAM to
run in-memory
Processing Because of map reduce In-memory processing is
speed processing is slow fast

Table 2.2.3: Comparison of Hadoop and Spark Features

Source: Mounica and Lavanya (2019)

Challenges in Big Data for Transportation Systems

1. Data collection: The accuracy of the big data process output is dependent
on the reliability of the gathered data. In ITS, the collected data may be
inaccurate or incomplete at certain times, for instance, not all vehicles
are equipped with GPS or other techniques to provide real-time location
data. Thus, big data in ITS tends to be less controllable in terms of
accuracy and quality. The requirement in terms of accuracy is also
 Big Data Processing and Storage 65

dependent on the service requirement. For example, an accident

management application requires more accurate data compared to
services like predictive rerouting. The solution to this issue is to invest
in new data collection technologies and increase data capturing
automation to reduce manual data entry errors.
2. Data Privacy: Another challenging concern related to data is privacy.
There is a high potential that the data related to personal privacy might
be leaked during data storage, transfer, or usage. Security concerns
include identity theft, user location tracking, excess data trace collection,
etc. There is a need for the government to develop holistic data privacy
laws to prevent unauthorized access to user data, including standard
guidelines related to the type and scope of data that can be published,
principles of data distribution, extent of data availability, etc. To
enhance data security, transportation agencies should rigorously control
personal data definitions, improve data security certification management,
and integrate more advanced algorithms.
3. Data Storage: The ability of existing infrastructure to store big data is
highly limited. Traditional methods are unable to cope with the large
volume of incoming complex data sets. There is a need to design a more
suitable and expandable data storage architecture. One such architecture
could be the usage of cloud big data services. Multi-cloud storage and
hybrid storage are developing as significant areas for big data storage as
the major public cloud storage providers, such as Google and Microsoft,
continue to expand their services with integrated big data capabilities.
Smart management systems that can give integrated analytics, along
with storage, are in high demand among businesses.
4. Data processing: Real-time processing is a crucial aspect of ITS
applications, this includes services like pre-processing of traffic data,
traffic state identification, real-time traffic control, dynamic route
guiding, and real-time bus scheduling. Traffic data, which comes in a
variety of forms from many sources, must be compared to previous data
and processed quickly. Thus, to process real-time outputs with such a
large and diverse data set is a key challenge for the application of big
data in ITS.
66 Chapter 2.2

References
Liu, Y. 2018. “Big Data Technology and Its Analysis of Application in
Urban Intelligent Transportation System.” Proceedings—3rd International
Conference on Intelligent Transportation, Big Data and Smart City,
ICITBS 2018 (January): 17–19.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ICITBS.2018.00012.
Mounica, B., and K. Lavanya. 2019. “Big Data Architecture for Intelligent
Transport Systems.” International Journal of Innovative Technology
and Exploring Engineering 8 (9): 1281–86.
https://doi.org/10.35940/ijitee.i8119.078919.
Ranjani, A. C. Priya, and M. Sridhar. 2016. “Spark– An Efficient
Framework for Large Scale Data Analytics.” International Journal of
Scientific & Engineering Research 7, 2 (February): 401–05.
Torre-Bastida, A. I., J. Del Ser, I. Laña, M. Ilardia, M. N. Bilbao and S.
Campos-Cordobés. 2018. “Big Data for Transportation and Mobility:
Recent Advances, Trends and Challenges.” IET Intelligent Transport
Systems 12 (8): 742–55. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-its.2018.5188.
Zhu, L., F. R. Yu, Y. Wang, B. Ning and T. Tang. 2018. “Big Data Analytics
in Action.” 266–94. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-7609-9.ch009.
 CHAPTER 2.3

ITS: OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction
Poznan lies on the Warta River in west-central Poland, in the Greater Poland
region. It is the capital and largest city of the Poznan province. See Exhibit
2.3.1 for the location of Poznan. It covers an area of 261.3 sq km and has a
population of about 550,000. Poznan is an important cultural, industrial, and
business center, and one of Poland's most populous regions with many
regional customs. It hosts a major international trade fair and has a strong
position in the field of academic education. The city has an extensive public
transport system, mostly consisting of trams. The city lies at the intersection
of two busy highways, between Berlin and Warsaw, and Gdansk and
Wroclaw, which run through the heart of the city. This has led to high levels
of traffic with heavy goods vehicles. Suburbanization has caused significant
changes in transport behavior. Like all the other larger cities in Central
Europe, the traffic in Poznan has also been increasing rapidly since the city
moved towards a market economy. Rising transport needs and growing
motorization have caused congestion problems. The authorities, therefore,
decided to introduce an intelligent transportation system and implement the
best innovative solutions to further support transport-related developments
and increase the efficiency of public transportation.

Previous Projects
To reduce the issues of congestion and pollution in the center of the city,
the CITYMAN Poznan project was introduced, in October 1996. With an
aim to solve these problems, a consortium was formed, which included a
leading Dutch supplier and the Polish consultancy firm PolTraffic. They
gained €1 million of support for a traffic management project from the
Dutch Government, through the international EUREKA program (a
European funding and support program, which specifically dedicates funds
to research-performing SMEs), in 1996. As a part of the project, a signal
controller upgrade plan was developed by the consortium for a pilot area of
Poznan. The pilot area also includes an arterial road. The signal controller
68 Chapter 2.3

upgrade plan included the development of a generic (single board computer)

black box device. The black box device locks on to and takes over the
control function of the existing controller, enabling traffic-responsive
control, central control and network optimization. Exhibit 2.3.2a shows
black box and Exhibit 2.3.2b shows the working of a black box. A high-
level library of control functions was also adjusted to local conditions and
regulations. This facilitated a fast creation of easily adaptable controller
software with advanced dynamic functionality. The arterial road experienced
a 30 % increase in capacity. The result of the project was the fulfilment of
the identified objectives, satisfaction on all sides and commercial
continuation of the project. Poznan has ordered over forty more black boxes.
The project sets a good example of public-private co-operation. The
challenges were met through a combination of professionally and commercially
motivated commitment (Traffic Management and Control System for the
City of Poznan).

Project: ITS Poznan

The ITS Poznan project was developed for the Wielkopolskie Voivodeship
within the area of the city of Poznan. The location of the ITS Poznan project
implementation is given in Exhibit 2.3.3. The main aim of the project was
to provide an integrated intelligent traffic management system. This
included design, delivery, implementation, and start-up in the road traffic of
Poznan on ITS-based solutions, particularly in the area of traffic control.
The project was mainly implemented in the part of the city located between
the following streets: Dąbrowskiego, Ğw. WawrzyĔca, ĩeromskiego,
Dąbrowskiego, Roosevelta and Gáogowska—the border of the city of
Poznan. The level of integration between the various components of the
system reflects the project innovativeness. Each of the components
exchanges data and information with the other components through a
common IT platform. The main assumption of the system is its openness,
i.e., the capability of working out program solutions that allows for building
new modules. It is to facilitate achievable solutions and expansion of the
system operation without the need to create new databases and tools to
obtain information.

The ITS Poznan provided a foundation for an innovative ICT system that
supports not only transport management in the city but also the management
of the other processes relating to key areas of city management. Firstly, all
the users are provided with real-time traffic data obtained from the
measuring stations. Then, the system helps in planning a journey through
 ITS: Operational Framework 69

the city on public transport. It makes use of the actual location of a given
public transport vehicle and estimated arrival or departure times. In
addition, special software will make it possible to book a place at buffer car
parks and automatically detect incidents that can have an adverse impact on
traffic conditions. An important factor is that the users of the system (i.e.,
residents of the city and users of transport infrastructure) experience both
social and economic benefits. Another important advantage is the savings
made due to lower costs and shorter travel times for the users. The openness
of the applied solutions and system architecture contributed to system
scalability. An agreement on the implementation of the “ITS for the City of
Poznan” project was signed on May 27, 2013. The first implementation
stage of the project was from May 27, 2013, to March 31, 2015. The ITS
Poznan project cost a total of PLN 96,151,121.83.

Objectives of ITS Poznan

To develop the traffic management system in Poznan, both the car transport
and public transport were improved through the following (Republic of
Poland 2014):

1. Monitoring of vehicle traffic on the road network and reducing road

network congestion.
2. More effective use of the existing road and transport infrastructure.
3. Improved travel conditions.
4. Speeding up the public transport, particularly trams.
5. Increased demand for public transport.
6. Making current information available to drivers and passengers
during their journeys.
7. Improved road user safety.
8. Monitoring and protection of the natural environment.

These objectives were achieved through the fulfilment of several more

detailed and interrelated tasks. These tasks included i) the development of
existing infrastructure, ii) the design and implementation of the IT platform,
iii) the development and implementation of a traffic model, and iv) the
enabling of dynamic and tactical management.

Proposals of ITS Poznan

The proposals of the ITS Poznan project are given below (Republic of
Poland 2014):
70 Chapter 2.3

1. Development of a traffic management system based on the existing

infrastructure.
2. Development of the existing MPLS (multiprotocol label switching is
a type of data-carrying technique for high-performance
telecommunications networks) backbone network, and design and
execution of optical fiber access network ETHERNET. It ensures the
transfer of all digital data between elements, including camera
images, data collected by traffic light control systems, passenger
information, location of means of public transport, etc.
3. Development of the urban broadband wireless communications
network by adding subsequent wireless nodes necessary for the
operation of the ITS in the full range of its functionality.
4. Design and implementation of an open IT platform integrating ITS
elements to ensure data exchange between the elements through
open communication protocols.
5. Construction of a server room and operations room together with
equipment for operator workstations, adaptation of premises in the
building that houses the traffic control center to the needs of system
use and operation.
6. Implementation of a traffic model in the transport network and a
technologically advanced traffic management system making short-
term predictions of traffic flow in the network and intelligent traffic
management possible.
7. Execution of a system of displays and variable message signs that
provide vehicle drivers with important information.
8. Development of priority systems for trams and buses in order to
speed up public transport.
9. Equipping vehicles with devices that enable communication with
road infrastructure and provision of in-vehicle passenger information.
10. Delivery and implementation of a public transport fleet management
system that monitors the transport service punctuality, on-line
presentation of location on a digital map, travel time prediction, and
provision of passenger information.
11. Design and implementation of a passenger information system,
including information displays at passenger stops and on the internet
portal.
12. Delivery and installation of elements of the road safety system: video
detection, including vehicle registration recognition, development of
the video surveillance system, and delivery and installation of sensor
stations.
 ITS: Operational Framework 71

13. Replacement of elements of traffic light control systems as well as

support structures and streetlamps.

The total amounts earmarked for investments in the area of ITS are given in
Exhibit 2.3.4.

Challenges in ITS Poznan

Several challenges were identified during the implementation of the project.
Firstly, there was a shortage of staff qualified in the area of information and
communications. They had very little experience or skills to work in the
municipal office to implement the project. This was overcome by
cooperation with scientific and research institutions as well as the support
of ICT entities from the private sector.

Secondly, there was the issue of interoperability of the new systems and
systems already in place, to gain synergy. This was important because there
were several projects being implemented at the same time. It was necessary
to avoid the use of different systems and on-board computers in each
project. In order to prevent this risk in the future, it was crucial to ensure the
openness of communications protocols.

Finally, delays in the construction of hard infrastructure and key nodes also
caused some difficulties. This needed proper and flexible managing, and
good organization (Intersessional Panel of the United Nations 2016).

Conclusion
The project aimed to improve and optimize the existing traffic system of the
city. The ITS improved the existing network of streets and tramways by
giving higher priority to public transport. The project increased the transport
efficiency, traffic flow, and its efficiency in Poznan. It has reduced the
number of individual car users by making better and more efficient public
transport. This has, subsequently, lowered the traffic congestions. It gave
necessary information to users of public transport as well as individual
drivers, thereby, incising traffic safety. Additionally, it contributed to
environmental protection by reducing fuel consumption and emission of car
exhaust fumes. The project also created and provided many applications for
mobile devices. It created applications, even, for differently abled persons.
Without the development of the project, it is unlikely that Poznan could have
72 Chapter 2.3

made such quick progress in upgrading to a traffic-responsive, centrally

connected network.

Exhibit 2.3.1: The Location of Poznan, Poland

Source: http://www.poznantours.com

Exhibit 2.3.2 a: Black Box for an Automobile

Source: Telematics.com
 ITS: Operational Framework 73

Exhibit 2.3.2 b: Working of a Black Box

Source: www.globaltruth.net
74 Chapter 2.3

Exhibit 2.3.3: ITS Poznan Project Implementation

Source: Republic of Poland (2014).

Exhibit 2.3.4: Total Funds Earmarked for Investments in ITS Projects

Total City Expenditure

Expenditure on ITS
Year on Infrastructure
in PLN
Investments in PLN
2010 23,373,100 87,259,833,202
2011 107,247,018 94,538,303,368
2012 191,853,431 59,459,596,842
2013 628,518,337 49,971,903,802
2014 (until 20 May
679,667,305
2014)
Note: 1 PLN = 0.27 US Dollar; 1 PLN = 17.25 Indian Rupee
Source: Data from Republic of Poland (2014).
 ITS: Operational Framework 75

References
“INTERSESSIONAL PANEL OF THE UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION
ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT (CSTD).”
2016. Budapest, Hungary, 11-13 January 2016.
Republic of Poland. 2014. Warsaw: Ministry of Infrastructure and
Development, 72.
Traffic Management and Control System for the City of Poznan. n.d.
Accessed June 26, 2017.
http://www.transport-research.info/project/traffic-management-and-
control-system-city-poznan.
 CHAPTER 2.4

ITS: AUTOMATION AND PEOPLE FRAMEWORK

Overview: The Paris Subway

The Paris Subway is a rapid transit system in the Paris Metropolitan Area.
It is the second busiest subway system in Europe, after the Moscow Metro.
It is mostly underground and is 214 km long. It has 303 stations and sixteen
lines, numbered one to fourteen, with two further lines. It is among the
world’s oldest subways because thirteen of its lines were developed between
1900 and 1935. Line 1 was the first metro line ever run in Paris, in 1900. It
goes from East to West and serves many business districts as well as most
historical places and tourist spots within the city of Paris. The Metro is
operated by the Regie Autonome des Transports Parisiens (RATP), founded
in 1948 as a state-owned company. It is a public transport authority that also
operates part of the RER (Reseau Express Regional) network, bus services,
light rail lines and many bus routes. By 2001, RATP had expanded and
modernized the subway, bus lines and developed a tramway line. All the
Parisian subway lines were equipped with traffic lights and cameras during
the same year.

Most of the driving on all subway lines was done by the automatic pilot
(Line 10 was an exception). It maintained a constant speed and helped the
drivers to stick to the speed limits. If the automatic pilot was deactivated,
the driver had to drive the train manually with a device that allows the
person to accelerate, decelerate and stop the train. See Exhibit 2.4.1 for a
picture showing a subway driving cabin. The train traffic was controlled by
the chefs de regulation (heads of regulation) at a centralized command-and-
control center. The other positions at RATP included chefs de manceuvre
(heads of movement), chefs de depart (heads of departures), station agents,
ticket controllers, security agents, cleaning staff, maintenance employees,
salespeople, managers and drivers. Recently, in 2016, it had been ranked as
the best public transport system in the world by ITDP (The Institute for
Transportation and Development Policy) with 100 % of people in Paris
having easy access to rapid transportation.
 ITS: Automation and People Framework 77

Metro Automation
In metro systems, the term automation implies that the responsibility for
operation and management of the trains is transferred from the driver to the
train control system. There are various degrees of automation, depending on
the basic functions of train operations. These are shown in Exhibit 2.4.2 in
the form of a picture. The picture also shows the different types of train
operations with respect to each grade. Technical progress has made train
control systems capable of supervising, operating, and controlling the entire
operational process. The key elements for this are automatic train protection
(ATP), automatic train operation (ATO), and automatic train control (ATC).
ATP has equipment which avoids i) collisions, ii) red-signal overrunning,
and iii) exceeding speed limits by applying brakes automatically. ATO
ensures partial or complete automatic train piloting and driverless
functionalities. It also performs all the functions of the driver, except for
door closing. ATC performs normal signaler operations, such as route
setting and train regulation, automatically. The ATP, ATO, and ATC
functions are performed by on-board and wayside equipment, which
exchange data (UITP 2012).

Global Experience
Unattended Train Operation (UTO) has many benefits and beneficiaries:
customers, operators, funding authorities and staff. UTO means that there is
no driver in the front cabin of the train, or no accompanying staff, assigned
to a specific train. It is a widespread solution and thirty-two cities have
already opted for automated metros in four continents. The highest usage is
in Europe (32 %) and Asia (40 %). See Exhibit 2.4.3a for a map showing
the cities with automated metro lines, as of 2013. Four new lines joined the
UTO club: i) U Line (Uijeongbu) and EverLine (Yongin), both in South
Korea, and ii) Line 5 (Milan) and Line 1 (Brescia), both in Italy. There are
currently 674 km of automated metro in forty-eight lines that, together,
serve 700 stations. Some of the longest metro lines in the world are
automated. See Exhibit 2.4.3b for a graph showing the kilometers of
automated metro in 2013, by city (World Atlas Report 2013).

Benefits of Automation
There are many benefits associated with UTO. Some of the benefits are
listed below (UITP 2012).
78 Chapter 2.4

1. Increase in quality of service: Enhanced reliability of trains because

of better predictability of operations.
2. Greater flexibility in operation: Offers a more tailored service
coverage; frequency of trains can be modified accordingly, as per the
demands (peak and off-peak hours).
3. Impressive safety records: Reduces the human-risk factor and
dangers, such as over speeding, driver fatigue, etc., are minimized.
Platform screen doors prevent technical incidents and accidents.
4. Financial feasibility: Automation costs are relatively low for new
lines. The majority of the costs are for the rolling stock, the signaling
and control systems, and platform and track protection system.
However, metro is also affordable for smaller cities.
5. Operational cost factors: Staff and energy gains. Automated lines
halve the operational costs as staff costs are reduced. Even in the
cases of line conversion, staff are likely to be retained and deployed
to other functions. Acceleration and deceleration patterns can be
adjusted to reduce energy consumption and maximize energy
recovery, thus, reducing the energy costs.
6. Holistic efficiency and organization opportunities: The introduction
of a sophisticated computerized system and operation control center
(OCC) helps in reviewing most operation processes and assess their
improvement. Maximum benefits from installed data processors are
extracted for better performance at optimized costs.

Overview of RATP
RATP manages the Paris Transportation System, made up of fourteen
subway lines, two fast train lines (RER), three hundred buses, and two tram
lines. When Bailly was RATP’s CEO, in 1994, he worked on the
development of a new subway line, which was supposed to be Paris’ first
driverless and automatic subway line (Line 14). Inaugurated in 1998, Line
14 was 8.5 km long and had 242 employees, which was the most highly
staffed line of the network. The line had no drivers but had several
employees to manage the public and supervise the trains. Line 14 also
became a marketing tool for RATP. During the same year, in order to
expand its international presence, RATP also created a subsidiary, RATP
International. It overlooks foreign transportation networks. RATP owns two
other subsidiaries: i) RATP Engineering provides consultancy services, and
ii) RATP France manages public transportation networks in other French
cities.
 ITS: Automation and People Framework 79

The organizational structure of RATP includes a CEO, an executive

committee of seven members, and an administrative board. The administrative
board comprises twenty-nine members, which include the executive
committee members, as well as representatives from the French state, public
figures, and nine representatives elected by the employees. The RATP
Group’s activities were performed by several departments. RATP has a
decentralized structure; each department has a director and is an
independent company. There were eight trade unions at RATP, to organize
elections and to take important decisions related to economic change,
organization, and even dismissals.

Modernization of Line 1
Line 1 has a rail length of 16.6 km, twenty-five stations, and fifty-two trains
in circulation, in 2001. It serves sixteen of the fifty most heavily charged
metro stations, as well as five major interchange nodes. It was the oldest and
first line of the metro. It was also the first line to install the centralized
command center, in 1967, and adopt the automatic plot, in 1972. Line 1 was
the most used metro line of the network, with twelve million trips per month.
The line served business districts of the city, along with many tourist places.
This resulted in unpredictable traffic peaks and led to difficulties in
managing the line. Trains were congested with travelers and this caused
delays. Therefore, Line 1 was chosen for automation due to the difficulty of
adapting supply to demand (Anteby, Corsi and Billaud 2013).

Reasons for automation: Automatic lines increased passengers’ safety by

ensuring control of the trains’ speed and eliminating accidents caused by
human error. Besides safety improvements, the automatic lines allowed
trains to run shorter intervals of time. This increased train circulation and
reduced the passengers’ waiting times. Full automation also allowed the
operator to anticipate variations in demand and adjust supply accordingly.
Moreover, the rails and equipment of Line 1 were getting old and in need of
maintenance. The last reason was that, if the project was to become
successful, it could promote RATP’s image in France and abroad.

Implementation: The automation project was a key element of the

modernization plan as well as an important marketing tool for RATP’s
expansion. The work of automation began in 2007, after convincing the
employees and trade unions. The project ended in 2011 with a total cost of
€629 million. The project timeline is given in Exhibit 2.4.4. Most of the
costs were for acquisition of new trains, while nearly €150 million was spent
on infrastructure. On November 2, 2011, the first eight automatic trains
80 Chapter 2.4

were circulated. See Exhibit 2.4.5 for pictures of the new Line 1 trains. Out
of fifty-two old trains, forty-nine trains were replaced; the new ones could
circulate faster and transport five times the passengers as the old ones, for a
capacity of 722 passengers per train. The system chosen by RATP is based
on CBTC (communication based train control) radio communication and a
virtual block signaling system. This allows train headways to be cut to as
little as 85 seconds; the earlier ones were 105 seconds. RATP has fitted half-
height platform screen doors to all Line 1 platforms, which are vital for
assuring that there are no passengers or staff on the tracks. By 2012, RATP
had grown into an international group with revenues, in 2011, of €5 billion.
It became the fifth largest operator of public transportation in the world.
RATP had its presence in twelve countries and forty French cities through
its subsidiary, RATP development (Anteby, Corsi and Billaud 2013).

Improvements made: After the successful operation of Line 14 for seven

years, the Automatic Train Operation System (ATOS) of Line 1, made the
following improvements: i) a reduced adhesion function considering the
environmental conditions (wet/dry track) in open air sections, ii) the
possibility of parking and starting trains in fully automatic mode at any
place on the line, and iii) treating audio-visual facilities, signaling
equipment, and platforms’ screen doors separately. The command control
of trains is developed in techniques of the common control command
program used in the modernization of the Paris Metro Network.

Stakes and Challenges: Transforming a subway that was built in 1900 into
an automatic line was quite challenging. The main stakes and challenges of
this project are shown (Systra 2013):

1. Modification and upgradation without disturbing the line operation,

while guaranteeing passenger and staff safety.
2. Renewal of Line 1 old equipment and systems.
3. Platform screen doors installation.
4. Interaction between the new and old systems, operating together and
in transition, with a progressive commissioning of the driverless
system.

Conclusion
Line 1 is the oldest, fastest, and most crowded line of the Paris Metro
Network. It is heavily loaded during rush hours, off-peak hours, weekends,
and holidays. Paris has proved that conversion is feasible, even in complex
and critical lines. Conversion projects are ever-increasing, mainly to
 ITS: Automation and People Framework 81

modernize signaling systems and the rolling stock. The project for
automating Line 1 comes within the range of RATP’s sustainable
development policy with feasible expenditure. Higher operating speeds cut
passengers’ travel times. Additionally, serious passenger accidents can be
minimized, and energy consumption is optimized. Automation inevitably
leads to high levels of complexity due to the required integration of multiple
subsystems. However, the advantages of an automated transport system
motivate the creation of new and sophisticated project management tools.
The Line 1 Conversion Project is an illustration of people management
skills and negotiations along with the deft use of technology to transition.
The success of this endeavor has vouched for the viability of such complex
upgradation projects, hence, encouraging them further.

References
Anteby, Michel, Elena Corsi and Emilie Billaud. 2013. Automating the
Paris Subway (A). Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Anteby, Michel, Elena Corsi and Emilie Billaud. 2013. Automating the
Paris Subway (B). Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Systra. 2013. Paris Metro—Line 1 Automation, France. France: Systra.
UITP. 2012. Metro Automation Facts, Figures And Trends. Belgium: The
International Association of Public Transport.
World Atlas Report. 2013. Observatory of Automated Metros . London:
UITP.
82 Chapter 2.4

Exhibit 2.4.1: Paris Subway Driving Cabin

Note: 1. Brake Traction Manipulator, 2. Speed Indicator, 3. Door Closure

and Closing, 4. Radio, 5. Closing the Doors (left or right).
Source: Braida, Aurelien. 2017. “Circulations des Metros et Reseau
RATP.” Le transport ferroviarie en images. Post on blog. Accessed June
29, 2017. http://sncf.ratp.free.fr/circulationsratp.htm.
 ITS: Automation and People Framework 83

Exhibit 2.4.2: Various Grades of Automation

Source: UITP. 2012. Metro Automation Facts, Figures and Trends.

Belgium: The International Association of Public Transport.
http://metroautomation.org/automation-essentials/what-is-metro-automation.
84 Chapter 2.4

Exhibit 2.4.3 a: Map Showing the Cities with Automated Metro Lines,
as of 2013

Source: World Atlas Report. 2013. Observatory of Automated Metros.

London: UITP.
 ITS: Automation and People Framework 85

Exhibit 2.4.3 b: Graph Showing the Kilometers of Automated Metro in

2013, by City

Source: World Atlas Report. 2013. Observatory of Automated Metros.

London: UITP.
86 Chapter 2.4

Exhibit 2.4.4: The Project Timeline

Project Timeline
Dec-02 Launch of feasibility studies
Apr-04 Report presented to RATP Board
Oct-05 Main contracts are awarded
Jul-07 Line works Begin
Dec-07 Signature of agreement with transport unions
Oct-08 Reception of the first MP05 at Valenciennes
Mar-09 Installation of the first platform screen doors
May-10 Service launch of the new centralized control command
Completion of platform screen door installation and works
Apr-11
on the line
First MP05 in automated mode is injected in the line during
08-Jul-11
daily commercial service, without passengers on board
03-Nov-11 Service launch of the first eight MP05 automatic shuttles

Source: UITP. 2012. Metro Automation Facts, Figures and Trends.

 ITS: Automation and People Framework 87

Exhibit 2.4.5: Pictures of the New Line 1 Trains

Source:
http://forum.skyscraperpage.com/showthread.php?t=133751&page=11,
https://www.railengineer.uk/2012/02/28/paris-metro-line-1-a-new-
beginning/, https://soundlandscapes.wordpress.com/tag/paris-metro-line-
1/, all access
 CHAPTER 2.5

ITS: POLICY FRAMEWORK

Introduction
In today’s world, traffic congestion has become a huge problem in most of
the urban areas around the globe. Increasing traffic congestion is limiting
urban mobility, impacting road efficiency, the environment, safety, and
cost, and contributing to an unsustainable economic environment and social
environment. The emerging concept of Intelligent Transport Systems
(ITS)—a combination of communications and real-time data, maps, databases,
and information processing—aims to provide solutions that alleviate the
aforementioned negative effects of traffic congestion. Deployment of ITS
has a wide range of benefits. It enables i) infrastructure owners and
operators to improve the quality, safety, and management of the transport
network, ii) individual travelers, drivers, transport operators, and authorities
to make better informed journey decisions, iii) network operators and third-
party service providers to supply advanced information services, increasingly
on a multi-modal basis, to all types of travelers, and iv) road users to drive
safer and smarter vehicles. However, the lack of supportive policy
frameworks limits the deployment of ITS.

The Transport Policy Objective

UK Government transport policies largely reflect the ambitions discussed
in the European Commission’s (EC)’s white paper, Transport Policy for
2010: Time to Decide. Similarly, European transport policy highlights
network management, road safety, and tackling congestion along with
sustainable mobility and economic policies. To make technology-related
initiatives the heart of the policy agenda, the EC has published an ITS
Vision and Policy. The vision incudes the goal to implement Galileo (the
European Union’s Global Satellite Navigation System, also called European
GPS)—under the “e-Europe” (an ambitious program aimed at making
information technologies as widespread as possible) banner—as a
complementary GPS, alongside the existing GPS system. It also encourages
greater deployment of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
 ITS: Policy Framework 89

technologies that use location referencing to support many ITS services.

Furthermore, it provides an additional policy support for advanced ticketing
and vehicle-related ITS, called e-Safety initiatives. The Trans-European
Road Network (TERN) aims to improve the internal road infrastructure of
the European Union, unlock barriers, and encourage more effective cross-
border transport. It supports demonstrations of harmonized ITS deployment
through its Multi-Annual Indicative Program. Other funding is available
through the European Framework Research Programs. Seven policy
dimensions, where ITS applications play a crucial role for road transport
and travelers, are listed below.

1. Improving road network management, including road pricing.

2. Improving road safety, by reducing collisions, casualties, and deaths.
3. Better travel and traveler information, helping to match supply and
demand by providing better information so that travelers can make
informed choices on when and how to travel.
4. Better public transport on the roads, supporting more reliable, safer,
more accessible, and more efficient services.
5. Supporting the efficiency of road freight efficiency.
6. Reducing negative environmental impacts.
7. Supporting security, crime reduction, and emergency planning
measures.

It is important to understand that the true potential of ITS rests in their

ability to resolve multiple issues simultaneously along with supporting cost-
effectiveness and efficiency. Also, greater co-ordination, convergence, and
interoperability of ITS must be ensured, both technologically and
administratively.

The European Policy Framework for Deployment of ITS

The EU has launched various initiatives to address existing and future
challenges in road transport systems, with a focus to overcome the slow and
fragmented uptake of ITS for the road sector. The EC’s ITS Action Plan and
the ITS Directives (Directive 2010/40/EU of the European Parliament and
of the Council adopted on July 7, 2010) are some dedicated EU legislation
on ITS across Europe. These supporting elements, coupled with other
necessary existing tools, foster ITS deployment to a new era, where
integrated, interoperable systems, and unified transport services become the
norm for Europe’s road transport system.
90 Chapter 2.5

The EC’s ITS Directives demonstrate the first EU-wide legislative basis for
the coordinated deployment of ITS for the road sector. It aims to establish
interoperable and seamless ITS services and promote harmonization. It sets
out priorities and principles for ITS deployment while leaving EU member
states the freedom to decide which systems to invest in. However, it should
be noted, the directives do not oblige member states to deploy ITS on their
territory. The directives are an important instrument for ITS implementation,
bolstering the measures adopted in the ITS Action Plan with a set of
enforceable legal provisions and helping to accelerate the deployment of
innovative transport technologies in the road transport system. The ITS
Action Plan mainly focuses on the following six action areas where the
government can play a major role by providing policy and institutional
support.

1. Optimal use of road, traffic and travel data (real-time traffic and
travel information; optimized collection and provision of road,
traffic and travel data; availability of accurate public data for digital
maps; and promotion of multi-modal journey planners and traffic
safety information services).
2. Continuity of traffic and freight management ITS services on
European transport corridors and in conurbations (continuity of ITS
services; e-Freight; ITS framework architecture; and electronic road
tolling).
3. Road safety and security (promotion of advanced driver assistance
systems and safety-related ITS; e-Call; safe on-board human-
machine interfaces; vulnerable road users; and services for safe and
secure truck parking places).
4. Integration of the vehicle into the transport infrastructure (open in-
vehicle platform; cooperative systems; I2I, V2I, V2V communication;
and standardization mandate).
5. Data security and protection, and liability issues (data security and
data protection; liability).
6. European ITS cooperation and coordination (legal framework:
Directive 2010/40/EU; a knowledge tool for decision makers;
funding ITS; and expert group on urban ITS).

Within seven years of the formation of the ITS Directives, the EC is to adopt
specifications to address the compatibility, interoperability, and continuity
of ITS solutions across Europe. The specifications cover technical,
functional, organizational, and service-provision issues in several areas. The
first priorities are traffic and travel information, emergency systems, and
intelligent parking for all commercial vehicles. The specifications should be
 ITS: Policy Framework 91

followed diligently during the deployment of ITS in EU member states. The

commission consulted experts and other stakeholders regarding existing
standards and conducted an impact assessment with cost-benefit analysis.

The European ITS Committee and the ITS Advisory Group will assist the
EC in the implementation of the ITS Directive. The European ITS
Committee is composed of representatives of the EU Member States and
the ITS Advisory Group consists of representatives of stakeholders such as
industries and service providers. The primary task of the ITS Committee is
to advise regarding standardization mandates and possible guidelines, while
that of the Advisory Group is to support the EC on the technical and
business aspects of ITS deployment. Additionally, these two bodies will be
able to give useful input for the framing of specifications under the ITS
Directive.

Conclusion
A transformation of the European transport system will only be possible
through a combination of manifold initiatives at all levels. ITS is a
technology-driven solution for the broader agenda of achieving a better
public transportation system. The success of ITS deployment is determined
by a combination of a perception of the value of ITS and a strong European
Union ITS industry. To build an inclusive ITS model, the government’s role
becomes crucial. Governments can pave the road to a successful ITS system
by i) being the regulator, by framing ITS-related policies and regulations,
and ii) creating a supportive environment for establishing ITS. It is crucial
that governments provide a policy, institutional, and regulatory framework
to enable speedy and proper development of ITS.

References
Department for Transport. 2005. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) The
Policy Framework for the Roads Sector. doi:PPU3617/ES.
Directorate General for Mobility and Transport. 2011. Intelligent Transport
System in Action. Luxembourg: European Commission.
doi:10.2832/44199.
Lin, S. S. 2003. AN INSTITUTIONAL DEPLOYMENT FRAMEWORK FOR
INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS. Cambridge, MA:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering.
 CHAPTER 2.6

ITS: BUSINESS FRAMEWORK

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) provide various operational, social, and

environmental benefits to the transport system. These benefits are based on
leveraging the ever-evolving technological developments and communication
standards of the ICT industry. Service standard and accessibility is
dependent on the quality of physical transport infrastructure and ICT
equipment. Most of the ITS applications require huge capital expenditure
(investment) with longer return periods for procurement and installation.
Despite the presence of technology and tools, the lack of cost-effective
integration of systems hinders large-scale deployment of ITS. Most
applications and ideas fail to develop beyond trial stages, mainly due to the
lack of an effective business model that is contextually relevant,
commercially sustainable, and socially/politically acceptable. During the
2015 to 2020 period, the ITS’ market grew at a steady pace all over the
world. A recent market study shows that, in the projection period of 2021 to
2028, the ITS market is anticipated to develop at a pace of 18.2 %. Under
the Intelligent Transport Systems Directive 2010/40/EU, the European
Commission decided to create the European Intelligent Transport Systems
(ITS) Advisory Group (2011/C 135/03), in 2011. The advisory group is
responsible for technical and business aspects to facilitate wide-scale ITS
deployment across Europe. The group consists of twenty-five members
representing ITS service providers, user associations, transportation and
infrastructure operators, the manufacturing industry, social partners,
professional associations, municipal governments, and other relevant
stakeholders.

Funding Mechanisms
The funding mechanisms for ITS projects can be broadly classified into
three categories:

1. Public funding
2. Private funding
3. Public-private partnership (PPP) model
 ITS: Business Framework 93

The huge capital investment makes public funding an essential requirement

for the deployment of ITS. Private funding is usually available for research
projects and trial runs and is often provided by industry players and OEMs.
Various PPP funding sources and opportunities are also provided by
national and regional governments.

The European Union has laid multiple structural funds and programs to
support the development of ITS. Even though some project aspects are
subject to public tender in many situations, the method of financing remains
public. Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) development is
supported through three main sources of funding: the Connecting Europe
Facility (CEF), the Cohesion Fund, and the European Fund for Regional
Development. These sources have a budget spread over a tenure of seven
years under the European Multiannual Financial Framework for 2014 to
2020. The CEF, with a total budget of €23.7 billion for the period 2014 to
2020, supports the implementation of ITS corridors and the deployment of
harmonized ITS services across the EU. The Innovation and Networks
Executive Agency (INEA) is responsible for managing €22.4 billion of
funding provided by the CEF. It is also responsible for managing a €6.3
billion fund, provided under Horizon 2020 between the period of 2014 to
2020. The financial support under the CEF is delivered in the forms of direct
grants from the EU budget and/or support for the application of innovative
financial instruments, developed in cooperation with trusted financial
institutions such as the European Investment Bank (EIB), Marguerite Fund,
Loan Guarantee Instrument for Trans-European Transport Network Projects
(LGTT), and Project Bond Initiative (Nikolova 2018). The European
Commission, European Investment Bank, and European Bank for
Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) created a Joint Assistance to
Support Projects in European Regions (JASPER). It helps in the absorption
of funds available under the CEF and the Instrument for Pre-Accession
Assistance (IPA) and, thus, acts as another source of funding for ITS
projects in Europe. The European PPP Expertise Centre (EPEC) was
created, in 2008, by the European Commission, to support the public sector
across Europe in delivering better PPPs. The Loan Guarantee for TEN-T
Projects (LGTT) is used for ITS deployment as part of the PPPs under the
TEN-T investment program. LGTTs are used as PPPs for the construction
of e-toll systems and charging for rail infrastructure. A list of ITS projects
and their funding sources is presented in Table 2.6.1.
94 Chapter 2.6

PROJECT NAMES SOURCE OF FUNDING

Digital Road for Evolving Connected and Conference of European

Automated Driving (DiREC), Driving Directors of Roads
Automated Vehicle Growth on National
Roads (DRAGON)

C-ROADS, Connected Corridor for Driving EU: Connecting Europe

Automation (CONCORDA), Interoperable Facility (CEF)
corridors (InterCor)

PRYSTINE, AutoDrive EU: Electronic components

and system for European
leadership (ECSEL)

I-AT, Sohjoa Baltic The European Regional

Development Fund (ERDF)

5G-Blueprint, 5G-CARMEN, 5G Cross- EU H2020

Border Control, AUTOPILOT, C-Mobile,
CARAMEL, CoEXist, Drive2TheFuture,
ENSEMBLE, ICT4CART, L3Pilot

C The Difference, Ride2Autonomy EU Tender

Aurora - The Intelligent Transport Cluster PPP

project, Data for Road Safety, Future
Mobility Campus Ireland. (FMCI), Dutch
Automated Vehicle Initiative (DAVI), Urban
ICT Arena, Smartwayz

Cruise4U, Bertha Benz Drive, Robopilot, Industry (Automobile

TIC-IT, FLOURISH manufacturers and OEMs)

@CITY, 5Stars, ACCORD, Autonomous and Multi stakeholders (Research,

Connected Vehicles for Cleaner Air Academia, Private, etc.)
(ACCRA), Autoconduct, AUTOMOST,
CAPRI, CO-existence Simulation Modeling
of Radars for Self-driving, (COSMOS (UK)),
Digibus Austria, Effects of Automated
Systems on Safety (EASY), Integrated
Cooperative Automated Vehicles (i-CAVE),
MultiCAV

Table 2.6.1: ITS Projects and Funding Sources

Source: Author’s compilation
 ITS: Business Framework 95

Sustainable Business Model

The implementation cost of ITS services is a key facet, which must be
addressed to ensure public acceptance and large-scale deployment. The cost
benefit analysis carried out for the 2016 Cooperative Intelligent
Transportation Systems (C-ITS) Deployment Study in Europe, by Ricardo
(2016), has shown that the potential benefits of C-ITS strongly outweigh the
costs. However, these benefits will take time to manifest, are largely societal
benefits that are difficult to be quantified in monetary terms for institutions
and companies, and rely heavily on coordinated and rapid implementation.
The main benefits, like increased safety, traffic time reduction, lower fuel
consumption, etc., go directly to the users and society at large, while the
upfront investment on deployment, operation, and maintenance needs to be
borne by service providers, road operators, vehicle manufacturers, and other
such decision-makers. Given the public-oriented benefits of ITS,
transferring these upfront costs to the public (i.e., the users) is a key
challenge; there is a requirement for a clearly defined business model.

A business model provides a link between the vision of the organization and
its approach to its process to create value. Most of the study on ITS has been
focused on technological aspects and implementation challenges pertaining
to rules and litigation related to ITS deployment. Such studies have widely
explored the economical evaluation of ITS projects using cost-benefit
analysis (CBA) as a tool and ignoring the aspect of creating a robust
business case. The lack of focus on exploring a sustainable business model
has created major challenges in translating technological possibilities into
real-world benefits to providers, users, and society.

One of the recent works discussing a business case of ITS (Zografos et al.
2008) uses a multi-criteria evaluation (MCE) method-developed business
model framework for demand responsive transport (DRT) targeting elderly
and differently abled people in Helsinki. The study has suggested a
methodology for identifying and ranking the most feasible business model,
based on criteria such as legal and regulatory framework, market opportunities,
and business vision and mission. The business models in ITS are dynamic
as they need to consider the divergent, unique, and transforming nature of
the transport sector. Osterwalder and Pigneur (2001) defined a holistic
approach to develop a business model based on four main pillars: a)
products and services, b) infrastructure and network of partners, c)
relationship capital, and d) financial aspects. In addition to the above-
mentioned pillars, credibility of stakeholders is another aspect that needs to
be considered to ensure a successful business model.
96 Chapter 2.6

1. Products and Services: The quality of products and services provided

in ITS is the driver of revenue generation and societal value
enhancements. Value creation starts with ITS component providers
like smart vehicle manufactures, ICT component manufacturers,
smart infrastructure providers, etc. These products are then provided
to the users to generate value propositions in terms of safety, reduced
travel time, reduced congestions, etc. Direct benefits generate user
interest and create a willingness to pay for these services, resulting
in a rolling economy. This, in turn, creates new opportunities for
companies to enter the market as service providers. The topmost
level creates external benefits, like reduced road congestion,
decreased private vehicle usage, reduced noise and air pollution, less
travel cost, etc., that enhance the overall social, environmental, and
economic conditions of the region.

ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

Saving on state budget, reduced pollution, decreased rate of accident, social

inclusion, etc.

ITS USER

Safety, reduced travel time, congestion management, travel experience

enhancement, etc.

ITS PROVIDER
Smart vehicle and infrastructure

Figure 2.6.1: Value Proposition for ITS

Source: Giannoutakis and Li 2011

2. Infrastructure and Network of Partners: This aspect focuses on

leveraging intelligent infrastructure and ICT components to enhance
service delivery and net value gained. ITS stakeholders consist of
governments, funding bodies, transport groups, automobile companies,
 ITS: Business Framework 97

communication technology companies, the energy sector, road users,

etc. It is essential to create a synergy in this multi-stakeholder
environment and identify key partners, their responsibilities,
incentives expected, and the nature of potential partnerships. While
discussing the business case, the challenges of compatibility between
ITS infrastructure and vehicles also needs to be addressed.
3. Relationship Capital: This aspect addresses the challenges related to
user concerns, customer relationships, and the ascertaining of users
by an ITS service provider. One of the key concerns with ITS is user
data collection and storage. ITS service providers need to gain trust
from users to supply their services.
4. Financial Aspects: This refers to the generation of profits and
revenue for the service provider by the usage of pricing models and
various tangible and intangible assets. Financial success is highly
dependent on the success of the aforementioned aspects. ITS require
hefty initial investments with a long returns period. A successful ITS
business model is one that has satisfactory returns and benefits to the
investors, along with the creation of a self-financing environment
after a stipulated duration.
5. Stakeholder Credibility: Beyond financial viability, the long-term
success of ITS is dependent on the support of all major stakeholders.
Stakeholder trust is a critical criterion for different interest groups to
avail possible advantages along with achieving broader gains at the
societal level.

A clear business model is needed for deploying ITS, as they cannot solely
rely on public funding, and requires the involvement of different industries
as well as public-sector stakeholders. It is essential to create a level-playing
(commercially sustainable) field for all the potential market actors to keep
them competitively ahead in designing innovative business models. The
value proposition for ITS is illustrated in Figure 2.6.1.

ITS Cost-Benefit Evaluation Methods

The prioritization of investment in ITS without a meaningful business case
is bound to face huge losses after deployment. Despite a possibly good
implementation, unpredictable circumstances—like driver and citizen
behaviors—may create problems.
98 Chapter 2.6

There are various methods to evaluate the socioeconomic impact of an ITS

project, such as i) traditional cost-benefit analysis (CBA), ii) multi-criteria
analysis (MCA), iii) sketch-planning, iv) before-and-after studies, v)
simulation studies, vi) “willingness-to-pay” analyses, vii) case-based
reasoning techniques, and viii) hybrid real options (HRO) methodologies.

CBA is a structured approach to determine the benefits and costs of multiple

investment options from a socioeconomical point of view. CBA is the most
used evaluation method for transport-sector stakeholders; it is used to
conduct at least 80 % of feasibility studies (Mans et al. 2011). Despite its
wide usage, CBA is criticized by researchers for a number of reasons; one
criticism is that forecasting, and handling of future uncertainties, is difficult
(Shapiro 2011). The method was first used in the transport sector for the UK
motorway project for the M1, in 1960. CBA is also used in Canada and the
US, by both federal and state transport departments (Transport Canada
1994; US Federal Highway Administration 2003).

MCA is also known as the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The key
difference between MCA and CBA is that priority is given to investment
efficiency rather than to cost to benefit ratio in MCA. Notably, MCA allows
the evaluation of criteria that are difficult to quantify in terms of money.
Some disadvantages include the subjectivity of decision makers and
variations by case, thus, stifling transferability (Leviäkangas et al. 2002).

Sketch-planning is a GIS-based technology that generates estimates of

transportation and land-use demand, and their implications on an order-of-
magnitude scale. Sketch-planning has been incorporated in a Florida
Department of Transportation (FDOT) evaluation to determine the
environmental benefits of ITS (Hadi et al. 2008). Two applications that are
typically utilized in ITS sketch-planning are Screening for Intelligent
Transportation Systems (SCRITIS) and the ITS Deployment Analysis
System (IDAS).

The “countdown” real-time information system on London transit has been

evaluated using “willingness-to-pay” studies. HRO is a relatively new
evaluation framework, introduced in the early 2000s by joint research from
Neufville, MIT Technology and Policy, James E Neely III, and consultancy
firm Booz-Allen and Hamilton Inc. (Neely and Neufville 2001). The
method is widely used in academic research but not in practice. HRO has
been applied to different investments where uncertainty is a large
component, such as product platforms, risky R&D projects, and large-scale
infrastructure investments (Jiao 2012; Houge and Westlie 2011).
 ITS: Business Framework 99

The following tables, 2.6.2, 2.6.3. 2.6.4 and 2.6.5, represent key benefits of
ITS that contribute positively in ITS cost-benefit analysis.

Benefits of Traveler Information

Specific
component of the Measured Reported
References
information benefits improvement
system
European
Integrated system Reduction of
2.7 % Commission
in Europe fatal crashes
2013
European
Integrated system Reduction of
1.8 % Commission
in Europe injury crashes
2013
Reduction of
Integrated system
incident-related 70 % Ezell 2010
in Tucson, Arizona
delay
Integrated system
Fuel saving 11 % Ezell 2010
in Tucson, Arizona
Changing route
Khattak
leading to time
Pre-trip information 30 %–60 % 1996; Jou
savings, reduced
1997
driver frustration
US DOT
Pre-trip information Reliability 5 %–16 %
2015a
Changing route Benson
Variable message
leading to time 30 %–40 % 2001;
signs
savings Bertini 2005
Variable message Travel time Nielson
7 %–22 %
signs reduction 2003

Table 2.6.2: Benefits of Traveler Information

Source: Tomecki, Yushenko and Ashford (2016)
100 Chapter 2.6

Benefits of Traffic Control and Management

Specific
component of
Measured Reported
traffic control References
benefits improvement
and
management
Advanced signal Travel time 8 %–20 % Nielsen 2003
control saving
Incident Reduction in 40 % Bertini 2005
management incident duration
Incident Reduction in 77 min to 33 Pretrov et al.
management incident duration min 2002
Incident Reduction in 41 % Bertini 2005
management crashes
Ramp metering Reduction in 27 %–50 % Bertini 2005;
crashes Nielsen 2003
Ramp metering Travel time 65 % Bertini 2005;
saving Nielsen 2003
Ramp metering Speed increase 55 km/h to 75 Kang and
km/h Gillen 1999
Parking Time to find 50 % DfT 2015
management parking

Table 2.6.3: Benefits of Traffic Control and Management

Source: Tomecki et al. (2016)
 ITS: Business Framework 101

Benefits of Public Transport Management

Specific component of
Measured Reported
public transport References
benefit improvement
management
Vehicle location and On-time 78 %–83 % Hu 2002
dispatch arrival
Vehicle location and Reliability 35 % Bertini
dispatch improved 2005
Real-time pre-trip Traveler 42 % Bertini
information satisfaction 2005
Signal pre-emption Variability 29 %–59 % Bertini
of travel 2005
time
Signal pre-emption Reduced 5s/intersection Bertini
delay 2005
Signal pre-emption Reduction 50 % Bertini
in stops 2005
Integrated ticketing Patronage 7.5 % annual Booz 2009
increase
Integrated ticketing Revenue 10 % Booz 2009
increase
Integrated ticketing Benefit– 5.6–7.8 Paddington
cost ratios 2011

Table 2.6.4: Benefits of Public Traffic Management

Source: Tomecki et al. (2016)
102 Chapter 2.6

Benefits of Enforcement
Specific
component
Reported
of the Measured benefits References
improvement
enforcement
system
Speed Reduction of 3 %–7 % FHWA 2006
enforcement violations
Speed Crash reduction 85 % FHWA 2006
enforcement
Speed Noise level 3db (A) Chen and
enforcement reduction Miles 1999
Speed Emission reduction 15 %–25 % Chen and
enforcement Miles 1999
Red-light Reduction in 20 %–60 % Chen and
cameras violations Miles 1999
Red-light Crash reduction 44 %–54 % Bunch 2011
cameras
Red-light Injury crash 44 % Baththana and
cameras reduction Durdin 2014
Red-light Fatal crash 67 % Baththana and
cameras reduction Durdin 2014

Table 2.6.5: Benefits of Enforcement

Source: Tomecki et al. (2016)

References
Giannoutakis, K. N., and F. Li. 2011. “Developing Sustainable e-Business
Models for Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).” In Building the e-
World Ecosystem. I3E 2011. IFIP Advances in Information and
Communication Technology, vol. 353, edited by T. Skersys, R. Butleris,
L. Nemuraite and R. Suomi, 200–11. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.
Nikolova, Christina. 2018. “Entrepreneurial Environment for Intelligent
Transport Systems Deployment.”
Ostenwalder, A., and Y. Pigneur. 2002.An eBusiness Model Ontology for
Modeling eBusiness. Bled, Slovenia.
Tomecki, A. B., K. Yushenko and A. Ashford. 2016. Considering a Cost-
benefit Analysis Framework for Intelligent Transport Systems February
2016. Retrieved from www.nzta.govt.nz.
 ITS: Business Framework 103

Zografos, K. G., K. N. Androutsopoulos and T. Sihvola. 2008. “A

Methodological Approach for Developing and Assessing Business
Models for Flexible Transport Systems.” Transportation 35 (6): 777–
95.
 CHAPTER 2.7

ITS: INNOVATION FRAMEWORK

Introduction
In the modern world, technological advancement highly influences our
personal choices, how we communicate, and even where we live and work.
It is a rapidly changing society and economy. A substantial increase in
inexpensive computing power, especially the advanced development in
ICTs, is radically changing access to information and services. The effects
of new technologies and different models of transportation service delivery
are extensive and likely to transform the movement of people and goods in
the near future. Modern technologies have given a new meaning to the urban
transportation system, with new innovative transportation technologies
constantly evolving and making their way into the mainstream. These
emerging technologies, driven in part by communication systems, have
redefined transportation as we know it.

Over the past few decades, the automobile and technology (especially
information and communication) industries have marked a huge success in
bringing computerization and wireless capabilities into motor vehicles;
technologies that allow sensors and software to replace some or all of the
functions in driving is commonplace now. Emerging vehicle technology,
infrastructure, communication, and roadway technology have significant
positive prospects in improving urban transportation systems. Understanding
these emerging trends and opportunities, and their potential ramifications
on the urban transportation sector, is important to consider. Additionally,
the range of impacts of transportation investment should be considered
when forming federal, state, and local transportation policies. Innovative
products like driverless cars, developed by Google and Hyperloop
Transportation Technologies, currently being tested in Dubai, have a great
potential to change the future of the urban transport system.

Proper research, investigation, review, and adaptation of emerging trends

and capabilities is an important part of the US Department of Transportation’s
(USDOT) mission to ensure a fast, safe, efficient, accessible and convenient
 ITS: Innovation Framework 105

transportation system in the United States. The San Diego Association of

Governments (SANDAG) serves as the forum for regional decision-making
for the San Diego region, under the umbrella of USDOT. SANDAG has
deployed several ITS model programs, systems, and regional communications
networks that have transitioned from implementation to pilot or normal
operations. San Diego County along with the six other Southern California
counties have collectively been designated by Congress as a national ITS
demonstration corridor. SANDAG administers the demonstration project on
behalf of twenty-two agencies that make up this important multiregional
effort to build a Southern California Transportation Systems Management
(TSM) Network. The TSM Network includes subsystems to better manage
the region's freeways, roads, transit, incidents and emergency response,
special events, commercial vehicle operations, and traveler information.

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS)

ITS are the application of technologies to existing transportation systems,
including vehicles, road infrastructure, traveler information, transit, bikes
and pedestrian networks, and payment systems, to maximize the efficiency
of those services. It offers the potential for more effective and efficient
transportation operations and service delivery. Emerging ITS technologies
can greatly influence transportation choices across all modes of travel.
SANDAG already has a regional ITS program in place, which provides a
solid foundation to incorporate emerging technological advancement in the
transportation system. The program mainly focuses on planning,
implementation, operation, and deployment of ITS technologies. Emerging
technologies should be well integrated into a transportation system to
determine their improvement capabilities. The progress and benefits of
existing and planned project investments should be thoroughly assessed.

Latest Developments in ITS

The way we make our daily travel decisions is set to change dramatically
over the next twenty years. One of the key drivers of this change will be
technology. Over the years, technological advancement has changed the
transportation scenario. We can classify the developments in the
transportation sector into five key components, namely, i) communication
technology (internet, broadband, Bluetooth, wireless network, signaling
systems, etc.), ii) computational technology (software applications,
geospatial devices, GPS, maps, etc.), iii) data processing technology (cloud
storage and processing of VLDBs, etc.), iv) vehicular technology
106 Chapter 2.7

(Hyperloop, driverless cars, AGVs, etc.), and v) infrastructure development

(bridges, flyovers, tracks, roundabouts, etc.).

1. Communication Technology

This includes automatic data collection systems including automatic vehicle

location systems, automatic passenger counting systems, advanced passenger
information systems, and electronic fare payment and ticketing systems.
These are becoming ubiquitous in large networks as they have a substantial
impact on the availability, quality, and controlling of information for the
planning of services and operations. In a modern transportation system,
communication technology plays a crucial role. The entire system is hugely
based on the communication system, either vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I)
or vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communications. Most components—such as
the traffic system, control system, traffic-control system, surveillance, and
operation center—work on communication technology through the internet
and other networks.

2. Cooperative Vehicle Highway Systems

The emerging innovative aspect of cooperative vehicle highway systems

(CVHS) is that they involve vehicle-to-infrastructure (V2I) and vehicle-to-
vehicle (V2V) communications. CVHS communicate information
dynamically between each vehicle and to the infrastructure. The goal is to
advise and take actions with the objective of improving sustainability,
safety, comfort, and efficiency. The scope of CVHS is wide; it ranges from
driver-warning mechanisms to taking control in dangerous/critical
situations. The scope excludes two conditions: i) vehicle-based systems that
receive non-dynamic information from the infrastructure, such as temporary
speed limits, and ii) applications where the driver is taken out of the loop
under some or all normal driving conditions. Much of the recent research
has focused on the interoperability of CVHS and a common platform for the
various applications of it. The European project, Pre-Drive C2X, defined
three different types of CVHS application: traffic efficiency, safety, and
infotainment/business/deployment.

3. Computational Technology

Recent advancements in vehicle technology have permitted using fewer but

more powerful computer processors in vehicles. These microprocessor
modules, with hardware memory management and real-time operating
systems, are more expensive. The new system allows a more sophisticated
software implementation, including model-based process control, artificial
 ITS: Innovation Framework 107

intelligence, and ubiquitous computing. It tries to improve the safety,

mobility, and sustainability of the transport system by taking advantage of
ICT and ubiquitous computing.

Geospatial devices and high-quality maps are very crucial for advancements
in vehicular technology. With the application of geospatial devices and
maps, vehicles locate other vehicles, infrastructure, and routes, and,
accordingly, find the most suitable route. An increasing number of vehicles
are equipped with GPS systems, that have two-way communication with a
traffic data provider. Position readings from these vehicles are also used to
compute vehicle speeds, and to determine traffic signal priority.

4. Data Processing Technology

Data processing is the collection and manipulation of vast quantities of

traffic data to produce meaningful information. Recent development in data
processing technology has made it possible to collect and analyze huge
volumes of traffic data, with fast processing to produce real-time required
information to the user as well as to the traffic control center. With the
evolvement of cloud storage, it is possible to safely store and maintain large
databases online, which can be shared with users as well as with transport
agencies. In cloud-based computing, data, applications, services, and
infrastructure are provided through the cloud, hosted on remote
infrastructure, available anywhere. The advantages are that i) all users can
access the latest data, ii) terminals and user devices can be of lower
computing power, iii) there is no need for large capital outlay or specialist
IT skills, iv) the cloud operator handles back-ups and software upgrades,
and v) implementation is highly scalable.

Advancements in data processing technology have made it possible for

emerging technologies, like self-driving cars, to collect and process data
very fast and take real-time actions automatically. Fast data processing
technologies are integrated with the system to make it quicker and smarter.
With such a large, wide range of traffic data, it is important to have
advanced data processing technology in order to achieve intelligent
transport systems.

5. Vehicular Technology

Every day, automobiles equipped with increasingly sophisticated

autonomous driving technologies are coursing onto the world’s roadways.
There is a remarkable amount already known about the capabilities of these
technologies, even in the face of unpredictable driving situations. But, in
108 Chapter 2.7

addition to the road, these systems must interact with something far more
complex: the driver, who is gradually becoming a part-time passenger in
their own car. Tesla’s and Volvo’s semi-autonomous systems, which allow
drivers to relinquish control of their vehicles for periods of time, represent,
perhaps, the leading wave of the single greatest shift in vehicle automation
since the introduction of automatic transmission. Google Car and Hyperloop
are other models that promise great potential in revolutionizing automated
transportation. Other advanced driver assistance systems, such as automatic
emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, and lane-keeping assistance,
are rapidly becoming standard features. Soon, such technology will likely
become the norm across the vehicle fleet.

6. In-Vehicle Warning and Control Systems / Advanced Driver

Assistance Systems

At different levels of development and deployment, there is a wide range of

in-vehicle warning and control systems. These systems are considered to be
a level below a fully autonomous vehicle. They support drivers by giving
warnings, providing information, and taking over specific elements of
vehicle control.

Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA)

ISA is a driver-assistance system that applies real-time information from the

road to assist vehicle speed control. ISA can take three broader forms: i)
advisory/informative displays give real-time information to the driver
regarding speed limits on the road taken and is useful in cases like driving
through foreign countries and during road works; ii) optional/voluntary ISA
limits the vehicle speed according to the speed limit on the road taken and
can be overruled by driver; iii) mandatory ISA limits the vehicle speed as
per the speed limit on the taken road and cannot be overruled by the driver.

Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV)

AGV is a mobile robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses
vision, magnets, or laser for navigation. AGV is most often used in
industrial applications to move materials around a manufacturing facility or
warehouse. Real-time wireless communications enable intelligent navigation
technology to modify AGV movement based on constantly varying
surroundings. This means that AGVs are not constrained to a defined path.
Properly positioned access points define the accessible work area;
depending on the size of the work area, the application could require as little
as a single access point or an entire network of access points. Data is
 ITS: Innovation Framework 109

transferred between the control system and vehicles via industrial point
coordination functions (IPCF) or industrial point coordination function-
management channels (IPCF-MC). Standard data, such as transport orders,
status messages, and fail-safe communication, can run in parallel on the
same connection. For this purpose, every vehicle is equipped with an
industrial ethernet client module that is connected to the vehicle controller.
Because there is no wired connection, communication between the control
system and the battery-operated vehicles, and between the vehicles
themselves and their surroundings, must run on a reliable and robust
wireless network.

Driverless Cars and Other Autonomous Technologies

During the last few years, driverless cars / autonomous technologies have
marked a great development. An autonomous car is a vehicle that can sense
its environment and navigate without human input. There has been an
interest in driverless cars, particularly in the military sector. The main
benefit of driverless cars in the military is that the cars could be deployed in
war zones with attenuated risks to service personnel.

Various vehicle manufacturers and research organizations have recently

developed driverless vehicle demonstrations. These vehicles work using a
combination of many technologies such as lasers, video detection, radar,
GPS, odometry, computer vision, and wheel sensors. An advanced control
system interprets sensory information to identify appropriate navigation
paths, distinguish between different cars on the road, as well as obstacles
and relevant signage. Some examples include Google Car, GM Driverless
Car, Stanford “Junior,” Tesla, Uber Driverless Car, Volvo Drive Me Project
and Volkswagen GolfGti Automatic. To date, the automated cars permitted
on public roads are not yet fully autonomous. They all require a human
driver who is ready at a moment's notice to take control of the wheel.

Some anticipated benefits of automated cars are i) a potential reduction in

traffic collision caused by human driver errors, ii) reduced labor costs, iii)
higher speed limits, iv) smoother rides, v) increased roadway capacity and
reduced traffic congestion, vi) improved ability to manage traffic flow (less
need of traffic police, insurance, or even road signage), vii) reduced car
thefts, and viii) enhanced mobility for the young, elderly, differently abled,
and low-income people.

In spite of the various benefits to increased vehicle automation, some

challenges persist, such as i) disputes concerning liability, ii) time needed
110 Chapter 2.7

to convert from existing non-autonomous vehicles to autonomous, iii)

people’s hesitance to forfeit control of their cars due to risks, and iv)
implementation of legal framework and regulations for self-driving cars.
Possible technological obstacles for autonomous cars are i) software
reliability, ii) current road infrastructure and design, iii) requirement of
high-quality, specialized maps, iv) conflicts on the radio spectrum, and v)
AI’s inability to accurately function in complicated environments.

There are many potential disadvantages of autonomous vehicles as well.

Wide-spread adoption of autonomous vehicles leads to the loss of driving-
related jobs in the road transport industry. There is also the potential risk of
hacking, terrorist attacks, and loss of privacy. Research shows that drivers
in autonomous vehicles have a lagged reflex in critical situations, compared
to manual driving.

In the US, state vehicle codes do not envisage, but also do not necessarily
prohibit, highly automated vehicles. To clarify the legal status and regulate
such vehicles, several states have enacted, or are considering, specific laws.
In 2016, seven states, Nevada, Florida, Michigan, California, Hawaii,
Washington, and Tennessee, along with the District of Columbia, enforced
laws for autonomous vehicles. After the first fatal accident by Tesla's
autopilot system, revising laws for autonomous car is being heavily
discussed globally.

Driverless cars are a potentially revolutionizing technology. These

emerging innovations still exist as models for demonstration. They could
benefit a wide range of the population in terms of safety, efficiency, and
reliability, especially the elderly and differently abled people who can’t
drive. In the urban environment, it is important to have a properly
supporting zoning regulation, pricing mechanism, urban design, policies,
and regulatory framework to make it commercial and available.

Platoons / Car-following Technologies / Automated Road Trains

Platoons are groups of automated vehicles following each other, typically

with much smaller headways than usual. Benefits of such systems include
better fuel efficiency, increased road user safety, increased traffic
throughput, as well as convenience for the driver.

Hyperloop Technology

The world is ready for a new mode of transportation that will change the
way people live. Hyperloop is a new way to move people and goods at
 ITS: Innovation Framework 111

airline speeds for the price of a bus ticket—like broadband for

transportation. It is on-demand, energy efficient, and safe. The Hyperloop
design uses a combination of magnetic acceleration and low air pressure; a
custom electric motor accelerates and decelerates a levitated pod through a
low-pressure tube. The vehicle glides silently for miles with no turbulence.
The concept was proposed by inventor Elon Musk—CEO of the aerospace
firm SpaceX and the guy behind self-driving car manufacturer Tesla—as an
alternative to the California Highspeed Rail System from Los Angeles to
San Francisco. Musk’s Hyperloop consists of two massive tubes extending
from San Francisco to Los Angeles. Pods carrying passengers would travel
through the tubes at speeds topping out over 700 mph. For propulsion,
magnetic accelerators will be planted along the length of the tube, propelling
the pods forward. The tubes would house a low-pressure environment,
surrounding the pod with a cushion of air that permits the pod to move safely
at such high speeds. Given the tight quarters in the tube, pressure buildup in
front of the pod could be a problem; the tube needs a system to keep air
from building up. Musk’s design recommends an air compressor on the
front of the pod that will move air from the front to the tail, keeping the pod
aloft and preventing pressure rise by air displacement. A one-way trip on
the Hyperloop is projected to take about 35 minutes, which is almost three
times faster than flying and twelve times faster than a car, while it produces
its own electricity from solar power.

Conventional means of transportation, whether road, air, water, or rail, tend

to be a mix of expensive, slow, and environmentally harmful. Particularly,
road transportation is much more problematic, in terms of carbon emission
and energy consumption. As the environmental effects of energy
consumption continue to worsen, mass transit is a germane solution. Mass
transit modes like conventional railways are energy efficient and offer the
most environmentally friendly option. However, they are too slow and
expensive to be massively adopted. Hyperloop aims to make a cost-
effective, high-speed public transportation system to use for moderate
distances, making a clean and self-powering system.

In addition to its wide range of benefits, there are, of course, drawbacks to

this technology. Most notably, it offers an unpleasant and frightening
experience. Riding in a narrow, sealed, and windowless capsule that is
subjected to significant acceleration forces, inside a sealed steel tunnel,
could be unpleasant; high noise levels due to air compressed and ducted
around the capsule at near-sonic speeds, and the vibration and jostling could
be a major discomfort. At high speeds, even a minor deviation from the
straight path may add considerable buffeting. In addition to these, the
112 Chapter 2.7

management of issues such as equipment malfunction, power cuts, accidents,

and emergency evacuations is unclear. There has also been concern about
the technology’s resilience to natural disasters, like earthquakes, and
terrorist attacks.

7. Infrastructure Development

With emerging technologies and continuous transformation of vehicle

systems, complementary infrastructure development becomes crucial.
Specific innovations require specific infrastructure for their functioning.
With continuously evolving technologies, existing infrastructure may not be
able to support them. For example, Hyperloop requires exclusive
construction of steel tubes, and BRTS requires road widening and separate
corridors. In some situations, it is not possible to address traffic demands
solely by introducing smart technologies, and major infrastructure
construction is the only option. An example would be finding that the only
viable and efficient alternative for smooth movement of traffic is by the
construction of flyovers.

Emerging Trends in San Diego Transport System

1. Autonomous and CV Technology

Autonomous and CV technologies form an integral part of the future of

transportation technologies. The CV is a vehicle that has a wireless
communication technology—to wirelessly communicate with other
(connected) vehicles—which provides additional safety features to the
driver as well as the vehicle. The vehicles cooperate on the roads to reduce
congestion and fuel. In critical situations, like collision between two
vehicles, vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) communication can be very helpful; it
can detect threats hundreds of yards from other vehicles that are not visible,
where on-board sensors do not suffice.

Autonomous or automated vehicles operate independently from other

vehicles and rely on internal sensors to survey and respond to the
surroundings. At least some safety control functions, such as steering,
throttle, or braking, occur without direct driver input. Autonomous vehicles
use cameras, GPS, sensors, and telecommunication to obtain information to
make judgments and act accordingly. It should be noted that the vehicles
that provide safety warnings but do not perform a control function are not
automated, even if they have all the advanced technologies of automated
vehicles. It is expected that driverless cars (fully autonomous vehicles) have
 ITS: Innovation Framework 113

the potential to replace conventional cars. This transformation from

conventional to fully autonomous vehicles would require infrastructure
investment, which could include the development of dedicated autonomous
lanes along with necessary communication network enhancement.
Driverless taxis could be a revolution, as it would enable users to hail safe
rides through their smartphones, and such autonomous vehicles would
enable ride-hailing companies to seamlessly reposition vehicles to match
demand better.

These emerging technologies offer an even wider range of possible benefits

apart from the safety. Vehicle control systems that automatically accelerate
and brake with the flow of traffic can conserve fuel more efficiently than
the average driver. They can reduce fuel consumption and increase the
productivity of vehicle and the user by eliminating plausible accidents and
consequent congestions. This, in turn, leads to reductions in greenhouse gas
emission. Additionally, there is the option of choosing the better route,
based on traffic and weather conditions, detected by the vehicle’s
communication systems. Autonomous vehicles have opened new doors for
differently abled people who cannot drive themselves.

2. Alternative Fuel Vehicles

The development and deployment of alternative fuel infrastructure, such as

fueling stations and electric vehicle chargers, have been considered in
planning the region's transportation network. Recognizing the need for it,
the SANDAG board included several recommended actions in the 2050
Regional Transportation Plan, adopted in 2011, to begin planning for an
increase in alternative fuel vehicles.

3. Zero Emission Vehicle Readiness

Corridor electrification should be addressed to decrease i) impacts to the

electric grid, ii) greenhouse gas emission, and iii) economic costs for
charger installations and access to adequate power. There are electric
vehicle supply equipment options that can be combined with solar canopies
and energy storage to create electric vehicle charging stations powered
completely by the sun. Some possible designs of this combination are i) a
solar canopy that provides enough solar electricity for a level 2 charger and
shade for one parking space, ii) a large solar canopy that provides enough
electricity for a DC fast charger and shade for eight parking spaces. These
electric vehicle chargers can be operated 100 % off the electric grid and by
114 Chapter 2.7

multiple drivers every day. This technology was first demonstrated by the
San Diego County Regional Airport Authority, in November 2013.

4. Solar Roadway

This is the utilization of the public transport infrastructure for energy

generation, storage, and distribution system. It generates wind, solar, or
geothermal energy, using the existing transportation infrastructure facility.
The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has undertaken research and
development of such technologies. One such pilot project in the pipeline is
the construction of a road using solar panels as road material. These solar
roadways have great potential to generate, store, and distribute electricity
that can be used for road applications, or put into the grid for future energy
consumption.

5. Multi-Modal System Management

Development and implementation of real-time multi-modal modeling and

simulation applications are an emerging technology within multi-modal
system management. These applications are designed to simulate and
evaluate traffic patterns and multiple/cross-jurisdictional operational
strategies, simultaneously, and produce results in minutes. They have the
potential to forecast traffic patterns and recommend operational changes to
minimize delays and congestion. Forecasting and real-time analysis allow
transportation system managers to take proactive measures, like modifying
traffic signal timing and ramp meters, providing travelers with precise
transit information or route information, and travel options during recurring
congestion or incidents, as well as analyzing and developing new
transportation system management strategies and multi-modal action plans.
Multi-modal system management is also beneficial in terms of improved
situational awareness, enhanced response and control, and improved
corridor/system performance.

6. Smart Parking

Smart parking utilizes emerging technologies to deliver a parking inventory

management system that provides the ability to broadcast real-time parking
availability information to the public and use such information to maximize
the use of parking facilities. It monitors and collects information about
available parking spaces and provides that information to people either
before they start a trip or at key decision points along their trip. Using such
information, people can make informed decisions according to the available
parking spaces at the destination, such as departure time, transit service, and
 ITS: Innovation Framework 115

route choice. This concept is a key transportation system management

strategy as it focuses on the precise tracking of existing parking facilities’
usage and future parking facilities as well.

9. Parking Guidance

There have been significant improvements in parking guidance and parking

management systems. An emerging technology is the combination of
personal technology, such as smartphones, with real-time parking inventory
data to guide transportation users to available parking. It will help in
improving efficiency and reducing wasted fuel by using sensors, new
meters, and real-time parking data feeds. It will enable users to quickly and
efficiently locate, reserve, and secure a parking spot, thus, helping optimal
utilization of parking spaces and a decrease of vehicle carbon emission.

10. Mobility Hubs

Mobility hubs are transportation centers that are located at major transit
stations that can provide an integrated suite of mobility options, amenities,
and urban design enhancements that can bridge the distance between transit
and an individual’s origin or destination. Mobility hubs can include bike/car
share, neighborhood electric vehicles, bike parking and support services,
dynamic parking strategies, real-time traveler information, wayfinding,
real-time ride sharing, and improved bicycle and pedestrian connectivity.

11. Unified Transportation Payment (UTP)

Unified transportation payment is the consolidation of all forms of public

transportation payment, including transit fares, municipal parking, and toll
collection. Unified transportation payment aims to create a single platform
that links and coordinates all multi-modal transportation-related activities,
such as parking, tolls, smart cards, transit passes, bank issued IDs,
transponders, smartphone, license plates, etc., in one open payment account
system, to make a seamless and convenient commuting experience. The
goal is to i) influence shifting from a single occupancy commute to a transit
ride, ii) facilitate mobility on demand, and iii) reduce inconveniences that
inhibit commuters from using transit systems. Unified transportation
payment also gives incentives/reward-credits based on the usage of a travel
mode like car sharing or public transport.
116 Chapter 2.7

12. Transit Signal Priority (TSP)

Based on bus route schedules and real-time traffic data, along with the use
of GPS, TSP sets up priority at specific intersections, as necessary. For
example, if a transit vehicle is running behind its schedule time, then the
TSP system will give it priority at equipped intersections to manage the
service. It achieves this by giving the vehicle an extended green light or a
shortened red light at a particular intersection.

13. Transit/Pedestrian Collision Warning

During the last decade, fatal collisions between buses and pedestrians have
grown significantly. The causes for the increase are varied, but one primary
reason identified is the use of cell phones while walking. To analyze the
motion of vehicles during turns, gyroscopes, GPS signals, and accelerometers
can be integrated onboard. These sensors, along with other sensor
technologies, such as sound and laser detectors and conventional cameras,
can be used to provide better detection and distance estimation of nearby
pedestrians.

14. Bicycle-assist Technologies

Bicycle-assist technologies, such as bike lift systems or bike electrification,

can make bicycles more accessible to a wide range of the population,
particularly the older and very young demographics. Electric bikes have a
range of technologies that can be employed under certain conditions, such
as climbing hills. Additionally, bike lift systems are a measure to make
certain roads or streets more accessible to all types of self-powered bicycles.
A bike lift system installed on a steep roadway can have a bike attached to
its transmission, for the duration of the lift, to make hill-climbing easier.
These bicycle-assistance technologies provide greater accessibility to a
wide variety of areas, as well as to transit station areas, that can help
facilitate longer distance multi-modal trips.

15. Virtual Workplace

Continued advancements in ICT, virtual reality, and 3D printing could make

remote working the norm. In the presence of such advanced technologies,
teleworking has become a viable option. In such an environment, we can
imagine a future where there will be a team of workers collaborating in
much greater ways beyond just sharing files and conferencing over the
internet. People can physically interact with objects over distances.
 ITS: Innovation Framework 117

Advancements could further lessen the need for additional transportation

infrastructure investments and reduce travel demand.

16. Traveler Information

Traveler information systems have had marked significant advancement,

over the past years, with real-time and predictive data delivered directly to
a user's smartphone in a user-friendly format on an interactive map. Such
technology has a greater depth of information and can alert travelers prior
to commute start, or en-route, to increase travel reliability and reduce overall
congestion. The SANDAG has completed a border wait times study and
market assessment to identify commercially available ITS technologies
capable of automatically measuring, monitoring, and reporting border
crossing wait times of commercial vehicles. It should be noted that personal
data could be much more than just the mode or route choices. It can also
include other data such as availability, cost, travel times, and energy
consumption.

17. Shared-Use Mobility

“Shared-use mobility” refers to the shared ownership of a service as

opposed to individual ownership, such as an individual car or bike
ownership. Car sharing, bike sharing, scooter sharing, electric vehicle
sharing, shuttle services, real-time rider sharing, and ride-hailing services—
like Uber, Lyft, and Sidecar that provide on-demand ride services availed
through smartphone applications—are all shared-use mobility. Shared-use
mobility is a convenient alternative for closing the first or last mile. This
service reduces congestion and energy usage.

18. Personal/Wearable Technology

In the last few years, there have been major advancements in

personal/wearable technologies like smartphones, tablet computers,
watches, etc. Advanced computing power, coupled with high-speed data
communication, has enabled the seamless delivery of traveler and other
service information, which has greatly impacted travel demand. SANDAG
and local governments should support open data access, telework options,
high network connectivity, and appropriate usage of travel-specific
applications and programs.
118 Chapter 2.7

19. Policies and Investments

The following policies and investments, initiated by San Diego, take

advantage of emerging technologies to reduce travel demand and energy
consumption, along with ensuring the safety of the transportation network
of San Diego.

Transportation Demand Management (TDM)

The TDM program for the San Diego region, managed by SANDAG, is
iCommute. TDM refers to the programs and strategies that manage and
reduce traffic congestion by encouraging the use of transportation
alternatives to driving, such as car and bike sharing, walking, taking transit,
teleworking, and working flexible schedules. These programs aim to reduce
overall vehicle miles travelled, make optimal use of the existing
transportation network, and maximize the movement of people and goods.
Technology plays a key role in delivering TDM solutions, such as software
for hailing ride-pooling services, parking reservation and guidance systems,
reservation, and payment for shared-use vehicles, etc. Smart growth
development can play a vital role in reducing the need for vehicle travel for
daily trips, available parking supply, and pricing; it can encourage the use
of an alternative mode of transport. Apart from these benefits of TDM, its
inclusion in the local planning and development process offers a wide range
of economic, environmental, and public health benefits. TDM maximizes
returns on infrastructure investments, reduces parking demand, helps meet
environmental and air quality goals, and is adaptable and dynamic.

Active Transportation

SANDAG is committed to planning a broad active transportation program,

including Safe Routes to School, a regional bike network, Safe Routes to
Transit, and Safe Routes to Highway interchanges. This can be achieved by
enhanced detection at intersections for bicycles, pedestrians, or other forms
of non-motorized transport (NMT). Using advanced detection systems,
specialized signal treatment can be given, such as queue jumping, for
cyclists or pedestrians. This would eventually help to maximize investments
in transit and highway infrastructure by augmenting safety and access to
transit.

Open Data

In the last several years, there have been significant efforts to shift
government-developed propriety management systems to open data
 ITS: Innovation Framework 119

platforms. The main advantages of open data are i) the promotion of

competition for transportation technology systems, and ii) easier
upgradation once transportation systems reach their end of life. By adopting
open data standards, agencies such as SANDAG move towards managing
data rather than developing applications; this allows private industries to use
the available information, take benefits and provide robust publicly
available applications. One very good example of this emerging trend is in
the General Transit Feed System, developed by Google. Publishing of
timetables, by third parties like Google, helps reach a wider audience with
world-class user-experience, while the proprietary technologies of various
transit agencies are being phased out. As per the Government Open Data
Consortium, SANDAG can adopt open data principles.

Parking Management Toolbox

The primary objective of the parking management toolbox is to assess the

effectiveness of various parking management strategies, which were made
for addressing specific uses. The toolbox will feature a wide range of case
studies that provide best practices from around the world for managing
parking in a variety of urban and suburban settings. The toolbox will be
developed into an interactive, web-based resource that will assist interested
jurisdictions with designing customized parking management strategies. To
maximize available locations’ utilization, the toolbox could be leveraged to
develop regional and subregional parking policies. Emerging technologies
can be used to provide better access to available parking spaces and if
payment is also a part of the transaction it can be made a part of a universal
transportation account.

Conclusion

The last two decades have witnessed major transformations in the field of
transportation. The focus of the world is shifting from infrastructure
development to the optimal use of the infrastructure available. To achieve
that, ITS are being explored and utilized. Innovative technologies, like
Hyperloop and driverless cars, have massive potential to dramatically
change the way people move in cities. Applications of ITS have already
improved the transportation system in terms of safety, security, reliability,
and efficiency. Deft use of communication and other available technologies
can make traveling more comfortable, secure, and user friendly, while
minimizing environmental impact to improve the overall quality of life to a
significant extent.
120 Chapter 2.7

References
Auer, A., S. Feese and S. Lockwood. 2016. HISTORY OF INTELLIGENT
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM. Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation, Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program
Office.
Ball, S. 2011. Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS)—latest developments and
the use of micro-simulation assessment. Costain: Transport Research
Laboratory and Bill Hewlett.
San Diego Forward. 2014. The Regional Plan, Emerging Technologies
White Paper.
Singh, B., and A. Gupta. 2015. “Recent Trends in Intelligent Transportation
Systems: a Review.” Journal of Transport Literature: 30–34.
 MODULE 3

INTEGRATING REQUIREMENTS PLANNING,

DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
 CHAPTER 3.1

TECHNOLOGICAL ELEMENTS OF ITS

Introduction
A fundamental tool for road management and urban development is to
classify roads into different groups based on the services they are intended
to provide. Road classification helps in protecting against the adverse
effects of motorized traffic in neighborhoods, along with meeting the needs
of communities in transportation services. They also reduce the travel time
and cost of transporting people. Arterial roads are important because they
carry high-speed and high-volume motor vehicles. Sidewalks and bicycle
lanes are provided along arterial roads for the safety of cyclists and
pedestrians. Traffic conditions in arterial roads scale up travel costs and
other woes of the traveler, especially with peak congestion. Congestions due
to unpredictable consequences are difficult to alleviate. Application of
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) to arterial road systems will increase
their operation efficiency and improves traffic mobility. There are many
techniques and technologies—such as traffic surveillance, sensing
technologies, traffic signals, and communication systems—that can be used
to monitor, manage, and enhance traffic operation efficiency on arterial
roads.

Benefits of Arterial ITS Elements

Implementing ITS on arterial roads is beneficial to travelers and
transportation agencies as it improves traffic operations and safety. It results
in the efficient management of traffic, leading to lesser accidents. The
information collected by the traffic surveillance devices will help in
regulating the traffic flow on arterial roads, which are always used by high-
speed vehicles. They communicate important information about travel
conditions to travelers using technologies such as dynamic message signs
(DMS) or highway advisory radio (HAR). Arterial ITS devices can be used
to monitor critical transportation infrastructure and improve natural disaster
evacuation for security purposes. These technologies reduce the travel
times, number of stops, delays, fuel costs and environmental costs. They
 Technological Elements of ITS 123

increase travel time reliability and vehicle throughput in the transport

network. Sometimes, in metropolitan areas, arterial roads are used as an
alternative to highways because of the insufficient capacity on highways.
Hence, by using arterial ITS infrastructure, the performances of both arterial
roads and highways can be improved, including the overall system
improvement. This is also known as the interplay between freeway
management and arterial management. To select an arterial road for
implementing ITS elements, a series of selection criteria are needed.
Exhibit 3.1.1 tabulates these criteria, which explain the urgency, feasibility,
and suitability for arterial ITS deployments. This exhibit is useful as a
guideline to identify and prioritize arterials for ITS implementations.

Arterial ITS Elements

Effective use of arterial management elements can efficiently reduce
congestion and manage traffic on arterial roads. According to the definition
given by the USDOT (United States Department of Transportation) ITS
Joint Program Office, there are six categories in arterial management
systems (USDOT ITS Joint Program Office 2009):

1. Surveillance, which includes traffic surveillance and infrastructure

surveillance
2. Traffic control, which can be used for transit signal priority,
emergency vehicle anticipation, adaptive signal control, advanced
signal systems, variable speed limits, bicycle and pedestrian, or
special events
3. Lane management, which can be used for high-occupancy
vehicles/transit (HOV/HOT) facilities, reversible flow lanes, pricing,
lane control, variable speed limits, and emergency evacuation
4. Parking management, which includes data collection or parking
information dissemination
5. Information dissemination, which may use data management
systems (DMS), in-vehicle systems (IVS), and Highway Advisory
Radio (HAR)
6. Enforcement, which can be used for speed enforcement or stop/yield
enforcement

ITS Technologies and Solutions for Arterial Management

Technologies can be in-built in the vehicles or on the road infrastructure.
Surveillance systems built on these technologies can be classified as non-
124 Chapter 3.1

intrusive and intrusive. Non-intrusive technologies—with a detector

installed above or on the sides of the road infrastructure, causing negligible
disruption to traffic flow—capture information about an arterial system.
Intrusive detection technologies have detectors installed within or across the
pavement on roads and bridges (Martin et al. 2003).

Non-Intrusive Technologies: Traffic surveillance technologies can be

classified based on their installation requirements. Various non-intrusive
technologies are active infrared detection, passive infrared detection,
microwave detection, ultrasonic detection, passive acoustic detection and
video detection technologies. These systems use state-of-the art signal
processing techniques. They are discussed further below.

Active Infrared Detection: They can capture stationary and moving

vehicles’ presence, count, speed, length, and queue. In an active system,
detection zones are recognized using infrared energy. Energy reflects from
the vehicle travelling through the detection zone and the system then records
relevant information. Active infrared detectors can be installed at the same
intersection without interference from transmitted or received signals
(Klein, Mills and Gibson 2006).

Passive Infrared Detection: These detectors do not transmit energy of their

own. They identify energy emitted by other sources like vehicles, road
surface, and other objects that are in their view. These detectors capture
volume, speed, class measurement, occupancy, and presence. They also
detect pedestrians. Energy captured is then converted into signals that are
interpreted as the presence of main vehicles. (Klein, Mills and Gibson
October 2006).

Microwave Detection: Microwave sensors are also called Doppler

detectors. They use a Doppler radar signal to bounce microwaves off an
object and measure the frequency of the returning microwaves. These
technologies operate at frequencies of 1 GHz to 10 GHz. When an object is
moving in the sensor’s field, the microwave’s collision with the object alters
its frequency to a higher or lower value. When reflected to the detector, it
identifies the change and, thus, detects the object. The detection device
works in all weather and traffic conditions and is reliable even at high
converging distances (Martin et al. 2003).

Ultrasonic Detection: Ultrasonic detectors can detect vehicle count and

presence. It is also known as an active acoustic detector. This detector
transmits sound waves to the detection zone between frequencies of 20 KHz
 Technological Elements of ITS 125

to 300 KHz. The detector, then, identifies the waves reflected from the
vehicle. However, this method is susceptible to disturbances by non-
vehicular objects in motion. Ultrasonic detection is normally used in
combination with other technologies to obtain a wide array of traffic data.

Passive Acoustic Detection: Detection using acoustic or ultrasonic detectors

can be passive or active. The detection is done using a sensor that is
generally fixed to roadside structures. A traffic system is monitored using
the detector by identifying the acoustic signals that vehicles generate and
emit while operating. A passive acoustic detector does not emit a signal
whereas an active detector emits a signal (Martin et al. 2003). They can
capture vehicle classification, count, occupancy, presence, and speed. The
technology has the advantage of detecting both static and dynamic vehicles
and can also monitor five lanes of traffic.

Video Detection: A wide range of data can be captured using video

technology. It can capture traffic volume, presence, occupancy, density,
speed, and vehicle classification. They can be used for origin-destination
information, incident detection, and vehicle identification. Based on the
experience of the Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT), for
standard signalized intersections, the mounting height of cameras should be
closer to twenty-five to thirty-five feet, sometimes forty feet if mounted on
extensions from polearms or at the top of the signal poles.

Intrusive Technologies: These technologies have been in use for the past
few decades. The main drawback for these technologies is that traffic flow
must be interrupted for their installation, operation, and maintenance. In
certain roadways, there have been cases where high failure rates have been
observed while using these technologies. Three types of intrusive detection
technologies are discussed below.

Inductive Loop Detection: Inductive loop detectors are widely used

detection technologies. If a vehicle passes over a loop or stays in a loop area,
the loop inductance reduces, and the oscillator frequency increases. A
vehicle is identified when the change in frequency is more than the set
threshold in the device Martin et al. 2003). Faulty loop detectors can cause
road surface problems prematurely, due to replacement processes.

Piezoelectric Detectors: Piezoelectric detection is a well-tested detection

technology. It is an electromechanical system that reacts based on changes
in compression. They are insensitive to any fields or radiation, and
temperatures. It is a metal strip placed on or near the road surface. These
126 Chapter 3.1

detectors are mainly used for vehicle detection, count, or classification, and
are often seen in weigh-in-motion applications for trucks. The main
drawback is that they cannot detect static objects. The detectors are often
used in combination with inductive loop detectors to capture traffic data
(Martin et al. 2003).

Magnetic Detection: A magnetometer is used for magnetic detection. It is

an in-road sensor that identifies magnetic disturbances in the earth’s field as
a vehicle (ferrous metal) passes over the detector. The detector is typically
used to identify vehicle presence, but also capture vehicle classification,
count, occupancy, presence, and speed. However, two units are needed to
capture vehicle classification and speed. The detectors are often used on
bridges where inductor loops cannot be installed due to lack of pavement
depth (Martin et al. 2003).

Signal Priority: Signal priority captures both transit signal priority and
emergency vehicle anticipation. This system gives priority to emergency or
transit vehicles at signalized intersections. Transit vehicles are given
priority as the need is critical or the occupancy is higher, thereby, increasing
passenger throughput and prioritizing the movement of emergency vehicles.
There are two types of traffic signal priorities (TSP): active priority and
passive priority. Active priority takes place when a vehicle is detected as it
approaches the intersection, and the signals change; active priority-based
TSP is more common and effective. Passive priority is used where traffic
control devices are adjusted according to bus schedules along the route. This
can be done using a combination of fixed-time and schedule-based control
strategies. The advantage of passive priority is that the cost of implementation
of passive priority is less, however, the effectiveness is also less. (Li et al.
2008).

Exhibit 3.1.2 discusses the advantages and disadvantages of various

technologies under non-intrusive and intrusive technologies.

The Case of Austin

Austin is the capital of the US state of Texas. It is the fastest growing large
city in the United States. It is the fourth most populous city in Texas and
eleventh most populous in the US. Central Austin lies between the Interstate
Highway (IH) 35, to the east, and Loop 1 (Mopac Expressway), to the west.
US Highway 183 runs from north-west to south-east, and State Highway
(SH) 71 crosses the southern part of the city from east to west, completing
a rough “box” around the central and north-central city. US Route 290 enters
 Technological Elements of ITS 127

Austin from the east and merges into IH 35. Since 2006, three toll roads
surrounding the Central Texas Turnpike System have opened in the Austin
region. These include segments of Loop 1, SH 45, and SH 130 (Capital Area
Metropolitan Planning Organization (CAMPO), TxDOT Annual Traffic
Counts, and City of Austin Traffic Counts 2009). The objective is to identify
and respond to changes in traffic conditions effectively and systematically.
Usage of advanced ITS technologies brings considerable improvements in
traffic flow, safety, reliability, and environmental effects.

Current ITS Technologies Used

Traffic monitoring of the city is done by the Operations Control Center,
Toomey Road. Features of the ITS implementation are the following:

1. Traffic detection and data collection systems: Loop detectors,

surveillance cameras, and calibrated cameras are in use. They collect
data related to vehicle presence and directional volume.
2. Traffic signal controller system: Coordinated signal system is used.
Semi-actuated control strategies are in operation on most arterial
roads.
3. Transit operation system: Public service is severely constrained and
impaired in current transportation systems as there are no transit
signal priority (TSP) systems and emergency vehicle anticipation
systems in operation.
4. Managed lane system: The toll lane systems are run by TxDOT.
There are no high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) or express lanes in
place.
5. Accident response system: Surveillance cameras are used on arterial
and highway sections, and accidents are coordinated in the traffic
management center.

Critical ITS Technologies and Their Applications

Arterial road networks are prioritized for ITS deployment as congestion in
Austin is a consistent issue. Travel time and travel-time index are two
quantities used to assess congestion. Travel-time index is the time taken for
a trip during peak periods compared to the travel time of the same trip during
normal conditions. Therefore, to improve traffic mobility and mitigate
congestion, arterial ITS applications, such as advanced traffic detection,
coordinated signal control, dynamic vehicle routing, and traveler
information dissemination, are to be implemented. These technologies
128 Chapter 3.1

reduce arterial traveler delay, fuel consumption, and air pollution; they
improve traveler speeds and route decision-making.

Austin focuses on three ITS technology groups: traffic detection, traffic

control, and information dissemination. The case study looks at an
integrated technology system that uses i) traffic detection systems, for
monitoring traffic condition changes / congestion, ii) dynamic vehicle
routing strategies, for optimizing vehicle routing based on real-time traffic
data analysis, iii) traffic information dissemination systems, for
broadcasting information, and iv) arterial signal control coordination
strategies, for adaptive signal timings, to address non-recurrent traffic
congestion efficiently (Walton 2009).

A simulation model was developed to measure the impact of the proposed

technology. The traffic detection systems monitor and ascertain conditions
(congestion) instantly. Then, analysis of the traffic data is performed to
identify possible traffic re-routing options. Traffic information dissemination
systems, like dynamic message signs (DMS) or radio broadcasting systems,
transmit such information to travelers. A calculated amount of traffic is
diverted to connecting signalized arterials, and signals are controlled to
handle the unprecedented traffic flow. These new ITS elements have
improved TxDOT’s capability to manage and monitor its arterial systems.

Summary
The two goals that TxDOT wanted to address are making transport systems
efficient by using innovative ITS deployments, and maximizing the benefits
from existing and new arterial ITS deployments. Arterial ITS applications
can reduce travel time, fuel, and environmental cost, and increase reliability
and vehicle throughput. These benefits are achievable because ITS
deployments, like signal optimization and traveler information systems, can
improve traffic operations on arterials and change driver behavior. A case
study was also demonstrated to see the impact of ITS technologies on
arterial road networks. There was a change in handling congestion in
Austin’s roads after the implementation of ITS technologies; various
technologies helped in dealing with the city’s traffic congestion effectively.
Detection technologies, coordinated signal control, and information
dissemination are key components in an ITS system for arterial road
management and play an important role in responding to both recurring and
non-recurring congestion efficiently. The use of systems that combine all
three of these technologies can help save considerable time for travelers.
ITS technologies are highly dependent on each place and situation. If
 Technological Elements of ITS 129

funding is regulated and scarce, arterials must be carefully selected and

prioritized so that the desired ITS benefits can be achieved.

References
“Capital Area Metropolitan Planning Organization (CAMPO), TxDOT
Annual Traffic Counts, and City of Austin Traffic Counts.” 2009.
Austin.
Klein, Lawrence, Milton Mills and David Gibson. 2006. “Traffic Detector
Handbook: Third Edition-Volume I.” Federal Highway Administration.
Li, Yue, et al. 2008. “Transit Signal Priority Research Tools.” US
Department of Transportation.
Martin, Peter T., Joseph Perrin, Bhargava Rama Chilukuri, Chantan Jhaveri
and Yugi Feng. 2003. “Mountain-Plains Consortium.” Adaptive Signal
Control II. Accessed June 11, 2017. http://www.mountain-plains.org/
pubs/html/mpc-03-141/disclaimer.php.
“USDOT ITS Joint Program Office.” 2009. Arterial Management Systems.
Accessed June 11, 2017. http://www.itsoverview.its.dot.gov/AM.asp.
Walton, C. Michael, Khali Persad, Zhong Wang, Kristen Svicarovich,
Alison Conway and Guohui Zhang. 2009. Arterial Intelligent
Transportation Systems—Infrastructure Elements and Traveller
Information Requirements. Technical Report, Texas Department of
Transportation, Austin: Center for Transportation Research at The
University of Texas, 272.
130 Chapter 3.1

Exhibit 3.1.1: Arterial Road Selection Criteria

S.No Arterial Selection Criteria Sub-criteria

1 Arterial traffic and geometric Traffic characteristics
characteristics Geometric characteristics
2 Current level of service Travel time between intersections
Control delay at intersections
Average travel speed for through
vehicles
LOS determination
3 Benefits and beneficiaries Improve safety and security
Improve traffic operation efficiency
Provide better traveler routing
decisions
Reduce fuel consumption and
pollutant emissions
Increase economic productivity
4 Existing ITS infrastructure Traffic surveillance and detection
systems
Travel information dissemination
systems
Signal control system
Managed lane systems
Enforcement systems
5 ITS implementation costs Video detection system
Emergency vehicle preemption
Advanced parking information
systems
Management information systems
Automatic ramp rollover systems
Truck speed warning system
Electronic payment systems
ITS work zone system
6 Funding opportunities Funding sources from public
sectors
Funding sources from private
sectors
7 Potential expansibility Connections with other major
arterials
Connections with other major
freeways
Source: Based on the data from Walton et al. 2009.
 Technological Elements of ITS 131
Exhibit 3.1.2: Non-intrusive and Intrusive Technologies: Data Collected, Advantages and Disadvantages of All
Types of Technologies
S.No Technology Advantages Disadvantages Data Collected
Non-Intrusive Technologies
x Unlimited data rates
Vehicle
x Variety of communication channels x Detectors affected by snow and rain
1 Active Infrared classification,
x Non-interference with metalized x Short wavelengths cannot penetrate count, speed
windshields
x Undercounts if background Vehicle
x Detectors not affected by weather changes occur classification,
2 Passive Infrared
x Produce no energy signal x Best used only when trends in the count, occupancy,
counts are known presence, speed
Vehicle
Microwave Radar: x Good in most weather conditions x Cannot detect stopped vehicles
classification,
3 Doppler and True x Directly measures speed x Doppler sensors perform poorly at count, occupancy,
Presence x Operates over multiple lanes intersections as volume counters
presence, speed
Ultrasonic x Operates over multiple lanes x Temperature change and extreme Vehicle count,
4
Detection x Easy installation air conditions affect performance presence
x Easy installation
x Wireless option available Vehicle
x Affected by snow, extreme cold,
Passive Acoustic x Non-intrusive classification,
5 acoustic noise, wind, light and low
Detection x Insensitive to precipitation count, occupancy,
traffic volume
x Provides up to five lanes of dual-loop presence, speed
detection
x Operates over multiple lanes/zones x Affected by bad weather, shadows, Vehicle
x Easy modification of detector zones day to night transition, vehicle/road classification,
6 Video Detection
x Captures variety of data contrasts, water and other external count, occupancy,
x Provides a wide area detection environmental factors presence, speed
132 Chapter 3.1

Intrusive Technologies
x Implementation causes traffic
interruption
x Established technology
x Detectors fail if poor road surfaces
x Lower cost compared to non- exist Vehicle
Inductive Loop intrusive detectors classification,
1 x Multiple detectors are required
Detection x Operates in sub-optimal weather count, occupancy,
x System susceptible to stress of
conditions presence, speed
traffic and temperature
x Flexible design
x Decreases pavement lifetime
x Routine maintenance required
x Pavement must be cut for Vehicle
Piezoelectric x Works well in all-weather types
2 installation classification,
Detection x Coordinates with other detectors too
x Cannot measure static objects count, speed
x Less disruption to traffic flow than
x Pavement must be cut, and lanes Vehicle
induction loops
Magnetic closed for installation classification,
3 x Less susceptible to traffic stress
Detection x Detection zones are small count, occupancy,
x Can be used where loops are not presence, speed
x Cannot detect stopped vehicle
feasible
x Improved schedule adherence and
Signal Priority: reliability
4 x Delays to non-priority traffic
TSP and EVP x Reduced travel time for buses
x Increased transit quality of service
Source: Based on the data from Walton et al. 2009.
 CHAPTER 3.2

BUILDING BLOCKS OF ITS

Introduction
The most populous city in Canada is Toronto and it is also the provincial
capital of Ontario. It is the fourth most populous city in North America. It
is an international center for business, arts, and culture. Toronto is a central
transportation hub for road, rail, and air networks in Southern Ontario.
There are many modes of transport in the city of Toronto, including
highways and public transit. The Toronto Transit Commission (TTC)
operates the main public transportation system in Toronto. The backbone of
its public transport network is the Toronto subway system. Toronto also has
a wide network of bicycle lanes and multi-use tracks and paths. Major east-
west arterial roads are almost parallel with the Lake Ontario shoreline, and
major north-south arterial roads are almost perpendicular to the shoreline.
Several municipal expressways and provincial highways serve Toronto and
the Greater Toronto Area. Particularly, Highway 401 divides the city from
west to east, bypassing the downtown core. It is the busiest road in North
America, and one of the busiest highways in the world. The Greater Toronto
Area suffers from severe traffic congestion problems, and Toronto has the
second worst traffic congestion in Canada, after Vancouver.

Need for Congestion Management

Travel demand grows with Toronto’s increasing urbanization. The situation
is so dire that even the proposed road infrastructure cannot handle growing
travel demands. Traffic congestion occurs when the travel demand exceeds
the capacity of the transportation network. Some areas are affected by
construction, parking, and stopping; others, due to the limited nature of
infrastructure capacity; some other parts are affected by traffic signals,
which are not coordinated based on the traffic flow; other parts are impacted
by unpredictable conditions like bad weather or accidents. Estimates, from
2006 for the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area (GTHA), suggest that
congestion costs as much as $3.3 billion, annually, to commuters in terms
of delays, environmental harm, and vehicle operating costs; the cost to the
134 Chapter 3.2

Gross Domestic Product was an additional $2.7 billion, due to lost economic
output and accompanying job loss (Costs of Road Congestion in the Greater
Toronto and Hamilton Area; Impact and Cost-Benefit Analysis of the
Metrolinx Draft Regional Transportation Plan 2008). On an average, a
commuter experiences nearly eighty-one hours of delay, each year, during
the peak period.

Benefits of Managing Traffic Congestion

There are many benefits of managing traffic congestion, in terms of safety,
mobility, efficiency, productivity, energy and environment, and customer
satisfaction. Some safety benefits are improved personal safety and security,
and lower collision rates and collision severity. Managing congestion
lowers transit wait times and improves service frequency. In terms of
productivity, congestion management leads to lower operating costs and,
therefore, improved customer satisfaction.

Congestion Management Plan

The city of Toronto started many initiatives to manage congestion in the
city. Based on the successes of previous initiatives, the Toronto Congestion
Plan was introduced for the period from 2014 to 2018. It was an objective-
driven and performance-based approach to manage congestion. Some
proposed initiatives were

1. To manage traffic on arterial roads actively and complement traffic

management measures on city expressways
2. Implementing the latest technology to manage traffic and congestion,
including shifting from wireless communication to advanced sensors
and social media
3. Providing a “toolkit” of measures, which can be used as reference for
different situations
4. Improving efficiency and coordination of the city’s transportation
network by strengthening partnerships and information sharing

Design and Planning Process

The Toronto Congestion Management Plan for Toronto City was prepared
over a six-month period, in 2013. It began with a review of existing
activities and projects for congestion management, and by conducting
research on trends and best practices in other areas of North America
 Building Blocks of ITS 135

through literature reviews and telephone interviews. The next step was to
develop a vision, a mission, and objectives for the plan, after which vendor
selection and refinement of recommended initiatives was done. The staff
from the City of Toronto’s Traffic Management Centre and regional traffic
control centers were involved throughout the development of the plan,
through regular meetings, workshops, and oneဨonဨone consultations.

The plan was a component of the City of Toronto’s overall transportation

planning process, which focused primarily on operational activities. Other
strategies of managing traffic congestion in the city of Toronto, such as
revision of plans and strategies, demand management, promotion of multi-
modal transportation and active (non-motorized) transportation, and
improvements in transportation network infrastructure.

The Vision of the Plan

Through innovation and technology, maximize the efficiency, safety,
reliability, and sustainability of the transportation network for all users
while reducing the impact on the environment.

This was the vision of The Toronto Congestion Management Plan. It

addressed the needs of all travelers—pedestrians, cyclists, and public transit
users—as well as freight carriers and emergency services. The focus is on
promoting innovative technologies that improve the efficiency, safety,
sustainability, and reliability of all transportation networks.

Goals and Objectives

The vision statement is supported by a series of goals. Each goal is then
further supported by a series of objectives, which help in measuring success
(City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 2013). It is
presented in Table 3.2.1.
136 Chapter 3.2

S.No Goals Objectives

Increase throughput
Reduce delays
Maximize the transportation Reduce travel time
1
system efficiency and reliability variability
Reduce vehicle operational
costs
Improve the safety of the Reduce traffic collisions
2
transportation network Reduce collision severity
Reduce duration of traffic
Improve the City of Toronto’s incidents and events
ability to detect and respond to through increasing
3
incidents, events and changing reductions in detection,
traffic conditions response and clearance
times
Improve the availability and Reduce traveler frustration
4 reliability of information for the Increase use of all modes
public of transportation
Reduce greenhouse gas
Reduce the impact of
5 emissions (GHG)
transportation on the environment
Increased fuel savings

Table 3.2.1: Goals and Objectives of the Proposed Congestion Management

Plan
Source: Author’s compilation

Recommended Projects and Activities

There were some projects that were recommended for managing traffic
congestion in the city of Toronto. These projects have been grouped under
eight technical elements or strategies. The eight technical elements or
strategies complement and intersect one another and, collectively, produce
a comprehensive approach to manage the issue of traffic congestion. Each
of the eight technical strategies is explained, below, along with their
associated projects, in detail.

1. Intelligent Transportation System: ITS use communication technologies

to monitor and manage transport networks. There are a few projects
under this category, which will help in strengthening the ITS system,
mentioned below:
 Building Blocks of ITS 137

x Replacement of Advanced Traffic Management Software (ATMS):

This project provides a new ATMS to improve the capability of the
software to monitor and manage the city’s arterial streets and
highways. It also improves information communication to the
traveler and manages road restrictions.
x Enhanced Signal Control Modes: In the existing systems, signal
changes are set beforehand. It was, then, proposed to use sensors to
collect real-time data to alter the traffic signal intervals adaptively.
x Arterial Closed-Circuit TV (CCTV) Cameras: This helps in
monitoring traffic operations, detecting incidents, illegal lane
occupancies, etc.
x Arterial Network Monitoring: In this project, unusual
conditions/incidents are identified to ramp up response speed, which
will reduce the overall incident durations.
x Update and Expand the City’s Communications Networks: This
project evaluates the performance of wireless communication
technology to ensure dependability in emergency situations.
x Hardware Replacement: It is to replace ageing equipment, like
CCTV cameras, to ensure that the system is up to date and efficient.
These projects help in managing traffic congestion by improving
monitoring capabilities, coordination of traffic signals, increasing the
quality of traffic information, ensuring equipment robustness, and
increasing efficiency of communication between traffic signals and the
city’s network of computers.
2. Congestion and Engineering Studies: The primary focus is to maintain
Toronto’s signaling systems and traffic management strategies with the
latest modern tools available in the industry. The identified projects are
x Auxiliary Signal Timing Plans: These are to develop additional
signal timing plans for different scenarios that occur regularly, like
road closure, bad weather, etc.
x Update Corridor Coordination Studies: These are done to regularly
review corridor operations and related signal timing plans.
x Active Traffic Management Feasibility Study: This is to explore the
need and benefits of active management strategies.
x Integrated Corridor Management Feasibility Study: This is to review
the need and possible benefits of implementing integrated
management of transit and vehicle movements parallel to arterial and
highway corridors.
These projects will help in managing traffic congestion by improving
traffic operations, maintaining coordination among new traffic signals,
138 Chapter 3.2

identifying technological and innovative solutions, and exploring

integrative approaches to optimize traffic flow across corridors.
3. Incident and Event Response: The City of Toronto’s Traffic Operations
Center detects collisions and other incidents in highway corridors,
coordinates emergency responses, and informs travelers. The main aim
of this strategy is to reduce the disruption by incidents and minimize
congestion that can result, and complement increased monitoring
capabilities. The identified projects are
x Traffic Incident Management Team Procedures
x Service Patrols
x Steer It—Clear It Signage Program
x Universal Fire Station Pre-emption (Non-vehicle)
These projects will help in managing traffic congestion by strengthening
relationships among important agencies, so that coordination and safety
can be improved along with reduced response times. Congestion can
also be reduced by educating the travelers to move out of the traffic flow
immediately after a minor incident.
4. Construction Coordination: Construction activities and lane occupancies
always have a significant impact on traffic. Construction activities can
be building a new road or developing a new building. The number of
new developments across the City of Toronto is an indication of positive
economic development, but also creates issues in traffic management.
The identified projects are
x Smart Work Zones
x Lane Occupancy Permit Management
x Lane Occupancy Permit Review
x Work Zone Performance Management and Monitoring
These projects will help reduce congestion by encouraging contractors
to participate in minimizing the impact of work zones on traffic and by
improving the information available to travelers. Increased coordination
and management of construction work zones will also reduce traffic
congestion.
5. Curb-side Management: The downtown core area has large amounts of
on-street parking. It is filled with taxis, couriers, delivery trucks, and
private vehicles competing for available curb space. The streets in these
areas are narrow with limited road width and high-traffic demand, thus,
adding to the complexities.
x Parking Charge Review: It is the use of an increasing parking charge
scale, where rates increase based on the time period for which the
vehicle is parked.
 Building Blocks of ITS 139

x Develop Parking Strategies: The strategies include studying parking,

restricting business deliveries to certain times of the day, with
allowance for private vehicle parking in the remaining time periods,
or strict parking restrictions in some corridors during peak hours.
x Smart Park: It involves using technology such as smartphone apps,
electronic message signs, and other tools to monitor parking usage
and inform motorists regarding real-time parking information.
These projects will help in managing congestion by applying innovative
parking solutions and by reducing illegal parking that is affecting the
traffic flow. By reducing the parking search time and providing legal
parking, managing the issue of congestion will be a bit easier.
6. Support for All Modes of Transportation: This is mainly to encourage
people to use modes other than private vehicles. The City of Toronto
actively promotes all modes of transport—walking, cycling, public
transport—through its official laws and initiatives. The identified
projects are
x Transit Signal Priority
x HOV-Bus Lane Review
x Bicycle Facilities Expansion
x Corridor Renewal for Sustainable Transportation
These projects will help in managing congestion by improving the
effectiveness and coordination of traffic management activities
involving public transit vehicles, and exploring creative street design
standards and engineering techniques to provide balanced use of the
road right-of-way.
7. Traveler Information: This is to provide convenient access to traveler
information. Reliable traveler information allows them to decide trip
routes, mode, and timings. The identified projects are
x Traveler Information Strategy
x VMSs including Display of Travel Times
x Event Database
x City Website Improvements
x Social Media
x Mobile Apps
These projects help in managing congestion by strengthening data
sources and networks to give accurate information about the traffic
conditions and increasing the speed of communication. Improving the
amount of information available to travelers will allow them to make
best decisions regarding route and other factors.
140 Chapter 3.2

8. Traffic Operations Centre (TOC): The TOC is the City’s main center for
traffic and congestion management, monitoring traffic conditions and
coordinating traffic control field devices twenty-four hours a day, seven
days a week. This technical element focuses on coordination and
cooperation amongst the various agencies in order to maximize the
efficiency of transportation network operations.
x Traffic Operations Centre Improvements
x Coordination with Emergency Services
x Coordination with Transit
x Coordination with External Agencies
x TOC Operations Coordination
These projects will improve traffic congestion by improving incident
detection and transport network monitoring, allowing TOC operators to
respond to changes in traffic conditions, therefore, strengthening a
regional approach to traffic and congestion management. Exhibit 3.2.1
tabulates the projects and goals, if the goals are achieved, and if they are
primary or secondary goals.

Capital and Operating Costs

The proposed Toronto Congestion Management Plan, for five years, is
expected to have a capital cost of $57.25M. For effective traffic
management on arterial roads and highways, there is a need for additional
staffing to monitor and respond to changes in traffic conditions. The
estimated cost for the additional staff is $1.1M. The marginal additional cost
required to maintain the proposed additional ITS infrastructure is $8M for
five years. Additional ITS infrastructure can be both software and hardware.
To implement the capital projects outlined in this plan, the Capital Projects
Delivery Group was formed. This group is dedicated to the planning,
designing, and implementation of the capital projects. Exhibit 3.2.2 shows
the capital cost and cash flow summary of the five-year (2014–2018)
program cost estimates.

Monitoring and Evaluation

First, a process is set to monitor and evaluate the performance of the various
projects and to make sure that the goals are met. For performance
evaluation, the performance criteria need to be identified. Common
transportation network performance indicators include travel time, average
speed, total delay, travel time index, and the buffer time index. However,
these criteria do not represent performance variance over time and space.
 Building Blocks of ITS 141

So, other methods should be explored for monitoring. The next step is to
continuously review and upgrade the plan, along with Toronto’s
transportation planning and environmental review processes, to ensure that
it addresses the needs and priorities of Toronto’s transportation. Exhibit
3.2.3 displays the implementation schedule of the Congestion Management
Plan for each project over a five-year period.

References
City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014-2018. 2013.
Transportation Division, Toronto: Delcan and Lura Consulting.
Costs of Road Congestion in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area;
Impact and Cost-Benefit Analysis of the Metrolinx Draft Regional
Transportation Plan. 2008. Final Report, Transportation, Greater
Transportation Auhority, Toronto: HDR Corporation Decision
Economics.
142 Chapter 3.2

Exhibit 3.2.1: Project Management Plan Goals

Source: City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 (2013)

 Building Blocks of ITS 143

Exhibit 3.2.2: Capital Cost and Cash Flow Summary

Source: City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 (2013)

144 Chapter 3.2

Exhibit 3.2.3: Implementation schedule of the Congestion Management

Plan Program

Source: City of Toronto Congestion Management Plan 2014–2018 (2013)

 CHAPTER 3.3

SYSTEM DESIGN

The complexities of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) increase with

the number of interconnected subsystems through multiple telecommunication
technologies. The increase in the number of subsystems affects the overall
effectiveness, conformity, tenability, extendibility and refurbishment time,
and cost of the deployed ITS. It is essential to have a defined system
architecture to fully exploit the potential synergies of interoperable systems
and prevent incompatibility between multiple subsystems. The concept of
ITS architecture ranges from a relatively simple definition of a single
telematics system to a “broad” definition of a complex telematics system
described using several viewpoints of the system, together with its
deployment plan, process and object-oriented procedures, cost benefit
analysis, etc. (BČlinová, Bureš and Jesty 2010). An ITS architecture is the
conceptual design that defines the structure and/or behavior of an integrated
ITS.

There are two basic concepts of ITS architecture that are used: high-level
and low-level ITS architectures (Böhm and Frötscher 2010). A high-level
architecture provides an overall description of the functionality of the ITS
service and the communication components needed for a particular ITS
implementation. A low-level ITS architecture describes the detailed design
of the components and the communications that are needed for ITS
implementation. It can, therefore, be concluded that high-level ITS
architecture is a prerequisite to low-level ITS architecture. High-level
architecture is technology independent and represents its functionality in the
form of the “component specifications” required to deploy the ITS services,
while the “communication specification” establishes the way different
components link and communicate with each other. A low-level architecture
is usually differentiated using a particular technology as the functionality
described in the “component specifications”, and “communications
specifications” may be achieved using either hardware, software, or a
combination of the two. The relationships between framework and regional
architectures, ITS standards, and ITS projects is illustrated in Figure 3.3.1.
146 Chapter 3.3

The European ITS Framework Architecture, also known as Framework

Architecture Made for Europe (FRAME), and the National ITS Architecture
of the US are the two widely referred to use cases for the development of a
high-level ITS architecture. The fundamental differences of the approaches
adopted by the two regions lies in the nature and flexibility of their use. The
European Framework architecture allows the creation of regional or
national architecture based on the requirement of individual member states
and acts as a reference architecture. As the FRAME Architecture is intended
to be used within the European Union, it conforms to the principle of
subsidiarity, and, thus, does not mandate any physical or organizational
structure on a member state. It provides a functional view and need not be
used in entirety, thus, enabling the user to create a subset that aligns with
their requirements. In contrast, the US has a fixed architecture, which needs
to be followed by the states to receive federal support for ITS deployment.

Figure 3.3.1: Relationships between Framework and Regional Architectures,

ITS Standards, and ITS Projects
Source: Robert S. Jaffe. ADB

European ITS Framework Architecture

The development of the European ITS framework architecture was initiated

during the Fourth Framework Program (FP) of the European Commission,
in 1998, with the KAREN project (Keystone Architecture Required for
European Networks) and was first published in October 2000. The
framework architecture was created to assist the national, regional, and
project-specific architectures within Europe that are consistent for various
ITS systems and services. It covers user needs and functional viewpoints of
 System Design 147

the ITS services. Figure 3.3.2 represents how the FRAME architecture
assists in the creation of ITS.

Figure 3.3.2: Process of Creating ITS Architecture

Source: FRAME FORUM

Many nations across the EU have created their own national and regional
ITS architecture, consulting the FRAME architecture. French National
Architecture (ACTIF, Architecture Cadre pour le Transports Intelligents en
France) and Italian ITS Architecture (ARTIST) were the first two national
ITS architectures formulated in compliance with FRAME. The French ITS
Architecture (ACTIF) has been used for the implementation of a national
speed-limit enforcement system. The use of FRAME architecture reduced
the development and deployment time of the service by up to six months.
The Road Traffic Management Implementation Project (VIKING), in
Northern Europe, SAFESPOT, CVIS and COOPERS (Cooperative Systems
for Intelligent Road Safety) have also used the development of a high-level
architecture for cooperative systems using the FRAME method. Austria
(TTS-A), Czech Republic (TEAM), Hungary (HITS) and Romania
(NARITS) are a few other nations that have developed ITS architecture
based on FRAME. The UK has also undertaken certain regional and project
ITS architecture in line with FRAME. There has been a fragmented
approach in the creation and maintenance of the FRAME architecture. A
148 Chapter 3.3

number of ITS architecture projects are being undertaken to extend the

FRAME architecture, within the priority areas of the ITS directive
(Directive 2010/40/EU). The notable projects are KAREN, FRAME-S,
FRAME-NET, E-FRAME and FRAME NEXT. After KAREN, the FP5 was
provided by FRAME-NET and FRAME-S as support activities, followed
by E-FRAME in FP7 that had FRAME version 4. The FRAME forum was
set up at the end of FRAME-S and FRAME-NET for promoting the use of
the European ITS Framework Architecture, and for leading its future
development. The FRAME forum is co-financed by the European Union
and funding from some member states. FRAME NEXT, having current
FRAME version 4.1, is the latest project for extending the FRAME
architecture and includes project partners from ten active EU member states
and Norway that share best practices and recent development with relevant
stakeholders.

The FRAME architecture covers the following areas of ITS:

1. Electronic fare collection and management

2. Emergency notification and response—roadside and in-vehicle
notification
3. Traffic management—urban, inter-urban, parking, tunnels and
bridges, maintenance and simulation, together with the management
of incidents, road vehicle based pollution, and the demand for road
use
4. Public transport management—schedules, fares, on-demand services,
fleet and driver management
5. In-vehicle systems and support for host vehicle services—includes
some cooperative systems
6. Traveler assistance—pre-journey and on-trip planning, travel
information
7. Law enforcement support system
8. Freight and fleet management
9. Provide support for cooperative systems—specific services not
included elsewhere, e.g., bus lane use, freight vehicle parking
10. Multi-modal interfaces—links to other modes when required, e.g.,
travel information, multi-modal crossing management

Two basic tools are used for the distribution of FRAME architecture. The
first tool is “Browsing Tool,” which is used to browse the overall structure
of the FRAME architecture and explore the details at different levels along
with a description of each element. The second tool is “Selection Tool,”
which assists users to select a uniform subset of FRAME architecture and
 System Design 149

create physical views of this subset for regional, national or project ITS
architecture.

US National ITS Architecture

The development of national ITS architecture was initiated by the US
Department of Transportation (US-DOT) on the recommendation of ITS
America. The key concern that led to the development of the ITS
architecture in the US was interoperability. There was a need to define key
interfaces for standardization. If systems are developed without standardization
across the nation, then vehicles might be unable to interact effectively with
the infrastructure and other vehicles beyond their regional boundaries,
leading to an ineffective ITS network. The initial edition of the US National
ITS Architecture was provided to the US-DOT, in 1996, as a comprehensive
and content-rich set of documents by a consortium under contract. The
National ITS Architecture provides a definitive and consistent framework
to guide the planning, definition, deployment, and integration of ITS. The
program facilitates collaborative operations and learning best practices from
various regional approaches to tackle transportation challenges. The US
National ITS Architecture is now known as the Architecture Reference for
Cooperative and Intelligent Transportation (ARC-IT), which is a unified
framework that covers all ITS, including all connected vehicle (CV)
applications, the scope and content from Connected Vehicle Reference ITS
Architecture (CVRIA) Version 2.2 and the National ITS Architecture
Version 7.1. The current version is 9.0 and was launched in June 2017.
ARC-IT 9.0 comprises interconnected components that are structured in
four views: enterprise, functional, physical, and communications. An
illustration is presented in Figure 3.3.3.

Enterprise View displays the relation between stakeholder organizations

and their role within the ITS environment. User needs are defined in this
context, as ITS is driven by the stakeholder organizations’ requirements,
their constituents, and customers.

Functional View displays ITS from a functional perspective and provides

an analysis of abstract functional elements and their logical interactions.
Processes and data flows offer functions and interactions in a logical order
that supports the ITS users’ requirements.

Physical View displays the physical elements (systems and devices) of the
ITS. Within each physical object, functional objects execute the required
actions of the ITS.
150 Chapter 3.3

Communications View displays how physical objects communicate. It

specifies how information may be safely and securely transferred between
physical objects by defining communications standards and profiles that are
integrated into communication solutions.

These four views focus on four different architectural perspectives.

Furthermore, there are 150 service packages that showcase slices of the
architecture to demonstrate how ITS could be used to solve real-world
transportation problems. Service packages are the most popular way to get
accustomed with ARC-IT, since most users are likely to subscribe to a single
service; a vertical slice of ARC-IT that covers all four views for a given ITS
service is easy to use.

The reference architecture does not mandate any implementation but rather
provides a common base for engineers and planners to conceive, design, and
implement systems while accommodating their specific concerns. ITS
standards developers can use the National ITS Reference Architecture to
identify standards that will meet the requirements of the users. ITS planners
can use these ITS standards to integrate regional ITS elements and achieve
interoperability goals. ITS deployers can choose ITS standards to mitigate
deployment risks and streamline overall costs and schedules.
 System Design 151

Figure 3.3.3: Architecture Overview

Source: https://www.arc-it.net/
152 Chapter 3.3

USDOT also developed a regional ITS architecture in order to ensure

regional integration, and organized and coordinated planning and
deployment of the ITS. Title 23 (Highways), Chapter I, Subchapter K, Part
940 of the United States Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) (23 CFR 940)
on Intelligent Transportation Systems Architecture and Standards first
defined the concept of a regional ITS architecture.

ARC-IT is used as a template and provides the fundamental building

blocks—physical objects, interfaces, service packages, user needs, and
functions—to create customized ITS architectures that reflect the
envisioned regional transportation system. A region usually contains
multiple transport authorities lying under different jurisdictions. Regional
integration allows regional transportation networks to share information and
coordinate actions in order to function efficiently and effectively. Over the
last two decades, regional architecture is developed in all fifty US states and
are updated and maintained by state Departments of Transportation (DOTs)
or Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) or Council of
Governments (COGs) for a region, district, or state, to ensure that the
architecture is aligned with the current plan for development of ITS in a
region. The ITS architecture relationship is illustrated in Figure 3.3.4.
 System Design 153

Figure 3.3.4: Illustration: ITS Architecture Relationship

Source:
https://www.standards.its.dot.gov/LearnAboutStandards/NationalITSArchi
tecture

The Regional Architecture Development for Intelligent Transportation

(RAD-IT) and Systems Engineering Tool for Intelligent Transportation
(SET-IT) are two supporting tools to update ARC-IT content and create
need-based regional ITS architectures. RAD-IT focuses on the regional-
154 Chapter 3.3

level development of ITS operations and provides high-level enterprise and

physical views, whereas SET-IT is project-specific; the latter is applied to
fulfil specific system requirements and high-level design to achieve the
project scopes as defined in the regional architecture. SET-IT is a graphical
tool that integrates drawing and database tools with the ARC-IT to provide
visual feedback to the user. Users can create project architectures for pilot
deployments by i) modifying service packages, ii) creating physical and
enterprise diagrams, iii) developing communications stack templates, iv)
specifying standards at all protocol layers, and v) exporting the information
in a variety of forms and formats. RAD-IT relies heavily on stakeholder
consensus. Hence, the deployed ITS services are mostly used by transport
planners and system integrators, both in the public and private sectors. In
contrast, SET-IT is more useful to systems engineers for developing pre-
design documentations and defining subsystems’ functionality.

Systems Engineering for ITS

Systems Engineering Process (SEP) follows a top-down approach to
developing the functional and physical requirements as defined in the
project objectives of the system. SEP can simplify complexities and
attenuate severity of errors in ITS deployment. It focuses on risk-
management during the design, deployment, and maintenance of complex
interacting elements throughout their life cycles. SEP also ensures
adherence to budget and time constraints while accomplishing the intended
objectives of the project. Figure 3.3.5 represents the Vee diagram for a
generic ITS project. It depicts the sequence of steps from a regional plan to
a deployed system, from left to right. The left section of the Vee diagram is
called the “decomposition” side as it starts with a broad overview of the ITS
in the regional ITS architecture. With each step, there is a breakdown of the
high-level objective into precise system requirements and technology
specifications to create a detailed design for the ITS. The right section is
called the “recomposition” side as the individual hardware and software
components are integrated and tested together to form a unified ITS. The
gap between the two subsequent processes represents traceability analysis.
The traceability analysis step validates that the next level of analysis,
design, or build fulfils all of the preceding step's objectives, criteria, or
specifications. Traceability analysis and testing ensures that the defects are
detected at the early stages, when repairing them is relatively less expensive.
 System Design 155

Figure 3.3.5: Systems Engineering Vee Diagram for ITS Projects

Source: US Department of Transportation et al. (2007). Systems
Engineering for Intelligent Transportation Systems. Washington, DC.
156 Chapter 3.3

1. Regional Planning

The first step in SEP for ITS projects is to identify the requirements and
objectives of the region. A regional ITS architecture is, then, developed to
specify the ITS services that accomplish the stated objectives. The regional
ITS architecture facilitates the integration of services by various
stakeholders and specifies the open standards of the ITS elements.

2. ITS Analysis

It includes feasibility studies and operations analysis while using the

regional ITS architecture as a reference. Detailed cost and benefit estimates,
and high-level technology choices are thoroughly evaluated.

3. Specification Development

It includes outlining the system requirement and developing high-level and

detailed designs to fulfil those requirements. The former includes the
functional, performance, and environmental requirement of each ITS
service, validating the system expectations. Once the system requirements
are validated, the high-level design is developed by choosing the right
technologies. The next step is detailed design that specifies the full-scale
deployment of the chosen technologies. The ITS modules (integrating the
software and hardware) are then tested for compatibility and functional
verification.

4. Implementation and Testing

It involves procurement of hardware and software for field deployment,

verification of subsystems, and overall system validation. The installed
components are commissioned, validated, and verified.

5. Manage, Operate, Maintain

Finally, the systems are managed, maintained, and upgraded as and when
required.

New York City

The New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) region 11
operates, monitors and controls many of the regions’ limited-access
highways, along with the three transport stakeholders in the region: (i) New
York City Department of Transportation (NYCDOT) is responsible for
 System Design 157

managing ITS equipment at the non-limited access roadways and the East
River bridges; (ii) MTA Bridges and Tunnels is responsible for all major
toll bridges and tunnels in New York City; and (iii) MTA Transit operates
the bus systems and subway in New York City. The New York City regional
ITS architecture covers all modes of surface transport and is called the New
York City sub-regional ITS architecture (NYCSRA). It was formed and
administered by the New York State Department of Transportation
(NYSDOT). All ITS initiatives in New York City are based on the
NYCSRA project's conceptual design. One such project is the Real-Time
Passenger Information (RTPI) program, wherein the NYCDOT undertakes
replacement of the standard bus stop poles with Real-Time Passenger
Information (RTPI) poles to display real-time location and arrival
information of the buses along with their routes. These poles are also linked
to the “NYC Link NYC'' kiosk to facilitate such real-time information
access to even those who are not present at the bus stops. The bus
information is also available in audible format to assist visually impaired
passengers. The RTPI program acquires real-time transit schedule
information from the servers located at the Transit Management Centre,
operated by MTA NYC Bus, through the MTA-INFO website. The
customized service package for the New York City RTPI program is
illustrated in Figure 3.3.6.
158 Chapter 3.3

Figure 3.3.6: Customized Service Package for the New York City Real-
Time Passenger Information Program
Source: NYC Subregional ITS Architecture.
http://www.consystec.com/nycsra2018/web/spinstance.htm?id=TI01-02
 System Design 159

References
http://www.arc-it.net/
https://frame-next.eu/about-page-builder/
List of service packages under ARC-IT 9.0
Source: https://www.arc-it.net/html/servicepackages/servicepackages-
areaspsort.html
 CHAPTER 3.4

CAPACITY PLANNING

Overview
Tiger Brennan Drive is a major arterial road in the western suburbs of
Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia. The road travels southeast to the east,
starting from Darwin CBD toward Darwin's eastern suburb of Berrimah,
then continues to a connection with the Stuart Highway at Palmerston.
Exhibit 3.4.1a shows the location of Tiger Brennan Drive and the
surrounding areas. Major roads intersecting Tiger Brennan Drive include
Amy Johnson Avenue, Woolner Road, Berrimah Road, and Tivendale
Road. Most of the major operations on Tiger Brennan Drive (TBD) are
controlled by traffic lights. As the Stuart Highway is busy, the Tiger
Brennan Drive provides the most direct route for freight coming to and from
the East Arm Port. The East Arm Port Access Route was a three-stage
project. The single carriageway underwent a major extension, in 2010, and
was upgraded to dual carriageway standard. The aim of the project was to
ease traffic congestion, improve safety, and reduce travel times between
Darwin and Palmerston. In late 2012, work commenced on further upgrades
to widen the 12 km section between McMinn Street, in the Darwin CBD,
and Berrimah Road to four-lane-dual-carriageway standard.

The Project

The project was one of the single largest projects in the Northern Territory
and the territory’s largest ever road and bridge project. The project was built
in three stages. Stage one of the project included the improvement of
Berrimah Road (between TBD and Wishart Road, as seen in Exhibit 3.4.1),
along with the creation of dual turning lanes to ease congestion. It was
valued at $10 million and was completed in February 2009. The second
stage of the project involved the extension of TBD from Berrimah Road to
the Stuart Highway (Exhibit 3.4.1b shows a zoomed-in image of the
location. The red line shows the extended TBD) and was valued at $89
million. It includes 7.5 km of four-lane freeway and a grade-separated
interchange at the junction of the Stuart Highway, Roystone Avenue, and
 Capacity Planning 161

TBD extension. Stage three of the project was to construct the Berrimah
Road Railway Overpass and was valued at $11 million. The case study
focuses on stage two of the project, which is the TBD extension. The
government of the Northern Territory (NT) has chosen the early contractor
involvement (ECI) procurement method to deliver the project. ECI
contracting is a process where the designer and constructor work together
from the beginning, in a contractual relationship with the client, to scope
and price a project in the first stage and, then, to design and construct a
project in the second stage. Part one of the project was to plan and design
the project, which included service relocations and ordering of long-lead
items. Part two was the construction stage. The reasons for selecting this
method according to the Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice
Case Studies (2010) are given below:

1. The opportunity for the contractor to bring their own experiences to

the project during the detailed design stage of the contract.
2. Synergies arising from the participation of a high-performance
design and construction team working in cooperation with the
principal.
3. Better integration of specific construction methodologies into design
aspects.
4. It provides greater flexibility and time allocation for planning the
project.
5. Possibility of early allocation and acquisition of critical construction
materials.
6. Negotiated apportionment of risk.

Objectives
The largest and the most significant section of the East Arm Port Access
Route was the extension of the TBD. The main aim of the project was to
improve the traffic flow to East Arm Port from rural areas and Palmerston.
It aimed to improve road safety, reduce travel time, and ease traffic
congestion. It was predicted that there will be 92,500 vehicles travelling
along the same route in 2031. This extension will help in meeting this
predicted demand efficiently. The project objectives were

1. To enhance freight capacity

2. To improve corridor capacity between Darwin and Palmerston and
rural areas
162 Chapter 3.4

The port is the only important port on Australia’s north coast, which exports
live cattle and is also significant for offshore and onshore oil and gas
projects. The rapid growth in exploration, mining, oil, and iron ore, as well
as gas projects, have increased the demand for the port. As the demand
grows, the bottlenecks to and from the port should be addressed, including
the issues concerning the safety of road trains mixed with commuter traffic.
The extension of the TBD has been designed to allow for road train access
to the port.

Benefits from the Project

As there was continuous development in the East Arm Port Route, there was
a need for increased capacity on the TBD. Therefore, the project was
designed to cater for long-term growth. The benefits attained from the TBD
extension are listed below:

1. Capacity: It provided an efficient two-lane, dual carriageway road

for the freight traffic, extending Tiger Brennan Drive to the Stuart
Highway, including a grade-separated interchange. It increased the
capacity to cater for future growth, reduced the travel time, and
improved the reliability and efficiency of the road.
2. Safety: It provided a high-level of operational safety as well as safety
for construction workers, and vehicular and pedestrian traffic during
construction, operation, and maintenance. It also improved the
functionality of existing intersections and access. Exhibit 3.4.2
shows the data analysis of the TBD extension.
3. Cultural Heritage and Environmental Impact: It safeguarded cultural
heritage and environmental values by minimizing community and
environmental impacts, and by building safeguards into the design.
4. Targeted Community Consultation: It engaged the community to
make sure that relevant local issues were understood and addressed
in design and construction projects, particularly the issues relating to
traffic management.
5. Job Creation: It created jobs during construction. Since an ECI
procurement method was implemented on the project, it tendered
several small contracts and provided an opportunity for local
business to get involved.
 Capacity Planning 163

Policy and Planning

The East Arm Port Access Route had been in the pipeline for over twenty
years. In the 1970s, strategic planning for the Darwin to Palmerston corridor
identified the need for continual development of the arterial network linking
the Stuart Highway and TBD to the northern suburbs, and to provide direct
access to the new East Arm Port for freight entering and exiting Darwin. In
September 1987, the Department of Transport and Works Road division
released the Darwin Arterial Roads—Tiger Brennan Drive Planning
Statement. The Statement was, “to provide an arterial network to effectively
connect Palmerston and the Darwin Central Business District as well as
providing satisfactory levels of access along the corridor for freight and
commuter traffic.” The East Arm Port Access project responded to this need
outlined in the statement. The bilateral agreement between the NT and the
Australian Government relating to the National Land Transport Plan
(AusLink Investment Program) outlined upgrade works to Tiger Brennan
Drive/Berrimah Road-East Arm access. Auslink is a former Australian
Government land transport funding program that operated between 2004
and 2009. The TBD project is a part of that agreement (Infrastructure
Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies 2010).

Reasons for Initiating the Project

The development of an alternate access route to the port had many reasons.
Increased traffic on the corridor into the city and the port was one of the
reasons to develop the project. The investment in the port, and the growing
demand from the mining sector for the port supported the business case to
construct the TBD extension. The growing demand from commercial and
passenger vehicles supported the need for the project to go ahead. A project
proposal report (PPR) for scoping and developing the two stages was
prepared in September 2007. The PPR outlined the status of planning the
project and detailed the proposed expenditure for preconstruction, planning,
investigations, preliminary design, and contract documentation. It also
outlined the strategic fit, risks, governance and contractual arrangements,
scoping, environmental, cultural and social issues, timing, design and
construction features, demand forecasts, and safety, and referred to a cost-
benefit analysis. The analysis in the PPR suggested that the project would
result in net economic benefits.

The aim of the TBD extension was to minimize the blockages and ensure
value for money. The final design of the TBD extension included bridges,
164 Chapter 3.4

interchanges, and traffic lights that allowed for traffic to continuously flow.
Exhibit 3.4.3 shows images of the TBD.

Environmental Approvals
The DPI (Department of Planning and Infrastructure) was responsible for
the delivery of the project. It submitted the project to the Department of
Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sports (NREATS). A joint
environmental management plan (EMP) was developed, where one was
done by government proponents and the other by the contractor, to set out
the responsibilities of all parties. The Project Environmental Management
Plan was completed in September 2009. According to the Infrastructure
Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies (2010), the aims of the
EMP were to

1. Capture all environmental issues associated with the TBD extension

project
2. Develop environmental mitigation measures to minimize the
potential impacts associated with the construction phase of the
project
3. Incorporate the environmental mitigation measures identified, into a
comprehensive framework to facilitate and ensure their proper
management through the construction stage of the project

Project Management
There was a collaborative approach during the design stage of the project,
between the client (the Department of Planning and Infrastructure), the
project manager (the Department of Construction and Infrastructure), the
contractor (Macmahon) and the contractor’s designers (SKM). By
establishing detailed planning, preliminary design, risks and pricing of the
works, each party worked together to deliver the outcome. Several
workshops facilitated the collaborative approach. The two groups that were
responsible for the delivery of the construction of the TBD extension were
the Project Management Group and Project Leadership Group. The Project
Management Group investigated the day-to-day management of the project
delivery, and it reported to the Project Leadership group, which has senior
representatives. The Northern Territory Government aimed at achieving
better outcomes in the delivery of the TBD extension through early
engagement with the contractor and constant collaboration between the
departments and the contractors.
 Capacity Planning 165

Conclusion
The strategic plans of Darwin city considered the need for a link between
two major transport nodes. It also focused on the retail and commercial
employment activities of Palmerston and Darwin. The project was executed
to address increasing traffic flows, capacity issues, and delays between these
two areas and to the East Arm Port. Now, the Tiger Brennan Drive provides
an alternative primary route between Palmerston and the Darwin CBD,
running to the south and roughly parallel to Stuart Highway. The project
also, in turn, supported the business case that would help to relieve these
capacity constraints and improve the efficiency and connectivity to the East
Arm Port. One significant feature of this project is that there was good
coordination among different departments, which is necessary for any
project to be successful. The interaction between the delivery agency, the
Department of Construction and Infrastructure, and the client (the
Department of Lands and Planning) were well coordinated. They ensured
well-informed decision making and day-to-day management. Finally,
having all relevant parties involved in regular project meetings reduced the
time required to make decisions.

References
Bennett, John. 2015. Traffic Impact Assessment: 2015 Workforce and
Construction Activity Update. Australia: Jacobs Group (Australia) Pty
Limited.
Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies. 2010.
Australia: Department of Infrastructure and Transport.
166 Chapter 3.4

Exhibit 3.4.1a: The location of Tiger Brennan Drive and the

Surrounding Areas
 Capacity Planning 167

Exhibit 3.4.1b: A Zoomed-in Image of the Location

Source: Google Maps

168 Chapter 3.4

Exhibit 3.4.2: Data Analysis

Tiger Brennan Drive to Stuart Highway

2005 to 2010 2009 to 2014 Difference
Total Number of
25 16 -9
crashes
Most common crash Angle
Rear End
type Collision changed
(36%)
(44%)
Crashes at minor
13 (52%) 11 (69%) -2
intersections
Crashes at mid-block 12 (48%) 5 (31%) -7
Most common time 12pm – 3pm 6am – 9am
changed
interval day (32%) (38%)
Crashes with alcohol
1 (4%) 0 (0%) -1
present
Source: Based on the data from Bennett (2015)
 Capacity Planning 169

Exhibit 3.4.3: Images of Tiger Brennan Road

Source: Infrastructure Planning and Delivery: Best Practice Case Studies

(2010).
 CHAPTER 3.5

OPERATIONS PLANNING AND CONTROL

Introduction
The application of advanced electronic and communication technologies,
along with management strategies, in an integrated manner to provide a
traveler with all the necessary information and ensure the safe, reliable, and
efficient use of transportation systems are known as Intelligent Transport
Systems (ITS). These systems mainly consist of drivers, passengers,
managers, vehicles, and operators, which interact with each other and the
environment. These elements are linked to complex infrastructure systems,
which will help in sensing, communication, computation, and control, and
this improves the safety and capacity of transport systems. The transmitted
information indicating actual road conditions is precise and timely with
minimal human errors. Dynamic control systems will be continually
responding to the interaction of vehicles and the roadway. The future
mobility of Kentucky can be enhanced by ITS because of the rapidly
developing electronic technologies and control systems. A significant role
is performed by these systems in efficiently accommodating and managing
increasing travel demands.

Benefits of ITS Program

Application of ITS has many benefits, where it can improve safety, reduce
congestion, and improve mobility, while minimizing environmental effects.
Various measures of effectiveness can be used to quantify ITS benefits. ITS
programs improve the safety and mobility of the traveler, the efficiency of
the system, productivity of transportation providers, and conservation of
energy and the environment. Current problems can be addressed using ITS
tools to meet the future demands through proper planning and management
of transportation systems. By the effective integration of advanced
technologies for the communication and processing of information into
transportation systems, direct benefits can be recognized. Preparation of an
inclusive and well-developed plan by including ITS concepts and technologies
 Operations Planning and Control 171

into Kentucky’s transportation planning process will offer significant

benefits to the whole transportation system.

Purpose of ITS Business Plan

This paper presents a business plan for the state of Kentucky, located in the
east-central region of the United States. The ITS business plan is prepared
by referring to the goals outlined in the strategic plan; it will mention the
estimated costs and optimal implementation schedule. The business plan
addresses infrastructure requirements to enable state-wide ITS deployment.
It has been verified that the business plan prepared is compatible with the
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet’s Six-Year Plan of proposed projects. The
purpose of the prepared plan is to identify projects for deployment that will
accomplish the goals given in the strategic plan over the next six years. It
sets an objective, briefly describes the project, calculates the cost, identifies
the location, and prepares a schedule for each identified project. The
business plans will be re-evaluated and updated every two years.

Current ITS Deployment in Kentucky

Kentucky started using ITS in 1982 with the implementation of a
computerized traffic signal system, a closed-circuit cameras system in
Lexington, and vehicle detection loops. The state-wide fiber-optic network
helps with communication between the state’s ITS systems; it is a shared
resource project with one or more telecommunication providers, where the
fiber is installed along the right of way of major roadways throughout the
state. Substantial infrastructure for commercial vehicle operations (CVO)
has also been implemented by Kentucky for the Commercial Vehicle
Information Systems and Networks (CVISN) program. Road Weather
Information Systems (RWIS) are implemented in eight different areas
around the state for providing information to a centralized location.
Automatic vehicle identification (AVI) readers are equipped for six
different weigh stations, which allow electronic identification and mainline
screening of transponder-equipped commercial vehicles. All of Kentucky’s
weigh stations have been connected to a wide area network (WAN), which
allows high-speed data communication and internet access. To covertly
monitor commercial vehicle traffic from a remote location by the
enforcement personnel, a remote monitoring system (RMS) has been
installed in Northern Kentucky. Presently, there are many ITS-related
projects that are in operation or development throughout the state, involving
public transportation, CVO, traffic management, and traveler information.
172 Chapter 3.5

For the system to function as intended, most of the ITS technologies require
infrastructure like electric power and a communications connection. Electric
power is needed to power the equipment, whereas the communications
connection helps on-site equipment to send/receive information from other
systems. Solar power can be a valid option for some technologies with low
power requirements. Based on cost-benefit analysis, the best communication
option is selected for each project, since there are many options for
communications infrastructure. The internet has been identified as an
attractive option for communications, especially in rural areas. For this
option, each area will need a phone line and an account with an internet
service provider. The infrastructure components placement depends on a
project-by-project or site-by-site basis.

Development of ITS Business Plan

The process of developing the ITS business plan began with the ITS
strategic plan, which was completed and published in 2000. A twenty-year
vision for Kentucky was given, along with the identification of key goals
for each of the six functional areas of ITS. The six functional areas are
advanced public transportation systems (APTS), advanced rural transportation
systems (ARTS), advanced traffic management systems (ATMS), advanced
traveler information systems (ATIS), advanced vehicle safety systems
(AVSS), and CVO. The goals were specifically prioritized and established
for each functional area (Exhibit 3.5.1 shows the goals developed for each
functional area of ITS).

National ITS Architecture

The National ITS Architecture was used in the development of the business
plan. It is a blueprint that guides ITS implementation in the United States.
A framework for ITS deployment is provided, which specifies how the
various systems will interface and exchange data, and how the necessary
functionality will be allotted to various system elements. This helps in
ensuring that there is interoperability among systems, a continuous flow of
information, regulation of equipment, multiple vendors for technology, and
maximum benefits from early lessons learned. ITS is described by the
national architecture in terms of thirty-one user services, which are broken
down into sixty-three market packages (market packages help solving real-
world transportation problems to meet specific needs). The first step is to
develop a list of projects for the business plans. For this, a matrix was
prepared where the goals defined in Kentucky’s ITS Strategic Plan were
 Operations Planning and Control 173

“mapped against” the market packages in the national architecture to decide

which market packages were appropriate for meeting Kentucky’s goals.
Exhibit 3.5.2 shows the matrix of strategic plan goals and market packages.

Through this process, it was found that fifty market packages were required
to implement all the goals within the strategic plan. The Kentucky
Transportation Center (KTC) project staff simplified the list by eliminating
the market packages that are to be implemented by the private sector or
different divisions of the state government, and those that could not
reasonably be implemented within a six-year time frame. After the
shortlisting, the remaining market packages were prioritized based on
factors like stakeholder input, engineering judgment, and the number of
goals met by each market package. A list of thirteen primary market
packages, three secondary market packages, and three additional user
service areas for consideration were presented to the Study Advisory
Committee (SAC) by the KTC project staff. The SAC, then, discussed and
finalized a list for the business plan. The three user service areas were not
included in the proposed market packages.

Market Packages Approved for Inclusion in the Business Plan

ATIS 1 Broadcast Traveler Information
ATIS 2 Interactive Traveler Information
ATMS 1 Network Surveillance
ATMS 2 Probe Surveillance
ATMS 3 Surface Street Control
ATMS 6 Traffic Information Dissemination
ATMS 8 Incident Management System
ATMS 13 Standard Railroad Grade Crossing
ATMS 18 Road Weather Information System
EM 1 Emergency Response
CVO 3 Electronic Clearance
CVO 4 Commercial Vehicle Administrative Process
CVO 7 Roadside CVO Safety
CVO 10 Hazardous Material Management
APTS 1 Transit Vehicle Tracking
AD 1 ITS Data Mart

Table 3.5.1: Approved Market Packages

Source: Author’s compilation
Note: Highlighted market packages will be included as a part of the business
plan
174 Chapter 3.5

The approved list of market packages (as given in Table 3.5.1) and the
inputs from the SAC were used by the KTC project staff to develop a list of
projects for the business plan. That list was revised after consulting the staff
from the KTC’s ITS Branch. The list of projects recommended for
implementation in Kentucky over the next six years is given in Table 3.5.2.

S.N Project Title

o
1 511 Deployment
2 ARTIMIS
3 Commercial Vehicle Electronic Credentials
4 Commercial Vehicle Electronic Screening
5 Detailed Reference Market Expansion
6 Detour Route Development
7 I-75 Incident Detection and Probe Surveillance
8 Informational Course on ITS for Law Enforcement Agencies
9 Informational Kiosks
10 Lexington Traffic Management and Traveler Information
Systems
11 Road Weather Information System Expansion
12 Rural Incident Management Systems
13 Signal Coordination
14 Statewide Road Reporting System
15 Strategic Planning and Implementation in Rural Kentucky
16 Transit System Improvement
17 TRIMARC
18 Virtual Weigh Station
19 Work Zone Safety

Table 3.5.2: List of Projects Recommended for Implementation in

Kentucky
Source: Author’s compilation

The total estimated cost was nearly $80M. Cost estimates, by fiscal year,
for these projects are given in Exhibit 3.5.3. The spent money and on-going
maintenance costs have not been included as part of the estimates. The
 Operations Planning and Control 175

source of funding for these projects is anticipated to be local agencies. The

state is divided into twelve highway districts, by the KTC, to optimize
building, accountability, and maintenance of transportation systems present
within the state. Exhibit 3.5.4 shows a summary of costs for the twelve
highway districts. The highway district map is given in Exhibit 3.5.5.
Kentucky’s ITS Business Plan is updated every two years to reflect
variations in needs and priorities that may occur.

ITS Marketing
There are many factors that oppose the successful implementation of ITS.
These include inherent human resistance to change, a natural dislike
towards risk-taking, a high level of comfort with traditional methods, and
the fear of unknown approaches. While implementing ITS technologies,
both technical and marketing aspects are taken care of. Broadly, three types
of stakeholders are involved in ITS, each with different motivations and
objectives. The first stakeholder group are the “decision makers,” who
establish organizational goals and priorities, and allocate funds based on the
capabilities and benefits of ITS. The second set are the “commuters” or end
users. Their endorsement is pertinent for a successful and sustainable ITS
implementation and, therefore, their requirements drive and influence
systems developed by the decision makers. There is also a need to educate
users on the types of technologies, the effectiveness of the system, and their
benefits, as the users need to have some knowledge of these technologies to
properly utilize them. The final target group is the “implementers and
operators.” They are the people within the public/private sector agencies,
who implement, operate, and maintain the systems. It is important to gain
the acceptance and buy-in of all the stakeholders for a successful
implementation of ITS. Therefore, ITS technologies and systems should be
appropriately marketed to all stakeholders. Awareness must be created of
the innovative ITS applications among the stakeholders. ITS marketing
should help complete information dissemination to all stakeholders and
assist in framing stakeholder-centric plans and strategies. Stakeholder
consultation sessions should be held to help clarify their concerns, address
their queries, and plan the systems, as per their requirements. Kentucky’s
ITS program was considered very effective in marketing the state ITS
initiatives to all stakeholders.
176 Chapter 3.5

Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Challenges

Challenges in the O&M of systems must be meticulously addressed. Some
of the significant O&M challenges related to ITS technologies are discussed
below:

1. Existing systems and agencies must be well integrated in

sophisticated and advanced ITS operations.
2. The O&M personnel are burdened with the responsibilities of
deploying the new systems; roles, responsibilities, and accountability of
tasks should be established.
3. Since the O&M of advanced systems require new skills and
capabilities, there will be a need to train existing personnel or engage
new personnel.

Therefore, new ITS projects should completely plan the O&M of the
system, to optimally allocate roles and responsibilities, outline capacity
building, plan training requirements, select suitable maintenance
approaches, and enforce standardization requirements. All the activities
should involve all groups of stakeholders and their buy-in must be ensured.

ITS Organizational Structure

Understanding the organizational mission, administrative contexts,
managerial challenges, and planning resources impact the ITS organizational
structure, in 1999, the Transportation Cabinet formed a separate section for
ITS, within the Department of Highways’ Division of Operations,
constituted exclusively of ITS staff. Within the KTC, two departments
(Highways and Vehicle Regulation) have been regularly and actively
engaged in ITS developments. In addition, the Division of Information
Technology (part of the Department of Administration within the
Transportation Cabinet) provides constant support for most of the CVO
projects. The unprecedented amount of interdepartmental coordination and
multidisciplinary characteristics of ITS projects imposes a huge challenge
in system development. The organizational structure can be seen in Exhibit
3.5.6. The various ITS projects developed through partnerships and diverse
teams illustrate the complexity levels of Kentucky’s transportation projects.
 Operations Planning and Control 177
Exhibit 3.5.1 Goals Developed for Each Functional Area of ITS

Sl
ITS Functional Area Goals
No
1 Enhance state-wide emergency response capability
Improve connectivity between rural public transportation systems
Advanced Rural Implement efficient traffic management practices for incidents and construction
Transportation Systems activity
(ARTS) Promote communication and information sharing among agencies
Improve signing and traveler information resources
Develop advanced vehicle safety systems
2 Reduce congestion resulting from roadway hazards and adverse weather conditions by
improving traveler awareness
Improve the response time and increase the availability of emergency services
Advanced Traveler Enhance traffic information and management services by integrating them on a
Information Systems (ATIS) regional basis
Increase the attractiveness of public transit by using better transit information systems
Increase tourism travel through better dissemination of information
Improve driver performance by using traveler information systems
3 Improve and streamline CVO
Continuation of Kentucky’s leadership role in CVO
Conduct paperless CVO operations with timely, current, accurate and verifiable
Commercial Vehicle electronic information, while maintaining security and privacy
Operations (CVO) Enhance CVO productivity, safety, and efficiency by eliminating unsafe and illegal
operations and providing incentives for improved performance
Integrate and coordinate ITS operations and empower Kentucky
Create a CVO system that is self-sufficient, uses multiple vendors, and is user-friendly
178 Chapter 3.5

4 Develop a statewide ITS plan and an ITS architecture that identifies the needs, goals,
and plans for Kentucky
Identify and allocate available funding for ITS projects
Advanced Traffic Resolve issues regarding public policies and laws
Management Systems Develop a state-wide traffic operations center for collection and dissemination of
(ATMS) traffic information
Integrate and coordinate incident management response
Provide ITS training and education
Improve safety at highway-rail crossings
5 Increase funding opportunities for public transit systems
Increase the efficiency and convenience of transit services by developing statewide
coordinated transit system
Advanced Public
Improve the level and quality of service of transit systems to make them convenient
Transportation Systems
and attractive
(APTS)
Improve safety for transit operators and passengers while onboard transit vehicles
and at boarding and transfer stations
Increase public awareness and improve customer service
6 Establish proper standards and specifications to ensure compatibility,
interoperability, and conformance to minimum requirements for all systems
Educate drivers on proper use of AVSS
Determine the appropriate cost responsibility for deployment of AVSS
Advanced Vehicle Safety
Provide adequate funding for research
Systems (AVSS)
Reduce crashes
Regulate use of potentially distracting technologies while driving
Determine how best to resolve the older driver issue
Start early planning at the state level
Source: Based on the data from Walton et al. 2000.
 Operations Planning and Control 179

Exhibit 3.5.2 Matrix of Strategic Plan Goals and Market Packages

180 Chapter 3.5

Exhibit 3.5.3: Cost Summary for Projects by Fiscal Year

 Operations Planning and Control 181

Exhibit 3.5.4: Cost Summary for Projects by Highway Districts

Source for Exhibits 2, 3 and 4:

J.R. Walton, J.D. Crabtree, M.L. Barrett, J.G. Pigman. INTELLIGENT
TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS BUSINESS PLAN FOR KENTUCKY
(FINAL REPORT). Research Report, Kentucky: KENTUCKY
TRANSPORTATION CENTER, September 2001.
182 Chapter 3.5

Exhibit 3.5.5: Map Showing the Twelve Kentucky Highway Districts

Source: Kentucky’s Long-Range Statewide Transportation Plan: Planning

to Make a Difference in America’s Tomorrow. 2014.
 Operations Planning and Control 183

Exhibit 3.5.6: ITS Organizational Structure in Kentucky as of April 2000

Source: Walton et al. 2000.

184 Chapter 3.5

References
Kentucky’s Long-Range Statewide Transportation Plan: Planning to Make
a Difference in America’s Tomorrow. 2014. Kentucky: Kentucky
Transportation Cabinet.
Walton, J. R., J. D. Crabtree, M. L. Barrett, J. G. Pigman. 2001.
INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS BUSINESS PLAN FOR
KENTUCKY (FINAL REPORT). Kentucky: KENTUCKY
TRANSPORTATION CENTER.
Walton, J. R., et al. 2000. Intelligent Transportation Systems Strategic Plan
(Final Report). Final Research Report, University of Kentucky,
Kentucky: Kentucky Transportation centre, College of Engineering.
 CHAPTER 3.6

TRANSIT SIGNAL PRIORITY

Overview
The City of Zurich is the historic, administrative, and cultural center of
northeast Switzerland, and is located at the north end of Lake Zurich. Zurich
is the largest city in Switzerland, with a population of nearly 335,900. It has
many recreational and cultural opportunities. Zurich, like many European
cities, provides a high level of transit service to its citizens; it has an
extremely high degree of transit usage for a relatively small city. The story
of the transit priority program in Zurich started in the years following World
War II, when major transportation problems were caused by the increasing
use of private vehicles due to the increasing population. There was a lot of
interest in transit priority techniques, from the early 1970s, and designs were
oriented towards speeding up transit. For the successful implementation of
a transit priority program, it is essential to provide high-quality transit
service. An important feature of the Zurich’s transit system is that it is safe
and many young children independently use the system. It is an excellent
network, where passengers can get from anywhere to anywhere, almost any
time of the day, throughout the year. Most of the transit priority
improvements in the city are simple and inexpensive.

Transit Priority
Transit signal priority (TSP) is a set of operational improvements. They use
technology to reduce dwell time at traffic signals for transit vehicles by
holding green lights longer or shortening red lights. There is an important
distinction between TSP and signal pre-emption. Signal priority changes the
normal signal operation process to better accommodate transit vehicles,
while pre-emption interferes with the normal process for special situations,
such as an approaching emergency vehicle. Transit priority improvements
are generally a range of techniques that are designed to speed up public
transit service. Speeding up transit is important because travel time acts as
a determining factor for the customers to choose a means of transport. They
improve the system’s overall efficiency and help in reducing conflicts and
186 Chapter 3.6

accidents on the roads. Transit priority is extremely cost effective, provides

faster and more reliable services; it is important as it enables transit
operations at higher frequencies with the same resources, and the attraction
of more passengers.

Types of Transit Priority Improvements

Transit priority improvements generally include physical improvements,
operation changes, and regulatory changes (Nash and Sylvia 2001). The
transit priority improvements are categorized into four types:

1. Roadway Improvements or Traffic Regulations: This includes minor

changes to roadways, relocation or reduction in the number of
transits stops, and traffic regulations designed to reduce transit
vehicle delays. The types of traffic improvements include turn
restrictions, traffic islands, and parking restrictions. The impact of
these individual improvements is generally small and requires
different departments to carry out the projects. So, interdepartmental
collaboration is necessary for project implementation.
2. TSP: This includes traffic signals that reduce delays to transit
vehicles by giving green light signals when they approach. The main
goal was to provide transit priority at traffic signals without
impacting traffic flow. The traffic signal control system provides
continuous information on the location of transit vehicles.
3. Transit System Operations: This includes changes to the operation
of the public transit system designed to reduce delays, including
measures like low-floor buses, proof of payment, and system control
centers. The Transit Operations Center helped the city’s transit
system improve its effectiveness and efficiency. Zurich’s transit
system operates with a proof-of-payment fare collection. The
region’s transit operators use well designed buses and trams that
make transit faster. These vehicles have lots of space around the
doors, and there are three wide double-doors in most of the standard
forty-foot buses.
4. Separate Right of Way: Sections of roadway are designated for the
exclusive use of transit vehicles, allowing transit to bypass
congestion. Zurich redistributed a large amount of road space to
construct a major network of exclusive transit lanes.

Zurich has implemented all the four types of transit priority improvements.
One of the most important factors in the success of a transit priority program
 Transit Signal Priority 187

is to carefully plan and design improvements. Zurich has had more than
thirty years of experience in implementing its transit priority program.

Importance of Transit Priority Improvements

Rail transport can provide an attractive and eco-friendly transit system. But
it is feasible only in major corridors where there is high ridership and large
capital investment. It is also difficult to find funding for these expensive
projects. In the cost-benefit analysis, transit priority improvements are less
expensive and well-rationalized. Therefore, transit priority improvement is
an important method for improving transit services. The overall
effectiveness of the transit network can be improved by transit priority
improvements where large capital investments are viable. High-investment
transit projects, such as light-rail lines, can be implemented with more
confidence due to the demand built by transit priority improvements.

Today, many cities are facing the issue of traffic congestion and are trying
to restructure their transit networks. They have two main choices. One is to
construct an entirely new transit network, or line, which is an expensive and
long process, and the second choice is to focus on improving the existing
network by implementing transit priority techniques. Zurich chose the
second option, which is a relatively unique choice in the age of major transit
projects. This has resulted in creating one of the world’s best transit systems.

Implementation of Transit Priority Techniques

Transit priority programs are most efficient and effective if they cover the
entire network. The city of Zurich has done this over the past thirty years.
The planners evaluate each aspect of the program systematically and scout
for ways to maintain and upgrade it. According to Nash and Sylvia (2001),
the implementation of transit priority improvements can be categorized into
four levels:

1. Limited Implementation: Transit priority techniques are implemented

individually in various locations in the transit network, as in
individual roadway improvements. Roadway changes are traffic
regulations, minor physical improvements, and changes to transit
stops.
2. Route-level Implementation: Transit priority techniques are
implemented along the entire route, such as building exclusive transit
188 Chapter 3.6

lanes; exclusive transit lanes are lanes used solely by public transit
vehicles.
3. Area-wide Implementation: Transit priority improvements are
implemented in a particular area, such as transit malls. Transit malls
are sections of the street, generally located in a city center, where
many different transit lanes operate with little or very limited private
traffic.
4. Comprehensive Implementation: Transit priority improvements are
implemented in all transit routes and operational changes are made
comprehensively, such as proof-of-payment fare collection. Proof of
payment, also known as self-service fare collection (SSFC), relieves
transit drivers from the hassles of fare collection and automates door
operations for safe and convenient boarding and deboarding.

Difficulties in Implementing Transit Priority

Improvements
Zurich is extremely successful in implementing a comprehensive transit
priority program. However, implementing TSP is not an easy task;
prioritizing transit necessitates releasing capacity from other roadway users.
The concept of TSP is relatively simple, but execution must be in real-time,
which makes it both complex and critical. Some of the difficulties
associated with the implementation process are

1. Low technical competence and lack of expertise on transit priority

techniques and implementation
2. Lack of support or direct opposition by different agencies or
departments
3. Difficulties of coordination between agencies and departments
4. Pressure by automobile users
5. Poor public understanding of the benefits of transit priority
6. Opposition to change, by businesses and residents

These obstacles are hindrances to transit agencies and departments for

implementing TSP. Political and state support is essential to overcome these
obstacles, which is evidenced by the case of Zurich. In 1973, the people of
Zurich started an initiative to improve operations of the existing surface
transit network, mainly by providing funding and political support for
implementing transit priority improvements.
 Transit Signal Priority 189

Transit Priority in Zurich

Zurich implemented all four types of transit priority improvements
throughout its network. It designed and built a unique citywide TSP system
that provides transit priority without disturbing other traffic. Traffic
volumes in the city are controlled by this sophisticated system, to prevent
congestion and improve livability. The city adopted system-operating
techniques, such as proof-of-payment; to maintain schedule reliability and
service quality, a high-tech systems operations center was created. All the
priority transit vehicles had new traffic regulations and roadway changes on
all the city routes. The city implemented improvements, which were
designed to reduce the amount of through traffic and traffic speeds in the
neighborhoods. Exclusive right of way was constructed by redistributing
road space from mixed traffic to transit only. If the construction of exclusive
lanes was not possible, then traffic signals were creatively provided for
transit priority.

The city’s public interest in the transit system was heightened by the
efficiency and quality of service. Zurich’s regional transit system directly
feeds the city’s tram and bus system. A two-level transit system was
developed to meet the transportation needs of a major urban region.
Through systematic implementation and by increasing the number of
stations, Zurich improved the efficiency and speed of the surface transit
network.

Implementation Lessons from Zurich

Like all other modern cities, Zurich also faces problems related to traffic
congestion, high automobile ownership and demographical changes.
Zurich’s primary reasons for success were continued public support and
effective political leadership. Successful implementation of a transit priority
program needs a comprehensive, long-term approach to improve the transit
system. Zurich already had a well-connected public transit network, which
only needed upgradation and expansion. The lessons and strategies that can
be learnt from Zurich are given below:

1. Obtain and Maintain Strong Public Support: One of the most

important elements in implementing any government program is to
gain public support. In Zurich, the public played an active role in
compelling the city administration to implement transit priorities
comprehensively. A group of citizens presented a plan for
implementing transit priority improvements throughout Zurich’s
190 Chapter 3.6

existing transit system instead of creating a new rail transit line,

which would have been expensive.
2. Gain Elected Official Support: Obtaining elected officials’ support
is not easy, but the public’s endorsement of policies decided by the
officials is essential for implementing a transit priority program.
Elected officials move government bodies to undertake long-term
and challenging city-wide programs.
3. Use Smart Implementation Techniques: Government officials
implemented high-impact, effective programs to sustain public
support; they also publicized the benefits of the projects. Zurich
designed its TSP system in a way that the movement of other
vehicles was not disturbed by providing only the least amount of
time required for transit priority. Zurich also sped up transit and
improved neighborhoods by providing good bus stops, pedestrian
spaces, and turn restrictions to avoid delays and unwanted traffic.
4. Organize Government to Effectively Deliver Program: Many
departments get affected by the implementation of transit priority
improvements. Zurich addressed this concern by creating two task
forces. One was the executive council, which develops transit
priority improvements and provides the needed political support.
The other task force was the actual implementors, consisting of
planners and heads of different departments. It allows inter-
departmental collaboration for developing specific transit priority
improvements. Finally, the traffic police had the responsibility of
making changes to roadway systems including signs, traffic signals,
and road construction.
5. Careful Traffic Engineering and Technology: The lesson from
Zurich is that opposition to transit priority techniques can be
minimized by using sophisticated traffic engineering. Sophisticated
traffic engineering techniques like channelization and traffic signal
placement allow private vehicle operations while still providing
transit priority. The city of Zurich had staff members who were
operations research specialists; they took a systems approach to
transit priority and worked closely with other departments to
understand problems. Technical implementation issues should be
resolved and new technologies should be developed to solve
problems.
6. Implement Complementary Programs: Transit priority alone will not
create an excellent transit system. The other basic requirements are
safety, good service, and efficiency. In addition to this, there are
other complementary programs that can further support and improve
 Transit Signal Priority 191

the transit system. Some complementary programs were planning

land uses to support transit, reducing traffic volume, and regional
transit coordination. The conventional land use planning techniques
include increasing density with zoning and development agreements
and providing good access to mobility at places to live, work, and
visit. Smoothing traffic flow, reduction of roadway capacity, and
parking controls were the three approaches to reduce traffic volume
on the roads. Strong ridership and public approval exist for Zurich’s
transit system.
7. Use Capital Investments to Leverage Institutional Change: As a part
of funding the project to construct the S-Bahn (fast train), the canton
of Zurich was asked to create a new agency for regional coordination.
The Canton’s funding helped to establish coordination between the
public and private transit operators.
8. Think from the Systems Level: Zurich adopted a hybrid transit
system. Surface streetcars and buses for local transit and high-speed
commuter rail for regional transit was an appropriate solution to
Zurich’s transportation needs. There are significant cost savings and
transit service benefits. The two-level system reduces transfers
through a meticulous implementation of system-level decision
choices (Nash and Sylvia 2001).

Conclusion
Zurich is one of the most livable cities in the world and is famous for the
quality of its public transit system. The system is easy to use, fast,
convenient, reliable, and inexpensive. Understandably, Zurich has one of
the highest rates of transit usage. The most important quality of Zurich’s
public transit system is that it functions as a network. Zurich created its
excellent transit system by implementing a comprehensive transit priority
program designed to speed up transit. Improving a surface transit system
that can operate with transit priority has many advantages over an
underground system. A surface system is simple to operate and is designed
to fit well into the urban environment. The transit priority techniques used
in Zurich can be implemented in other countries to improve their own transit
systems. Cities with less-developed transit systems might not achieve the
same results as quickly as Zurich, but Zurich’s approach remains an
excellent model to follow.
192 Chapter 3.6

Reference
Nash, Andrew Butler, and Ronald Sylvia. 2001. Implementation of Zürich’s
Transit Priority Program. Mineta, US: Final Report, US Department of
Transportation, Mineta Transportation Institute, 150.
 CHAPTER 3.7

ITS PROJECT MANAGEMENT

Background
The historic city of Mysore is in the state of Karnataka, in India. The Mysore
Urban Development Authority (MUDA) is responsible for the growth and
expansion of the city, along with developing new layouts and roads. Mysore
was facing severe problems related to road transportation. such as
congestion and increasing pollution. Commuters experienced delays in
buses due to lack of information and frequency. There was mismanagement
of traffic with high levels of pollution and increasing traffic density. As a
result, there was a need for an efficient and sustainable public transport
system in the city.

The Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) pioneered the

implementation of ITS in providing a dynamic solution to the increasing
road congestion. It encouraged the use of public transport by reducing the
use of personal vehicles. This, in a way, protects the environment from
heavy pollution and eases congestion. A good-quality and passenger-
friendly service is achievable only through ITS, which improve accessibility,
safety, traffic and energy efficiency, and economic output. ITS also reduce
the waiting time, travel uncertainty, fuel consumption, emissions, operating
costs, and traffic congestion. To ensure that all the services are delivered
without any interruption, ITS must be maintained and managed efficiently.

Objectives of Mysore ITS

The core objectives of deploying ITS in the city were conceptualized with
the aim of providing safe, efficient, and eco-friendly public transport. The
objectives are

1. To provide effective, safe, environmental, and commuter-friendly

solutions to the public transport buses
194 Chapter 3.7

2. To track, monitor, and communicate the movement of buses on a

real-time basis at the bus stops to enable through modern GPS/GPRS
technologies
3. To use a decision support system to effectively manage the transport
system by collecting, organizing, and storing information on a real-
time basis using communication technology
4. To get instant access to real-time information related to bus
schedules, ETA, ETD, bus stops, fare details, etc., at bus stops, bus
terminals, within the buses, and through SMS, internet and IVRS
5. To issue passes daily, weekly, and monthly for commuters and e-
purse facilities through smart cards
6. To effectively monitor disruptions and obtain relevant information
7. To facilitate timely management of accidents
8. To establish instant two-way interaction facility between driver and
central control station
9. To effectively divert traffic in case of emergency (Ramasaamy,
Subhashini and Pathak 2008)

Like any typical project management, Mysore ITS was implemented in a

phased manner with five key phases: i) initiating, ii) planning, iii) executing,
iv) controlling, and v) closing. These phases are illustrated in Exhibit
3.7.1a. The tasks under each phase are carried out using appropriate
techniques and methodologies to fulfil all the stakeholders’ requirements in
a timely manner. A detailed explanation of these tasks is given in Exhibit
3.7.1b.

Key Stakeholders in the Project

The essential criteria for ITS are availability, accessibility, assessment and
acceptance. These ensure the acceptance and endorsement of the ITS by all
stakeholders (Ramasaamy, Subhashini and Pathak 2008). The involvement
of multiple stakeholders at various levels is required for the successful
implementation of ITS. The Government of India (GOI) implemented the
Sustainable Urban Transport Program (SUTP) in partnership with the
Global Environment Facility (GEF). The KSRTC is responsible for the
overall management of the public transport system in the city. There were
two key ministries of GOI that were involved in this initiative. One is the
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD), which formulates policies and
conducts programs in coordination with state and central ministries. The
other is the Ministry of Environment, which designs planning and
implementation from an environmental perspective. The World Bank
 ITS Project Management 195

supports the SUTP and The United Nations Development Program (UNDP)
provides training in ITS to Mysore’s officials. The IBI group, in
coordination with Computer Maintenance Corporation (CMC) limited,
focused on the physical development of cities like planning, design,
implementation, operations analysis, and development of the transportation
networks and intelligent systems. The list of key stakeholders along with
their descriptions is given in Exhibit 3.7.2.

Implementation Strategy
The KSRTC overlooks the implementation of ITS in Mysore. The Mysore
City Transport Division (MCTD) is a division of KSRTC, which operates a
fleet of 400 buses from three depots. This initiative started in 2012 with a
total number of 105 selected bus stops, which was later extended to all the
bus stops. The integrated approach in KSRTC helps in efficiently
controlling the ICT tools and services based on GPS-enabled navigation
systems.

Technologies Used: The core systems used in Mysore ITS are the vehicle
tracking system, real-time passenger information system, central control
station, global positioning system (GPS), electronic display systems, digital
display units (for displaying details of arrival and departure of buses, in the
local language, Kannada, and English), and a vehicle-mounted unit (VMU).
A VMU updates the location information and sends it to the central server
through the general packet radio service (GPRS, a wireless data
connection). The bus stop information is tracked using VMU and is
displayed in real-time inside the buses. ITS are also supported by a two-way
voice-communication facility for enhanced operations and monitoring of
the bus transport system. This allows the drivers and the central control
station to interact with information on accidents or emergencies. The bus
drivers are provided with communication headsets and a keypad interface
for voice communication. By the end of the day, daily reports are generated
about the delays in arrivals, performance of drivers, and number of bus stops
skipped. A flow chart showing the implementation strategy is given in
Exhibit 3.7.3.

Components of Mysore ITS

There are many crucial components of ITS, which provide sustainable
solutions to the ever-growing demands of urban transport. Exhibit 3.7.4
196 Chapter 3.7

shows the list of components of Mysore ITS. The components are explained
below:

1. The digital display unit, installed at the bus stops, displays the
information in English and Kannada, and gets updated by the central
server through GPRS. It displays information like route number,
terminal, origin and destination, expected time of arrival (ETA) and
expected time of departure (ETD).
2. The in-bus display system shows information about the upcoming
bus stop and the current stop, which are tracked and communicated
through the central control stations and updated through GPRS.
3. To ensure inclusivity of traffic management, an audio announcing
system is placed in the buses.
4. Geographic information system (GIS) maps help in tracking the
status of a bus and the ETA.
5. The SMS system gives real-time bus information and scheduled bus
availability.
6. An IVRS facility, under the Mysore ITS, provides answers to
telephonic queries, in both English and Kannada.
7. To track KSRTC vehicles online, there is an online portal in both the
languages. This is integrated with GIS to help commuters. An
illustration is provided in Exhibit 3.7.5.a.

Exhibit 3.7.5 b is an illustration of various technologies and initiatives used

in the Mysore ITS and Exhibit 3.7.6 is a systemic representation of the
Mysore ITS. The devices present inside the buses send signals and
information to the communication towers, which are then sent to the central
control station through the GPPRS gateway. The communication towers
send the information related to arrival and departures to the bus stops and
bus terminals. The bus depots send information to the central control station,
which is also displayed in the bus terminals. Therefore, the passengers are
well informed about the real-time information of buses.

Resources Utilized
The investment related to infrastructure is partly financed and supported by
the World Bank-GEF grants. The estimated cost of deploying ITS in Mysore
is Rs. 19.13 crore. The Mysore ITS technology framework covers wireless
communication, sensing technologies, inductive loop detection, video
vehicle detection, electronic toll collection, GPS, and displays and other
information systems. Technology infrastructure contains a data center with
 ITS Project Management 197

various types of servers like communication, database, and application.

Other technical components include a central control station, like a video
wall in the control room, dispatcher workstations, and access control. Core
applications include GIS and ITS and commuter-friendly applications,
including SMS, IVRS, and a commuter portal in Kannada and English.
About 1,439 crew members, along with depot managers and traffic
inspectors, were trained as part of the initiative. The training included
classroom training, in-bus demonstration, and a visit to the control room.
Users of KSRTC services were also trained in the use of various devices
and technologies deployed in the ITS. A team of instructors, from the three
training institutes of the KSRTC, was put together to provide training on
ITS as a part of the implementation strategy.

Benefits of the Project

There are many benefits to be obtained from the implementation of ITS in
Mysore:

1. Safety improvements: ITS helps in minimizing the number of

crashes and fatalities by monitoring vehicle speed and location.
2. Reduction in delays: A major goal in ITS is reduction of delays.
Deployment of ITS helps manage the variability of travel time in
transit and increases the reliability of vehicle arrival time.
3. Effective capacity improvements: Effective capacity is the potential
rate at which vehicles may pass through a network under typical
roadway conditions. ITS implementation optimizes the use of
existing facilities by reducing the need for new investments.
4. Greater commuter satisfaction: A well-implemented ITS results in
good quality of service (reliability, etc.), more mode choices, and
lesser complaints. Surveillance of bus-drivers and conductors also
ensures good in-bus service quality.
5. Low energy and environmental impacts: ITS projects reduce vehicle
congestion on roads and, hence, reduce energy consumption per
capita and vehicular pollution.
6. Encouraging use of public transport: Displaying real-time information
about the buses and increasing reliability leads to overall customer
satisfaction, hence, inducing people’s preference for public
transport.
7. Reducing travel uncertainty: ITS helps in reducing travel uncertainty
by smoothing the traffic flow and communicating real-time
information, which helps the public plan their trips efficiently.
198 Chapter 3.7

8. Reliability and punctuality: ITS generates real-time data about

vehicle performance, which are useful for the operators to make
informed decisions on the management of the fleet, schedules, and
executions.
9. Reduction in traffic congestion: ITS can help ease congestion by
suggesting alternate routes and keeping travelers well informed.
Reduction in congestion improves mobility at lesser per capita fuel
(Ramasaamy, Subhashini and Pathak 2008).

Key Challenges
The integration of VMU and weak connectivity of GPRS were some
obstacles faced in the implementation of ITS. Prediction of exact arrival
times with accuracy was challenging since the system works to provide
time-based delivery of services. For the successful implementation of ITS,
it is important to make GPRS signals available throughout the city to get
real-time information from buses. Another challenge was the insufficient
in-house domain knowledge and resultant dependence on consultants, along
with multi-level monitoring and coordination. For the long-term
effectiveness and sustainability of a project, financial management plays a
major role; while Mysore ITS had brought in many funding agencies, it
lacked an efficient financial management body. Varying formats, norms,
and financial flows made the process even more challenging. The large scale
of operations and consolidation of information networks was a complicated
process, which also led to other challenges like resolving customer queries.
Finally, after the deployment of ITS, it was another challenge to ensure
regular maintenance of ITS equipment and uninterrupted power supply at
bus stops.

Replication of the Project

With the help of community support and the sustainability of ITS, KSRTC
was successful in expanding its services all over Mysore. The same system
is getting implemented for 2,000 buses within the Karnataka state. Other
places, like the state of Andhra Pradesh and Bengaluru city in Karnataka,
are keen on imitating this system. The eco-friendly and user-friendly
approach in ITS is one of the main reasons for replication. But there are few
considerations to be made during replication; one is financial viability,
which is an important factor for the implementation of the project. The other
is to prepare a detailed tender process and a financial plan; cost-benefit
analysis of investments in using high-end technologies and other equipment
 ITS Project Management 199

will be required. For any initiative to be replicable, the end-users of the

system should be considered. The Mysore ITS has proven to be an effective
tool in improving the access and efficiency of public transport.

Conclusion
The main vision of Mysore ITS was to implement a user-centric urban
transportation solution instead of promoting the use of personal vehicles.
This was done using real-time information communication. The smart
initiative made public transport user-friendly and helped the commuters to
plan their trips efficiently by providing frequent, real-time updates. It also
improved safety, reduced congestion, delays, and pollution, and increased
commuter satisfaction. A well-planned and deployed ITS system in buses
will majorly improve the urban transport scenario in Indian cities, especially
when the needs of the users are prioritized. Implementation of ITS was a
pioneering effort by KSRTC to solve critical issues with modern
technologies, without subjecting the government or public to the
inconvenience of construction and infrastructure development. The
highlights of the Mysore ITS project are presented in Exhibit 3.7.7.

References
NITI Aayog. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2015.
“Intelligent Transport System: Improving Urban Public Transport in
Mysore.” In Social Sector Service Delivery: Good Practices Resource
Book 2015.
Ramasaamy, N., G. Subhashini and M. M. Pathak. 2008. Intelligent
Transport System for KSRTC, Mysore—Detailed Project Report. Pune:
Central Institute of Road Transport.
200 Chapter 3.7

Exhibit 3.7.1a: Five Key Phases in a Project

Source: Project Management Institute, A Guide to the Project Management

Body of Knowledge, (PMBOK® Guide), Fifth Edition. Project Management
Institute, Inc., 2013, Figure 3-2, Page 51.
 ITS Project Management 201

Exhibit 3.7.1b: Detailed Explanation of the Tasks under Each of the

Phases
202 Chapter 3.7

Exhibit 3.7.2: The list of Key Stakeholders Along with Their Descriptions
 ITS Project Management 203

Exhibit 3.7.3: A Flow Chart Showing the Implementation Strategy

Source: One World Foundation India 2014

204 Chapter 3.7

Exhibit 3.7.4: A Flow Chart Showing the Components of Mysore ITS

Source: One World Foundation India 2014

 ITS Project Management 205

Exhibit 3.7.5a: Images Showing the KSRTC Online Portal in Two

Languages, i.e., English and Kannada
206 Chapter 3.7

Exhibit 3.7.5b: Images Showing Various Technologies and Initiatives

Used in the Mysore ITS

 ITS Project Management 207

Exhibit 3.7.6: The Cycle Showing the Entire System of Mysore ITS

Source: KSRTC
208 Chapter 3.7

Exhibit 3.7.7: Highlights of Mysore ITS

Source: NITI Aayog 2015.

 CHAPTER 3.8

FLEET AND COMMERCIAL VEHICLE

OPERATIONS

Introduction
For any country, freight plays a crucial role in the economy. For a better
socioeconomic growth and quality of life, the effective management of
freight transportation is essential. Providing cost-efficient and structured
freight transportation systems encourages industries to compete effectively
in local as well as global markets.

Application of information and communication technology (ICT) is an

important tool that enables safe and efficient operations in freight
transportation, improves visibility with better responsiveness, and enhances
supply chain performance. There is a wide range of ICT that has been used
to improve the performance of transportation networks. Using ICT, carriers
and shippers can automate and integrate a broad range of billing and data
entry by electronic data interchange (EDI). It has also allowed carriers to
enhance their transportation services by providing real-time information to
track cargo, vehicles, equipment, and inventories. During the last few
decades, various concepts, such as intelligent/smart transportation, intelligent
highway, intelligent vehicle, intelligent freight, etc., have been introduced
to apply advanced ICT that can be used for the management of logistics,
transportation, and materials handling operations.

Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are not only about improving urban
transport in terms of the mobility of people; it can enhance the exchange of
information (e.g., real-time status updates) regarding various business
operations in different modes of transportation and, hence, improve the
logistics operations. As far as freight transportation is concerned, the goal
of ITS is to integrate individual transportation elements into a single system
using ICT. Advanced ITS collect a huge amount of data regarding
operations of the transportation system and communicate it in different
formats, which can be used by the authorities, carriers, and other operators
of the transportation networks. It provides the opportunity to increase the
210 Chapter 3.8

use of existing transportation infrastructure and generate additional capacity

from it. The primary objective of integrating ITS into commercial vehicle
operations (CVO) is to improve their efficiency and safety while reducing
negative environmental impacts. Application of ITS involves many services
such as commercial vehicle electronic clearance, automated roadside safety
inspection, onboard safety monitoring administration, hazardous material
incident response, freight mobility, etc.

Intelligence in Transport Logistics

Improvements in warehousing activities and customer services, and various
economic benefits—including reduced costs of logistics operations—can be
achieved by the effective application of ICT. Increased and enhanced
collaboration between the various actors and stakeholders of supply chains
results in improved safety and efficiency in freight transport operations.
Furthermore, ICT in freight transport can support the integration of inter-
modal transportation in supply chains. On a broader level, ICT can
contribute to three main functions of freight transport: resource management,
tracking and tracing, and operations management of ports and terminals.

The core concept of ITS is tracking systems, collecting data, processing,

and communication of information for better use of the transportation
system, infrastructure, and services. It is important to examine freight ITS
according to the scope of the system; this can be classified into two broad
classes. First, is CVO for system-wide, regional, national, or continental
applications; the second is advanced fleet management systems (AFMS)
dedicated to the operations of a particular firm or group of firms. Both the
categories have different advanced technology requirements, which are also
used for the e-business activities of the firm. Because of automated and
efficient operation, and labor management supported by EDI, it became
very popular in inter-modal facilities and container terminals. Commercial
vehicles having EDI capability helps AFMS to communicate between
dispatchers in control centers and vehicle operators in the field, and ensure
real-time, accurate data flow.

Freight Transportation Information Types

The following are the types of freight transportation information that can be
used in freight ITS. Each type listed, below, can provide various data
(Exhibit 3.8.1 shows data provided by each information type).
 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations 211

1. Traffic and infrastructure information

2. Vehicle and freight location information
3. Freight condition information
4. Freight positioning information
5. Warehouse operations and inventory information
6. Cargo information
7. Vehicle identity information

Over the years, the increasing volume of commuters and vehicles in

transportation operations has resulted in complex logistics networks with a
high demand for an efficient flow of information between users and
systems. ITS applications ensure information flows more efficiently and
effectively between users, monitor involved activities in a better manner,
and increase freight visibility and interactions with logistics infrastructure.
Currently, ITS are being used in different areas of freight transportation,
including controlling the position, condition, placement, and identification
of freight and vehicles, fleet management and control, and city logistics.
There is also a significant potential for creating value-added services for
businesses and consumers.

Freight Intelligent Transport Systems

Freight ITS can broadly be applied to transportation operations, which can
be categorized into nine systems. The contribution of each system to the
improvement of the different performance dimensions of transportation,
such as effectiveness, efficiency, safety, security, and environmental
performance, along with the use of each system to support the functions of
transportation, is described below.

1. Traffic Control and Monitoring Systems

The motive behind creating a traffic control and monitoring system is to

control and manage traffic flow by providing information regarding traffic
situations, such as congestion, traffic flow speed, accidents, and vehicles on
the road, to be used by the authorities or by logistics service providers. This
information is mainly used for ensuring better efficiency, safety, and
security of logistic operations. Such a system is developed using a range of
different advanced technologies, such as variable traffic signs, smart traffic
lights, cameras, speed measurement, and sensors. This decreases the
transportation time and results in a more harmonized traffic flow.
212 Chapter 3.8

2. Weight-in-Motion (WIM) Systems

The motive behind creating WIM systems is to control and assess vehicles
to ensure transportation safety and reduce the damages caused by over-
weighted vehicles. They can reduce the risk of accidents caused by over-
weighted vehicles, reduce damages to the infrastructure, and save time for
both vehicles and agencies. Some of the major applications of such systems
are the legislation, regulation, and administration of the transportation. They
can improve the performance of commercial vehicles by eliminating the
stop times of the vehicles on static weight control systems.

3. Delivery Space Booking Systems

These systems provide bookings for a parking space for a specific vehicle
to load or unload freight during a specific period. The application of these
systems can reduce the total number of vehicle trips during a particular time
period, which contributes to environmental safety and maximizes the
utilization of the available parking spaces, which results in the improved
efficiency of transportation infrastructure.

4. Vehicle Location and Condition Monitoring Systems

These systems transmit information via satellite and provide real-time

information regarding the position of vehicles on the map, using the
internet. Real-time information, regarding the status of the freight during
shipment, can be determined by installing sensors on the vehicle containers
and can be controlled at any point of time, regardless of whether the
container’s door is locked or unlocked. Such systems ensure improved fleet
management, and tracking and tracing of goods and vehicles. These systems
also allow drivers to identify safe and unsafe parking zones, leading to the
improved safety and security of transportation systems. For better transportation
resource management and logistics management, the application of
integrated vehicle tracking systems becomes crucial. With the help of real-
time information about the location of vehicles, the waiting time of the
vehicles during clearance can be minimized.

5. Route Planning Systems

These involve the planning of the transportation routes according to real-

time road situations. By doing so, the possibility of delays is reduced, which
leads to more eco-friendly operations, cost effectiveness, a better quality of
services to customers, and the increased effectiveness of operations. Such
systems directly lead to better resource planning for transport operators.
 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations 213

6. Driving Behavior Monitoring and Control Systems

The primary role of such systems is to provide feedback for improving

driving by analyzing the speed and acceleration of drivers during
transportation operations. They support transportation resource management
through reducing the fuel consumption of vehicles and lead to more eco-
friendly operations. They also contribute to a significant improvement in the
safety of operations and the reduction in accidents by using advanced
technologies for improving the concentration and management of drivers on
routes.

7. Crash Preventing Systems

These systems use sensors to reduce the probability of accidents. Sensors

installed on the vehicles can warn drivers when they get close to an object,
and provide information regarding the probability of accidents. Such
systems increase the safety of transportation operations by reducing the
probability of accidents. These types of systems can be very helpful in the
detection of pedestrians at night and the avoidance of accidents.

8. Freight Location Monitoring Systems

The application of radio frequency identification (RFID) tags for scanning

vehicles has a major positive impact on transportation operations. This
allows freight movement to be automatically controlled and recorded in the
database, and has provided new capabilities, such as reading many tags at
once with reduced inaccuracies, regarding inventory management and
manual data entry. These systems also enable the easy location of items in
big warehouses, terminals, and ports. Using such systems can help in better
resource management by decreasing the loading and unloading time, and
improving the accuracy of cargo information. These systems improve the
safety and security of transported items by increasing the visibility of freight
location, preventing theft or fake items by using auto-identification
technologies. Better environmental performance can also be achieved by
using such systems for waste management. The application of such systems
for warehouse operations leads to improved working efficiency, reduced
operations cost, and time savings in resource management activities.

9. Freight Status Monitoring Systems

Improvements in transportation operations can be successfully achieved by

the application of different sensors that can measure the physical attributes
of goods, such as humidity, temperature, impact level, light level, and
214 Chapter 3.8

vibration level. A combination of sensors, along with automatic identification

technologies such as RFID, opens a new window for better control and
monitoring of the flow of material between different actors in supply chains.
Using such systems to control the shipment of explosives, chemicals, and
other dangerous goods can lead to safer, efficient, and more eco-friendly
transportation operations.

ITS for Commercial Vehicles in Europe

In Europe, the transport sector alone accounts for about a quarter of
greenhouse gas emissions; the road sector accounts for around 70 % of the
total transport-related greenhouse gases. A huge emphasis has been given
to deploying ITS for commercial vehicle operations, especially for road
transportation. European car, bus, and truck industries (OEMs), and their
representative association, the European Automobile Manufactures'
Association (ACEA), face difficulties in reducing the carbon footprint of
vehicles and improving the performance and safety of road transport.
Hence, there is motivation to implement ITS. An integrated approach has
been adopted—working with different stakeholders and using advanced
technologies/applications in the vehicle and the infrastructure—to make
road transport eco-friendly, safe, and more efficient.

On-Board ITS Applications in Commercial Vehicles

1. Navigation and Travel Information

Navigation systems for vehicles are maps provided to aid the driver.
Dynamic navigation integrates real-time traffic information along with
some specific information, such as estimated fuel consumption, combined
with eco-driving support. This is also called eco-routing or eco-navigation.
This has a major effect on departure time choice and route choice. Such
applications in freight transport can improve the efficiency of vehicles,
allowing vehicles to be re-routed to achieve maximum capacity utilization
and to reduce vehicle distance driven.

2. Driver Behavior and Eco-Driving (Vehicle-Based, Including

Automation)

Eco-driving is driving in an efficient manner to minimize fuel use and

emissions. It can help drivers to adopt and maintain an eco-friendly driving
style by using real-time data about the road type and the level of traffic
congestion from maps and sensors. It can also store trip records of the driver
 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations 215

to give feedback and suggestions for improvement. This feedback has more
relevance in CVO; using such feedback, the fleet manager can analyze the
performance of drivers and fuel consumption, and take decisions
accordingly. Using such systems also has significant safety benefits along
with reduced fuel consumption.

Predictive powertrain control uses vehicle, topographic, and infrastructure

data to anticipate a fuel-saving driving style. Systems currently focus on the
topography, using slope data ahead of the vehicle to generate a predictive
speed profile to optimize the control of the powertrain. Such systems help
in reducing fuel consumption and enhance safety.

Cooperative adaptive cruise control (C-ACC) is an enhancement to

adaptive cruise control (ACC) systems that can optimize a vehicle's speed
profile by communicating with other vehicles and infrastructure. It
influences speed, headway, and driving dynamics for improved operations
and a reduction in fuel consumption. It can help in maintaining a safe
distance from other vehicles and prevent accidents. It can also influence the
infrastructure capacity by minimizing the headway and aligning the speed.

Platooning or automatic guidance of vehicles can improve safety and

efficiency of road transport. Platooning refers to the electronic coupling of
vehicles to exchange information; they still require the presence of drivers
to steer the vehicles and manage entering/leaving the platoon. The leading
vehicle is driven conventionally, and the following ones are temporarily in
autonomous mode. Platooning has the potential to increase road capacity
and reduce congestion, due to closer spacing of vehicles, with a significant
reduction in carbon emission. Automation beyond platooning, i.e., full
automation, has attracted a lot of attention with advances in driverless cars.
However, there have been a few isolated prototypes in the heavy vehicle
sector, like Daimler Trucks.

3. Safety and Emergency Systems

In-vehicle road hazard warning systems monitor and analyze the road in
front of the vehicle and warn the driver when a risk of collision is detected.
They can detect other vehicles on the road, along with pedestrians and
animals. These systems improve the safety in transport operations to a great
extent.

Lane departure warnings (LDW) and advanced emergency breaking

systems (AEBS) rely on sensors and lane markings, and, accordingly, warn
the driver when the vehicle begins to move out of its lane. AEBS monitor
216 Chapter 3.8

the proximity of vehicles ahead, detecting situations where speed and

distance indicate a possible collision. LDW are mandatory for heavy
vehicles in the Europe. Emergency breaking can, then, automatically be
applied following a warning phase of three seconds before the expected
collision.

Electronic stability control/program (ESC/ESP) is also known as vehicle

stability control. It improves the directional stability during cornering,
giving enhanced protection against vehicle roll-over. It detects and reduces
skidding by automatically applying the brakes to individual wheels to help
steer the vehicle in the direction intended by the driver. Like LDW and
AEBS, ESC is now also mandatory on new heavy vehicles.

Infrastructure and Back-Office-Based ITS Applications

Impacting Commercial Vehicles
1. Traffic Management and Control

Traffic signal control, using online actuation based on traffic information

collected by detectors or provided by central computer, has the potential to
increase infrastructure capacity, reduce congestion, and influence driving
dynamics. To reduce congestion in port areas or other locations with a high
proportion of freight movements, traffic signal priority can be given to other
vehicles. A variation of traffic signal control is ramp metering to ensure
smoother traffic flow on motorways. This is widely deployed but not
measured purely in terms of the benefits for heavy duty vehicles (HDVs).

Vehicle monitoring performs incident or risk management of goods,

particularly hazardous goods. It can offer traffic management and safety
benefits. It uses remote vehicle and infrastructure monitoring technology,
and advanced communications between different actors.

2. Driver Behavior and Eco-Driving (Infrastructure and Back-Office-

Based)

Intelligent speed adaptation (ISA) assists the driver in keeping the speed
limit. There are many advisory systems that warn the driver when the
vehicle is faster than the allowed limit. In such a case, the system directly
intervenes to make over-speeding difficult or impossible.

Driver behavior monitoring is a tool that collects and analyzes data

regarding speed, headway, and driving dynamics to study the driving
 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations 217

behavior to allow effective measures to be taken to improve efficiency,

effectiveness, and safety, and to reduce emission. The data can also be used
by the fleet operators to monitor performance and make the required
improvements.

3. Logistics and Fleet Management

Intelligent truck parking (ITP) has the main objective of providing drivers
with dynamic and reliable information about available capacities and
facilities, and support management of parking areas, via different means,
including cross-border seamless, consistent information and forecasts on
available parking places, regardless of the organization responsible for the
network or parking operations. It provides an online information system
about parking and secure parking sites for high-value cargo, which leads to
improved efficiency in CVO. ITP is recognized by the European
Commission as an important tool for minimizing infrastructural problems,
achieving the optimum use of existing capacity, providing seamless cross-
border services on trans-European routes and information to commercial
vehicle drivers to help them follow traffic and driving regulations, and,
hence, improving safety and security.

Delivery space booking and real-time urban delivery space management

are variations of intelligent truck parking that comprise online information
and booking.

Fleet management and routing, also known as a tour planning system, is

a type of pre-trip ITS application that concerns routing. It delivers
information on suitable routes and relevant key figures, like distance, travel-
time, costs, or emissions of alternative transport modes, for strategic or
tactical transport planning.

Cargo optimization services encompass all operations from vehicle

acquisition to disposal to satellite positioning and data communication to
back-office applications.

Electronic freight services (E-Freight) involve paperless, electronic flow

of information for a simple and coordinated procedure to support the flow
of goods in an effective and efficient manner. It includes various functions
for tracking cargo and tracing its movements, irrespective of the
combination of transport modes. It can also incorporate information on
permissive load and unload times in different areas of a city.
218 Chapter 3.8

Conclusion
The primary goal of freight ITS are to improve efficiency and effectiveness,
increase safety, and reduce environmental impacts of freight transportation,
to optimize the entire supply chain. They have been more popular in
international shipments and urban freight movements. They mainly use
different types of information on infrastructure, vehicles, and transported
freight to improve the transportation operations by supporting different
transportation functions and by enhancing different performance
dimensions. To date, European countries have more emphasis on freight
ITS, compared to any country in the world. The importance of ITS in CVO
should be understood by different stakeholders in the transportation
logistics sector, and more emphasis should be given to supply chain
management and, in turn, to supporting the economic development of
nations.

References
“An Overview of Freight Intelligent Transportation Systems.” 2013.
International Journal of Logistics Systems and Management 14: 473–
89.
Ranaiefar, F. 2012. Intelligent Freight Transportation Systems. INSTITUTE
OF TRANSPORTATION STUDIES.
Winder, A. 2016. ITS4CV—ITS for Commercial Vehicles. ERTICO-ITS
Europe.
 Fleet and Commercial Vehicle Operations 219

Exhibit 3.8.1: Freight Transportation Information

Information Type Data Items

x Location of roads
x The status of roads (e.g., road quality or temporary
Traffic and
construction on the roads)
infrastructure
x Types of vehicles that can utilize the road
information
x Limitations and congestion
x Real-time information, e.g., congestion, accident
x Location of the freight through the transportation
Vehicle and network between the actors
freight x The arrival of the freight
location x Loading and unloading information
information x Location of the freight in the warehouses, terminals,
and ports
x Physical attributes of the product during the
Freight transportation (in a warehouse or through shipping)
condition x Real-time information regarding the temperature,
information pressure, impact, humidity or the level of light in the
vehicle during transportation
x Placement and sequencing of the products when they
Freight are stored or being shipped
positioning x The positioning of the products in warehouses,
information presented in three axes of x, y and z
x Placement of the containers in the Ro-Ro ships
x Number of items in the warehouses
Warehouse
x Customers’ orders for different items
operations
and inventory x Loading and unloading times for different orders
information x Contents of different warehouses, types of items stored
in the warehouses
x Types of shipped items and attributes (quantity,
model, class, size, color, weight, price, ID number and
Cargo
other types of data depending on the type of items)
information
x Sender information
x Receiver information
Vehicle
identity x Type and class of the vehicle, registration number
information
Source: Ranaiefar (2012)
 CHAPTER 3.9

CONNECTED VEHICLES

Overview
The evolution of ICT has established ICT as promising solutions to address
the multiple challenges of the transportation system. Innovations in ICT
applications in the transport sector have led to the enhanced performance of
transport networks through informed decision-making and optimal usage of
vehicles and transport infrastructure. The foundational aspects of connected
vehicles (CV) are electrification, which is already widely implemented
across the globe; communication, which is slowly gaining pace; and
automation, which is still in its nascent stages and highly dependent on the
successful and matured implementation of electrification and communication.
A CV is one that is equipped with advanced communication technologies and
can interact, over wireless networks, with any other vehicle, device, or
infrastructure in its surroundings to establish bi-directional communication
to exchange data sets for safe mobility and better user satisfaction. CV
technology is a sophisticated element of Intelligent Transportation Systems
(ITS), indicating maximum leveraging of the internet of things’ (IoT)
capabilities. An illustration is provided in Figure 3.9.1.

The fundamental notion of the CV environment lies in the strength of

wireless communication. With advanced traffic management systems,
sensors, cameras, RFID readers, and other infrastructure and technology
supporting smart cities and ITS elements, the CVs will resolve and enhance
solutions to the overall traffic safety and mobility issues. Currently, there
are two approaches to the future of CVs: i) the Google approach, where CVs
are viewed as fully automated, also called autonomous vehicles (AV),
utilizing connectivity to drive themselves; and ii) the US Vehicle
Manufacturers approach, where CVs still possess manual vehicle control
while utilizing continuous real-time connectivity amongst vehicles and
infrastructure (Jadaan, Zeater and Abukalil 2017).
 Connected Vehicles 221

Figure 3.9.1: Concept of Connected Vehicles

Source: Digi

Concept of CVs
Deployment of advanced systems for CVs is still in its nascent stages but,
with continuous research and pilot initiatives around the globe, the range of
capabilities of CVs is rapidly expanding. CVs consist of various
communication devices, which can be embedded or portable. Research,
development, and deployment of CVs is carried out by collaborations
between car manufacturers, ICT companies, government bodies, and
research institutes. Some notable examples are BMW with Intel and
Mobileye, NuPort Robotics and NVIDIA, General Motors with Lyft, FCA
with Waymo, and PSA Groupe with nuTonomy. Currently, the vehicles that
include SAE Level 1 and 2 features—also termed interactive advanced
driver-assistance systems (ADASs) and cooperative intelligent transport
systems (C-ITS)—and can be regarded as connected; ADASs can also be
termed as the rudimentary stage of automated vehicles. The classifications
(as presented in Table 3.9.1) most used to describe the degree of automation
of a vehicle are from the standards by the International Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE). The concept and technologies of CVs are the
fundamental units of automated driving.
222 Chapter 3.9
Execution of Fallback System
Monitoring
SAE NARRATIVE steering and performance capability
NAME of driving
LEVEL DEFINITION acceleration/ of dynamic (driving
environment
deceleration driving task modes)
Human driver monitors the driving environment
0 No The full-time Human drive Human driver Human driver n/a
Automation performance of the
human driver of all
aspects of the dynamic
driving task, even when
enhanced by warning or
intervention systems.
1 Driver The driving mode- Human driver Human driver Human driver Some driving
specific execution by a and system modes
driver assistance system
of either steering or
acceleration/deceleration,
using information about
the driving environment,
and with the expectation
that the human driver
performs all remaining
aspects of the dynamic
driving task.
 Connected Vehicles 223
2 Partial The driving mode-specific System Human drive Human drive Some driving
Assistance execution by one or more modes
Automation driver assistance systems of
both steering and
acceleration/deceleration using
information about the driving
environment and with the
expectation that the human
driver performs all remaining
aspects of the dynamic driving
task.
Automated driving system (“system”) monitors the
driving environment
3 Conditional The driving mode-specific System System Human driver Some driving
Automation performance by an automated modes
driving system of all aspects
of the dynamic driving task
with the expectation that the
human driver will respond
appropriately to a request to
intervene.
4 High The driving mode-specific System System System Some driving
Automation performance by an automated modes
driving system of all aspects
of the dynamic driving task,
even if a human driver does
not respond appropriately to a
request to intervene.
224 Chapter 3.9
5 Full The full-time performance by System System System All driving
Automation an automated driving system modes
of all aspects of the dynamic
driving task under all roadway
and environmental conditions
that can be managed by a
human driver.

Table 3.9.1: SAE Levels and Connected Vehicles

Source: Levels of Driving Automation by SAE International’s New Standard J3016 (SAE 2014).

In Table 3.9.2, advanced driver assistance systems and automated driving functions are presented for different SAE
levels.

AID WARNING ASSIST AUTOMATION

(SAE LEVEL 1) (SAE LEVEL 1) (SAE LEVEL 2) (SAE LEVEL > 2)
x Automotive Night Vision x Cruise Control
x Forward Collision Warning x Highway Chauffeur
x Rain Sensor x Park Assistance
x Park Sensor x Traffic Jam Chauffeur
x Rear Camera x Forward Collision Assist
x Lane Departure Warning x Truck Platooning
x Satellite Navigation System x Lane Keep Assist
x Blind Spot Detection x Autonomous Valet Parking
x Adaptive Light Control x Pedestrian Protection System
x Driver Monitoring x Highway Autopilot
x Surround View System x Intelligent Speed Advice
x Driver Drowsiness Detection x Traffic Jam Autopilot
x Anti-Lock Braking System x Traffic Sign Recognition
x Tire Pressure Monitoring x Urban Autopilot

Table 3.9.2: Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS) and Automated Driving Functions
Source: Levels of Driving Automation by SAE International’s New Standard J3016 (SAE 2014).
 Connected Vehicles 225

The interaction mechanisms of CVs are classified under the following

categories:

Vehicle-to Vehicle (V2V): These are the interactions between vehicles

through exchange of data. This helps vehicles navigate obscured paths
(blind intersections and non-line of sight (NLOS) roads) and make
predictions.

Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I): This is the exchange of data between

vehicles and infrastructure. It helps vehicles send and receive data related
to infrastructure conditions and, therefore, helps drivers make informed
decisions based on congestion or road incidents.

1. Vehicle-to-Pedestrian (V2P) or Vehicle-to-Device (V2D): These

refer to the interactions between vehicles and pedestrians by
exchanging data through smartphone applications, wearables, and
other supporting gadgets. These are to communicate the intent of
pedestrians to make the vehicles aware and take precautions at
pedestrian crossings and when lane changing.
2. Vehicle-to-Cloud (V2C): This refers to the interaction between
vehicle and traffic management centers / operations control center
facilities through data exchange. V2C communication supports and
provides information on real-time traffic conditions, security,
firmware maintenance, updates, information, and entertainment
services.

Collective use of these technologies and interaction mechanisms enables

vehicles to communicate with almost anything in their vicinity, thus, giving
birth to the concept of Vehicle to Everything (V2X), as illustrated in Figure
3.9.2. Such vehicles can interact with their surroundings to enhance driver
comfort and traffic performance and reduce accident risks.
226 Chapter 3.9

Figure 3.9.2. Illustration of V2X

Source: Mahmood, Zhang and Sheng (2019)
 Connected Vehicles 227

Most of the CV projects in the US and other countries generally use a 5.9
GHz frequency—known as dedicated short-range communications
(DSRC), a concept like Wi-Fi—to interact with safety systems, as it is fast,
secure, reliable, and operates on a dedicated spectrum, eliminating latency
and disturbances. Other applications and systems may communicate
through different types of Non-DSRC technologies, like radio frequency
identification (RFID), wireless technology (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth) or cellular
networks (3G/4G/5G mobile telecommunications technology). Figure 3.9.3
is an illustration of a CV-technology equipped vehicle.
228 Chapter 3.9

Figure 3.9.3: Illustration of a CV-technology-equipped Vehicle

Source: Mahmood, Zhang and Sheng (2019)
 Connected Vehicles 229

Need of CVs
The development and advancement of CVs will play a significant role in the
transitioning of the landscape of mobility. The automotive industry and
transport sector continue to leverage technological advancements to unlock
the true potential of CVs.

The key impact of CVs can be broadly classified under three categories:

1. Safety

CVs can avoid, or drastically decrease, millions of accidents. According to

the WHO, road traffic collisions claim the lives of around 1.3 million people
every year; road accidents are a leading cause of death, around the world,
for children and young adults aged from five to twenty-nine years. Around
94 % of serious crashes are due to human error. CV technology alerts users,
anticipating the road’s situation, and gives drivers the ability to avoid or
maneuver them, thereby, compensating for any lapses in driver attention.
Drivers will be notified of impending collisions via in-car alerts in scenarios
like merging lanes, vehicles on the driver's blind side, or when an adjacent
vehicle stops unexpectedly. Drivers will be notified when they reach a
school zone, if there are road works, and with predictions of traffic signal
changes by connecting with roadside infrastructure.

2. Mobility and Management

Increased mobility is one of the prime benefits of CVs. CV applications

enable users to make informed and real-time, condition-based choices to
minimize the travel time between two locations. Transport planners can
better plan the transport network and infrastructural requirements, based on
the data generated from the vehicle on the road and sensors embedded in
the infrastructure; the need for new infrastructure can also be minimized by
enhancing the capacity of existing infrastructure and reducing maintenance
costs. Traffic management centers can analyze the data generated in real-
time and traffic can, hence, be redirected from the congestion; dynamic
route planning can be provided to the user to decrease travel-time delays
and improve the travel experience. Predictions of travel time for multiple
routes in the journey will help users efficiently plan their journey
beforehand.
230 Chapter 3.9

3. Environment

The transport sector is a major contributor of greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions. In 2019, 29 % of GHG emissions, in the US, were from the
transportation sector. Surface transportation exhausts nearly four billion
gallons of fuel, each year, due to traffic congestion. The presence of CV
technologies can decrease congestion and enable better traffic flow,
allowing vehicles to break the “stop-and-go” system when stuck in traffic;
“stop-and-go” leads to more GHG emissions compared to free flow traffic.
The presence of CVs can help establish “eco-lanes” on highways, which are
similar to high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) carpool lanes but can be
exclusively focused towards high-occupancy, low-emission vehicles, and,
thus, minimize environmental impact. CV data also helps users to plan their
journey based on the environmental impact of each travel mode/route.

Global Pilot Projects

North America
The US has started conceptualizing CVs from the design stages to real-life,
practical applications on roads. While cities like Wyoming, Tampa, and
New York City have seen real-world deployment of some projects, the
states of Michigan, Florida, and Virginia already have CV testing centers
that are rapidly expanding their testing abilities for wide-scale
implementation, immensely contributing to the development of CVs in their
regions. Though multiple state transport authorities are running trials and
projects, the initiatives are not completely decentralized. The US
Department of Transportation's (USDOT’s) Intelligent Transportation
Systems-Joint Program Office (ITS-JPO) is leading the development,
implementation, and promotion of this promising technology. The ITS-
JPO’s role is to coordinate federally sponsored research conducted across
the USDOT’s agencies and programs. USDOT has largely focused on V2V
communications-based technology for dedicated short-range communications
(DSRC) technology.

The USDOT has granted three pilot sites (as indicated in Figure 3.9.4)—
New York City, Wyoming, and Tampa—and a total of $45 million in
cooperation agreements to develop a portfolio of connected car apps and
technology customized to each region's specific transportation requirements.
In the beginning phase, after twelve months, each site created a
comprehensive deployment concept, considering the characteristics of the
specific region to ensure efficient deployment of CVs.
 Connected Vehicles 231

Figure 3.9.4: Location of Three Pilot Test Sites across United States
Source: USDOT

The sites then established a twenty-four-month timeline to design, build,

and test the deployments of integrated wireless inter-vehicle communication,
mobile device support, and communications with roadside technologies, as
illustrated in Figure 3.9.5. By Fall, 2018, the project entered the third phase
of its deployment, where the tested CV systems were to be operated and
monitored for a minimum duration of eighteen months, based on the
predefined “key performance indicators.” This phase of the project was
impacted by the onset of Covid-19 and is ongoing.
232 Chapter 3.9

Figure 3.9.5: Timeline and Phases of Project Development

Source: USDOT
 Connected Vehicles 233

New York City (NYC) DOT Pilot

The USDOT’s vision to improve the safety of travelers and pedestrians in

the cities and motorways across the US is possibly being achieved by the
NYDOT, through the deployment of V2V and V2I CV technologies. The
pilot deployment of CV testing, by the NYCDOT, is one of the largest CV
technology deployments to date to assess CV technology and applications
in tightly spaced junctions typically present in a crowded urban
transportation system.

The NYCDOT CV Pilot Deployment Project area, illustrated in Figure

3.9.6, encompasses three distinct areas in the district of Manhattan and
Brooklyn:

1. A four-mile stretch of Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) Drive, in

Manhattan, in the regions of the Upper East Side and East Harlem.
2. Four one-way corridors in Manhattan.
3. A 1.6-mile stretch of Flatbush Avenue in Brooklyn.
234 Chapter 3.9

1. 2.

3.

Figure 3.9.6: NYCDOT Deployment

Source: http://www.its.dot.gov/pilots/pdf/02_CVPilots_NYC.pdf

The initial plan for the technology deployment of NYDOT is focused on the
stability and resilience of the roadside unit (RSU) platform and robustness
of the onboard unit (OBU) platform to enhance over-the-air (OTA) software
updates and data gathering. The deployment of CV technology on many
fleets that serve a particular area is planned. Six V2I/I2V safety measures,
six V2V safety measures, two V2I/I2V pedestrian measures, and one
 Connected Vehicles 235

mobility application will be implemented. The size of the targeted fleet is

approximately 8,000 vehicles, with five distinct vehicle types that include
3,200 taxis, 700 Metropolitan Transportation Authority (MTA) buses, 700
NYCDOT fleet vehicles, 170 New York City Department of Sanitation
(DSNY) vehicles and 3,200 Department of Citywide Administrative
Services (DCAS) vehicles. Table 3.9.3 shows details of the applications
deployed on vehicles.

SN Category Application Remarks

V2I/I2V Speed Alerts the driver when exceeding
1
Safety Compliance the posted regulatory speed limit.
Alerts the driver when
Curve Speed approaching a curve and
Compliance exceeding the posted regulatory
speed limit.
Alerts the driver when
Speed
approaching a designated work
Compliance /
or school zone and exceeding the
Work Zone
speed limit.
Red Light
Alerts the driver of impending
Violation
red-light violations.
Warning
Alerts the driver of restricted
Oversize
roadways and impending height-
Vehicle
restricted infrastructure such as
Compliance
bridge or tunnel clearance.
Alerts the driver of New York
City’s emergency
and evacuation traveler
Emergency
information obtained from the
Communications
Traffic Management Center,
and Evacuation
Office of Emergency
Information
Management, Office of
Emergency Response, and
National Weather Service.
236 Chapter 3.9

Forward Alerts the driver in the event of

V2V
2 Collision an imminent rear-end crash with
Safety
Warning (FCW) a remote vehicle ahead.
Emergency
Alerts the driver of stopped or
Electronics
hard-braking vehicle(s) ahead in
Brake Lights
time to safely avoid a crash.
(EEBL)
Alerts the driver when a remote
Blind Spot vehicle is in the adjacent lane in
Warning (BSW) the same direction of travel to
avoid a side-swipe crash.
Alerts the driver during a lane-
Lane Change change attempt when a remote
Warning/Assist vehicle is in the adjacent lane in
(LCA) the same direction of travel to
avoid a side-swipe crash.
Intersection Alerts the driver attempting to
Movement cross or turn when it is not safe
Assist (IMA) to enter the intersection.
Alerts the bus operator if a
Vehicle Turning
remote vehicle attempts to pull
Right in Front of
in front of the bus to make a
Bus Warning
right turn.
Alerts the bus operator if a
Pedestrian in
V2I/I2V remote vehicle attempts to pull
3 Signalized
Pedestrian in front of the bus to make a
Crosswalk
right turn.
Mobile Informs the visually impaired
Accessible pedestrian of the pedestrian
Pedestrian signal status and provides
Signal System orientation to the crosswalk to
(PED-SIG) assist in crossing the street.

Table 3.9.3: Applications Deployed on the NYC Vehicles

Source: USDOT
 Connected Vehicles 237

Only IEEE 802.11p dedicated short-range communication (DSRC)

technology is used in the New York City pilot, with six of the seven
channels being used. This project will serve as a demonstration for the
spectrum space’s usage to improve overall transportation safety. The
implementation will comprise of roughly 310 signalized junctions for V2I
technology using DSRC.

Tampa-Hillsborough Expressway Authority Pilot

The Tampa-Hillsborough Expressway Authority (THEA) owns the Selmon

Reversible Express Lanes (REL) and is responsible for their operation. REL
is a first-of-its-kind facility that uses concrete segmental bridges, reversible
express lanes, and electronic tolling to address urban congestion. During
rush-hours, commuters face considerable delays, which often result in rear-
end accidents and collisions by flouting red lights. As the lanes are
reversible, it is possible for drivers to enter from the opposite direction.
Multiple V2V and V2I applications will be implemented by THEA during
the pilot to ease traffic congestion, reduce accidents, and prevent wrong-
way entrance at the REL exit. CV technologies will also be able to improve
pedestrian safety measures, expedite bus operations, and decrease conflicts
among public and private vehicles and pedestrians along the road, which
caters to high volumes of mixed traffic. THEA has established a CV task
force whose primary task will be to support the infrastructure deployment
for CVs on a region-wide scale. The task force will ensure interoperability
and coordination among the three governing institutions of the region,
namely the City of Tampa (COT), the Florida Department of Transportation
(FDOT) and the Hillsborough Area Regional Transit (HART). A task force
helps to make use of the assets and capabilities of different institutions to
undertake studies and, hence, constantly enhance the CV environment,
undertake administrative activities, and provide necessary funding. The
collaborative approach will ensure financial security, and good
implementation and management of projects in the longer run. Exhibit 3.9.1
illustrates the CV pilot deployment in Downtown Tampa.
238 Chapter 3.9

Table 3.9.4 shows the details of the application deployed on the vehicles.

SN Category Application Remarks

1 V2I/I2V End of Ramp Alerts the driver when reaching
Safety Deceleration the end of the ramp way/curve
Warning (ERDW) with speed safety warning.
Wrong Way Entry Alerts the driver about potential
(WWE) and actual wrong-way entry or
one-way entry.
Pedestrian Alerts the driver when
Collision Warning approaching dangerously near a
(PCW) pedestrian or with the
possibility of conflict at a
crowded junction of
pedestrians.
2 V2V Forward Collision Alerts the driver in the event of
Safety Warning (FCW) an imminent rear-end crash
with a remote vehicle ahead.
Emergency Alerts the driver of stopped or
Electronic Brake hard-braking vehicle(s) ahead
Lights (EEBL) in time to safely avoid a crash.
Intersection Alerts the driver attempting to
Movement Assist cross or turn when it is not safe
(IMA) to enter the intersection.
Vehicle Turning Alerts the bus operator if a
Right in Front of remote vehicle attempts to pull
Transit Vehicle in front of the bus to make a
(VTRFTV) right turn.
3 Mobility Intelligent Traffic Adjusts signal timing to ensure
Signal System (I- optimal flow in combination
SIG) with PED-SIG and TSP.
Transit Signal Allows transit vehicle to
Priority (TSP) request and receive priority at a
traffic signal.

Table 3.9.4: Applications Deployed on the Tampa, FL, Vehicles

Source: USDOT

The pilot run includes one thousand and one hundred private vehicles, ten
Hillsborough Area Regional Transit (HART) buses, eight TECO line
streetcar trolleys, and the deployment of forty-four roadside units. The
 Connected Vehicles 239

overall performance of the pilot will be evaluated by the resulting decrease

in congestion, rate of accidents, fuel consumption, emission, travel time,
and reliability of predictions.

The THEA has, now, collaborated with Honda R&D Americas, LLC,
Hyundai America Technical Centre, Inc., and Toyota Motors North
America to deploy vehicles with pre-installed CV technology. The THEA
has undertaken a very creative approach to voluntary stakeholder
participation by offering rebates to volunteers in the pilot. To undertake
wide-scale public engagement and knowledge dissemination, the THEA
encourages people to associate with them as a “fan” member and take civic
pride in being at the forefront of the landscape of automotive testing and
advancement.

The map shows different application locations of the CV pilot deployment

in Downtown Tampa.
240 Chapter 3.9

Exhibit 3.9.1: CV Pilot Deployment in Downtown Tampa

(Source: Interactive Map – THEA Connected Vehicle Pilot

(theacvpilot.com))
 Connected Vehicles 241

Wyoming DOT Pilot

The Wyoming corridor is a vital freight corridor that plays a crucial role in
the transportation of products throughout the US as well as with the
adjoining regions of Canada and Mexico. The corridor is highly affected by
weather conditions. The interstate (I-80) in southern Wyoming is the
selected stretch for the implementation of the pilot project. The stretch is
most affected during the winter season when the winds blow over 35 mph,
up to 65 mph, leading to truck blow-overs, resulting in road closure for
hours. Thus, the pilot, here, focuses on reducing accident-related delays and
improving safety along the corridor to address the needs of commercial
vehicle operators.
242 Chapter 3.9

Exhibit 3.9.2: Accident on the I-80 Wyoming corridor

Source: KOWB News and Pa News https://kowb1290.com/massive-

pileup-on-i-80-caught-on-video-video/,
https://www.pahomepage.com/top-stories/crews-working-on-clearing-
scene-of-deadly-car-pile-up-on-i-80/
 Connected Vehicles 243

V2I and V2V applications are used to assist dynamic route information and
guidance, layover and parking notifications, roadside alerts, and various
other advisories throughout the corridor. The Wyoming Department of
Transportation (WYDOT) deployed seventy-five roadside units (RSU) and
around four hundred test vehicles—including both fleet vehicles and
commercial trucks—out of which, around one hundred and fifty are heavy
trucks that frequently use the stretch. All the test vehicles are equipped with
on-board units (OBUs). In addition to these vehicles, the WYDOT also
deployed a fleet size of one hundred units, consisting of snow ploughs and
highway patrol vehicles, each attached with on-board units and mobile
weather sensors. The developed system will support the operation of CV
technology along the entire stretch of 402 miles of the I-80. Exhibit 3.9.2
illustrates an accident on the Wyoming I-80 corridor. Exhibit 3.9.3
illustrates the Wyoming I-80 corridor CV map.
244 Chapter 3.9

Exhibit 3.9.3: Wyoming I-80 Corridor CV Map

Source: USDOT
 Connected Vehicles 245

Table 3.9.5 shows the details of the application deployed on the vehicles.

SN Category Application Remarks

1 V2I/I2V I2V Alert the driver regarding
Safety and Situational forthcoming road conditions,
Mobility Awareness weather situation, speed
restrictions, accidents on the
route, parking availability, road
closures, and vehicle restrictions.
Work Zone Extended version of I2V
Warnings situational awareness provides
(WZW) prior information regarding
obstructions in the vehicle’s travel
lane and lane closures due to snow
or other conditions, lane shifts,
speed reductions, or vehicles
entering/exiting the work zone.
Spot Weather Provides localized information
Impact about the probable dangerous road
Warning situations like patches of icy road.
(SWIW)
2 V2V Forward Alerts the driver in the event of an
Safety Collision imminent rear-end crash with a
Warning remote vehicle ahead.
(FCW)
3 V2I and Distress A self-alert system that sends a
V2V Notification distress support alert whenever the
Safety (DN) vehicle sensor detects a situation
that might require support.

Table 3.9.5: Applications Deployed on the Wyoming Vehicles

Source: USDOT

The Wyoming 511 App (shown in Exhibit 3.9.4) and the Commercial
Vehicle Operator Portal (CVOP) currently use the data generated by the test
fleets and roadside units to provide drivers with dynamic travel information
and updates along the stretch.
246 Chapter 3.9

Exhibit 3.9.4: Wyoming 511 App Interface

Source: Connected Vehicle Monitor (wyoroad.info)

 Connected Vehicles 247

Europe
The European Union has been a pioneer in the automobile industry and at
the forefront of vehicle technology advancement, making continuous
updates in its legislation and policies to support the development of ITS.
The executive branch of the European Union, The European Commission,
funds most of the projects in the region, which are coordinated through the
European Road Transport Telematics Implementation Coordination
Organization (ERTICO-ITS EUROPE). Though automated vehicles are not
yet ready to be deployed without human supervision, the European Union
has always adopted a holistic approach to connected and automated
mobility. Today, deployment of ITS to support the large-scale
implementation of connected and automated vehicles is one of the key
agendas of the European transport policy. Most of the projects and pilots
fall under the purview of establishing Cooperative ITS (C-ITS) across
Europe. The C-ITS strategy's goal is to enable the convergence of
investments and regulatory frameworks throughout the EU, so that mature
C-ITS services may be deployed in 2019 and beyond. The services are
identified as DAY 1 and DAY 1.5; DAY 1 services are mature and ready
for deployment from 2019, while DAY 1.5 services are mature but not yet
ready for a large-scale quick deployment due to lack of sufficient support
infrastructure, and specifications or standards. These services will be
deployed in Phase II from 2025 onwards. The EU funding for CVs was
introduced in the Sixth Framework Program and has since been boosted.
Under “Horizon 2020”—the EU program that focuses on research and
innovation—, € 300M has been allocated for the research and development
of connected and automated vehicles. The budget supports the large-scale
deployment of pilot projects of CVs in urban areas across Europe. As
projects are funded under various EU programs and cover multiple nations,
most of the projects are trans-border initiatives, and are being implemented
and tested under a collaborative approach of the involved member states of
the EU.

Europe largely focuses on the following:

භ Creating interoperable standards and standardization of services to

make them reliable and compliant for creating a coordinated and
secure CV environment.
භ Implementing a large-scale test project to assess the impacts and
challenges for wider deployment.
භ Follow a common methodology of pilot implementation, system
architecture implementation, and data sharing.
248 Chapter 3.9

භ Sharing the learnings with other ongoing and upcoming projects

across Europe to increase efficiency.

Cooperative ITS Corridor

One of the most notable C-ITS initiatives in the deployment of V2X

technology is the tri-nation cooperation among the German, Dutch, and
Austrian transport ministries. The first route for deployment of the services
is a highway corridor, extending from Rotterdam (Netherlands), via
Frankfurt (Germany), to Vienna (Austria).

The first two services to be provided on the stretch are

1. Road Work Warnings (RWW)

 Connected Vehicles 249

Exhibit 3.9.5: RTIS: Signages and Boards

Source: www https://itscorridor.mett.nl/.its

250 Chapter 3.9

2. Improved Traffic Management through Vehicle Data / Probe Vehicle

Data Services

Exhibit 3.9.6: RTIS: Probe Vehicle Data

Source: www https://itscorridor.mett.nl/

 Connected Vehicles 251

Both the services use short-range communication—DSRC (ITS-G5, Wifi

802.11p, 5.9GHz) and the cellular network (3G, 4G) for interactions
between the vehicles and infrastructure. Another supplementary service for
collision risk-warnings is also being implemented in the Netherlands.

Exhibit 3.9.5 illustrates the RTIS signages and boards and Exhibit 3.9.6
illustrates the RTIS probe vehicle data.

InterCor (Interoperable Corridors)

The InterCor project can be viewed as an extension of the C-ITS corridor.

The project aimed to connect i) the C-ITS corridor of Netherlands-
Germany-Austria, ii) the C-ITS initiatives of Belgium and United Kingdom,
and iii) the corridor in France (defined under the SCOOP project) to achieve
a continuous and sustainable network of C-ITS corridors that served as a
test bed for initial (Day 1) services and beyond. The project commenced in
September 2016 and was completed in February 2020, with a total project
cost of €30 M.

Services defined under DAY 1 of C-ITS are

1. Hazardous Location Notifications

භ Emergency brake lights
භ Emergency vehicle approaching
භ Slow or stationary vehicle
භ Traffic congestion warning
භ Road work warning (RWW)
භ Weather conditions
2. Signage Applications
භ In-vehicle signage (IVS)
භ In-vehicle speed limits
භ Probe vehicle data
භ Shockwave damping
භ Signal violation / intersection safety
භ Priority signals for specific vehicles
භ Green light optimal speed advisory (GLOSA)

Multiple tests and pilots provided insights on methods of technical

evaluations to be adopted, impact assessment processes, and user
acceptance of the services. The project served as a benchmark for pilot
operations of C-ITS initiatives. It also provided insights on common
252 Chapter 3.9

upgraded specifications for ITS-G5, hybrid communications, PKI, and

related security protocols.

The following were evaluated and analyzed by InterCor:

1. Interoperability / cross-border interoperability

2. Communications performance
3. Applications and services:
x IVS: Speed advice and lane guidance
x Road work warning (RWW)
x Green light optimal speed advisory (GLOSA)
x Truck Parking; multi-modal cargo transport optimization
(MCTO); tunnel logistics
4. User acceptance and attitudes to the services
5. Objective impact of the services on driver behavior (speed
adaptation)
6. Consideration of the wider benefits including traffic efficiency and
safety

Details of a few ITS projects under the C-ITS initiative, post 2015, in
Europe, are listed in Table 3.9.6.
 Connected Vehicles 253
Details of a Few Relevant Projects under the C-ITS Initiative, Post 2015, in Europe
Name SCOPE Location Start date More details
5G-CARMEN The project is focused on developing a 5G- Trials across 2018– https://5gcarmen.eu/
supported corridor to undertake cross-border a corridor ongoing
pilots for connected V2X communication. It spanning 600
targets interoperability and explores the km of roads,
potential of hybrid networks using LTE and connecting
C-ITS technologies. The project also three
investigates four applications—cooperative European
maneuvering situation awareness, video countries
streaming, green driving, targeting (Italy,
automation levels, ranging from SAE L0 to Austria, and
L4. Germany)
C-ROADS A platform to undertake pilots and share the Austria, 2016– https://www.c-roads.eu/pilots.html
insights for a harmonized C-ITS deployment Belgium, ongoing
in Europe. The project is a joint initiative of Czech
European Member States and road operators Republic,
for testing and implementing (vehicle-to- France,
vehicle or V2V) or between vehicles and Germany,
infrastructure (vehicle-to-infrastructure or Hungary,
V2I) and C-ITS services to facilitate cross- Italy,
border harmonization and interoperability. Portugal,
Slovenia,
Spain
CONCORDA Focused on developing an interoperable and Austria, 2017– https://ertico.com/concorda/
connected corridor for operation of France, ongoing
connected and automated vehicles. Germany,
CONCORDA will integrate 802.11p and Greece, Italy,
LTE-V2X connection without interfering Netherlands,
with existing services in terms of Spain
disturbance and interoperability. This will
254 Chapter 3.9
ensure a backwards approach to create
interoperability of C-ITS service with C-
ROADS services in real-world traffic
scenarios.
ICT4CART Based on a hybrid communication Austria, 2018– https://www.ict4cart.eu/
approach, the project focuses on Germany, ongoing
developing ICT infrastructure for Italy and
connected and automated road transport cross-border
to ensure a resilient and smooth transition (A22
towards a higher level of automation. Austria-
Standardization and interoperability are Italy)
also the key agenda of the project.
L3Pilot One of the most unique large-scale pilots Belgium, 2017– https://l3pilot.eu/
focused on enhancing connected Germany, ongoing
automation and SAE level 3 functions on France, Italy,
the European roads. The data from this Sweden,
pilot will be shared with other U.K.
stakeholders and parties outside the
consortium. The data will be evaluated in
terms of technical standards, user
acceptability, traffic and travel behavior,
and societal value enhancement.
NordicWay NordicWay 2 NordicWay was the first large-scale pre- Denmark, 2015– https://www.nordicway.net/
NordicWay 3 deployment pilot to assess the technical Finland, ongoing
feasibility proof of concept for probe data Norway,
collation and other C-ITS services for Sweden
both passenger and freight traffic in four
countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway, and
Denmark). The pilot significantly bridged
the gap between C-ITS research and
wide-scale deployment. The project
ended in 2017 followed by the sister
 Connected Vehicles 255
project NordicWay 2, in the same year,
which focused on developing
interoperability and assessing the
feasibility between Day 1 and Day 1,5 C-
ITS services and mapping the readiness
of the supporting infrastructure. The
project was further extended as
NordicWay 3, in 2021, involving more
cities of the region.
AURORA Aurora, the Intelligent Transport Cluster Finland 2019– https://www.snowbox.fi/
project, is a 10 km intelligent road ongoing
segment to test intelligent transportation
systems and related technologies for
CAV/CAD/CCAM in challenging
weather conditions, especially during
winters. The test area is open to use for
all interested stakeholders and is
equipped to even support the
development of road services and asset
management. The Finnish Transport
Agency has provided open access to all
the generated data.
Data for Road Safety The project was undertaken by the Belgium, 2019–2020 roundtable-dtf.eu
members of the European Data Task Finland,
Force (DTF) as a twelve-month proof of Germany,
concept to improve road safety by Netherlands,
exchanging data generated by vehicles Spain
and infrastructure across nations and
manufacturers.
5GCroCo The 5G cross-border initiative is testing France, 2018– https://5gcroco.eu/homepage/overview.
advanced 5G features to create innovative Germany, ongoing html
use cases for cooperative, connected, and
256 Chapter 3.9
automated mobility. It consists of a Luxembourg,
consortium of European automotive and Spain
mobile communications industries
supported by their respective countries'
transport authorities and governments. It is
currently conducting tests for three use
cases, namely, tele-operated driving,
generation and distribution of high-
definition map, and anticipated cooperative
collision avoidance.
C The Difference The C-ITS pilot project is a live traffic app France, 2016–2018 http://c-thedifference.eu/
project under the C-ITS pilot project that Netherlands
enables drivers to adopt and make
decisions based on the real-time traffic
conditions and infrastructure.
Sweden The pilot showcases the feasibility of Sweden 2017–2019 https://platooningensemble.eu/project
4Platooning/ENSEMBLE multi-brand CACC (cooperative adaptive
cruise control) on public roads, with trucks.
The V2V protocol is further developed
under the ENSEMBLE project. The
project is a consortium of an independent
research organization, TNO, six European
truck manufacturers (DAF, DAIMLER,
IVECO, MAN, SCANIA and VOLVO
Group and ERTICO), ITS Europe, along
with OEM suppliers and CELPA, to
implement and demonstrate multi-brand
truck platooning across Europe.

Table 3.9.6: Details of a Few ITS Projects under the C-ITS Initiative, Post 2015, in Europe
Source: Author’s compilation
 Connected Vehicles 257

Challenges Concerning Public Value

Privacy
A CV provides a wide range of services, as discussed above. It also provides
users with the freedom to use their smartphone through the dashboard, while
driving, to play music, and use apps and other features. Thus, the sharing of
data among devices and surroundings is essential for a CV to function
optimally. This raises concerns regarding the protection of the consumer's
personal information.

Critical data that can be leaked during a privacy breach:

1. Details of vehicle owner and passenger

2. User location and travel patterns
3. Data collected by sensors like camera, voice recognition, and control
system
4. Data collected by third parties

CVs include systems and components from an ecosystem of diverse service

providers, which includes part manufacturers, software providers, service
integrators, and other entities, who collect a specified set of data, ranging
from technical, diagnostic, or performance-based, to enhance user
experience and the performance of CVs. Privacy is a top concern to both the
public and private sectors. The public sector is concerned with the potential
misuse of data, which could preclude deployment if they are considered as
threats; once a system is deployed, misuse of data could undermine the
system (Persad et al. 2007). It is essential to establish rules and regulations
to ensure transparency and security in data collection and distribution.

Security
Another important aspect that needs to be addressed is the ability of hackers
to capture the collected data and alter it. The adversaries can collect
sensitive information and even threaten human life by breaching the security
of the network that facilitates communication between vehicle control
systems like brakes, sensors, camera, odometer, etc. The automated vehicles
work on complex software that uses machine learning and computer vision
algorithms to learn and stay aware of the vehicle surroundings during
operations. Machine-learning models are subject to possible adversarial
threats, which are intended to deliberately mislead the model into giving an
erroneous output, such as misclassifying an item (altering traffic signs, etc.);
258 Chapter 3.9

this could mislead the vehicle navigation system, and other systems, causing
the vehicle to behave dangerously.

Governance and Ownership of Data

The accountability of the collected data has been a significant point of
discussion. When considering the advantages and drawbacks of involving
the public and private sector in the collection and management of ITS data,
perhaps the most important predictor of how the data will be treated is not
whether the organization is public or private, but rather what its goals and
operating characteristics are (Briggs and Walton 2000).

References
Coppola, P., and F. Silvestri. 2019. “Autonomous Vehicles and Future
Mobility Solutions.” In Autonomous Vehicles and Future Mobility.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817696-2.00001-9.
Jadaan, K., S. Zeater and Y. Abukhalil. 2017. “Connected Vehicles: An
Innovative Transport Technology.” Procedia Engineering 187: 641–48.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.425.
Mahmood, A., W. E. Zhang and Q. Z. Sheng. 2019. “Software-defined
Heterogeneous Vehicular Networking: The Architectural Design and
Open Challenges.” Future Internet 11 (3).
https://doi.org/10.3390/fi11030070.
 CHAPTER 3.10

OPERATIONAL SAFETY APPLICATIONS

While all terrorist attacks cannot be prevented, the technologies of

Intelligent Transportation Systems can offer great promise for preventing
attacks.
(A statement taken from the National Intelligent Systems Program Plan: A
Ten-Year Vision: a report prepared on security in New York State in the
aftermath of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001.)

An important aspect for the socioeconomic health of a nation is

transportation. It binds communities, connects residents to work or schools,
and enables commerce through a network of highways, railways, streets,
and bus routes. One of the best road systems in the world can be found in
the US, but the problem of safety remains a serious problem. Intelligent
Transportation Systems (ITS) offer potential solutions for the growing
challenges. Due to the presence of an integrated system in ITS, the surface
transportation system can be managed as an intermodal, multijurisdictional
body (National ITS Program Plan Five-Year Horizon August 2000). ITS
can address the aggravating urban problems, along with anticipating and
addressing future demands through a coordinated approach to transportation.

Background
The United States Department of Transportation defines ITS as “well-
established technologies in communications, control, electronics, and
computer hardware and software to improve surface transportation system
performance.” ITS have many benefits, like reducing congestion, improving
personal safety, preventing the environmental effects of transportation
systems, enhancing energy performance, and improving productivity. There
are four categories of ITS technologies (Peyrebrune 2002):

1. Sensing: The ability to note the position and speed of vehicles using
infrastructure. It helps in monitoring systems and identifies the
potential threats.
2. Communicating: The ability to send and receive information
between vehicles, between vehicles and infrastructure, and between
260 Chapter 3.10

infrastructure and centralized transportation operations and

management centers. It is a critical aspect of security in terms of
preventing incidents and effectively dealing with crises when they
occur.
3. Computing: The ability to process large amounts of security
information, which are collected and communicated, to draw
conclusions and make assessments.
4. Algorithms: The ability of computer programs to process
information gathered by ITS and develop operating strategies for
transportation facilities. In other words, algorithms help in detecting
patterns and optimizing solutions (Peyrebrune 2002).

Security Applications of ITS in New York

Though the applications of ITS were being implemented extensively all
over the country for over a decade, the security applications of ITS increased
following the 9/11 attack. It was the day when nineteen hijackers took
control of commercial passenger jets flying out of the east coast of the
United States. Two of the planes were flown into the towers of the World
Trade Center in New York City. The attacks resulted in extensive death and
destruction, triggering major initiatives worldwide to combat terrorism. For
a successful deployment of all ITS operations, it is critical to have
communications between various information systems along with the users
of the system. This led to the synergy between ITS and Homeland Security
(which ensures that the nation’s safety is not compromised). Apart from the
surveillance of commercial and passenger vehicles, there are many other
transportation-safety technologies that were utilized by the transportation
and security officials of New York state:

1. Smart card: This card, which resembles a credit card, has a

microprocessor and memory chip embedded in it, which allows
manipulation of data in the card. Sometimes, only a chip is
embedded in the card, which allows pre-defined operations to occur.
Smart cards make the use of public transportation solutions easier,
and are typically for making payments.
2. Biometrics: This helps in identifying individuals based on biological
characters. Retinal or iris scanning, fingerprints, and facial recognition
are some of the examples of biometric technologies.
3. Automatic vehicle identification: This technology identifies vehicles
as they pass specific points. This does not require any action by the
driver.
 Operational Safety Applications 261

4. Map databases: These databases can be used for many purposes, like
traffic and incident analyses.
5. Vehicle classification sensors: These sensors automatically detect
and classify the vehicles that move past them.
6. Technologies adopted in bus transit systems: These include two-way
radios with panic buttons, on-board video surveillance, cab
enclosures, police and security on-board, and destination signs with
messages activated by panic buttons.
7. Weigh-in-motion technology: When trucks are moving at regular
highway speeds, this technology allows them to be weighed. If trucks
are found to be crossing the weight limit, the authorities are
immediately notified.
8. Spatial geo-location: Specific locations of vehicles can be identified
using this technology.

Additionally, there are also technologies that enable security personnel to

detect the contents of vehicles without any disruptions. This will help in
identifying hazardous substances, explosives, or drugs present in the
vehicles. There are technologies to match a specific vehicle with a specific
operator and cargo. If a mismatch is found, then the vehicle is prohibited to
traverse further. Many personal vehicles have technologies to remotely
control the ignition of the vehicle, which may be useful in preventing thefts
and hijacking. Similarly, to enable the timely flow of information, increase
the flexibility of systems to accommodate emergency traffic, and to
decrease emergency response times, there are several technologies, like
automated signal systems, signal priority systems, moveable lane barriers,
variable message signs, automated incident detection systems, mayday
systems, and public safety response systems. These technologies can aid in
the aftermath of an attack (Peyrebrune 2002).

ITS Homeland Security

ITS America formed the ITS Homeland Security Task Force. They mainly
assess the current and future ITS technologies. The ITS Homeland Security
has identified a few technologies that have security and disaster-response
applications:

1. Automated vehicle location (AVL) systems, which locate vehicle or

freight movement and delivery. These vehicles can detect and
monitor the transportation of hazardous material. Many transit
agencies use AVL in combination with on-board cameras.
262 Chapter 3.10

2. Advanced traffic management systems, which monitor, control, and

moderate the traffic flow.
3. Universal transponders on commercial vehicles, which track
vehicles as they pass through electronic weigh stations.
4. License plate-reading technologies are deployed at borders, parking
facilities, and certain domestic checkpoints.
5. Wireless enhanced 911 can provide automatic location information.
6. Real-time interoperable communications links between transportation
and public safety agencies (Peyrebrune 2002).

Some Caveats
There were some important caveats, with respect to ITS deployment in the
nation. First, the nation was more concerned over the security aspects of the
aviation industry. However, there were ongoing efforts to improve security,
using ITS, in all modes of transportation. Second, the exact amount of
information that should be made available for public use, for national and
state security, was unclear. By providing public access to the critical
information from transportation systems, there remains a threat to safety;
the information could be misused by criminals. Therefore, the sharing of
data should be vigilantly controlled. Third, remote sensing technologies
were only in their test phases. The actual implementation depended on
feasibility and financing.

According to Pearce (2002), the response actions to terrorist attacks on

transportation are reviewed in six categories: i) advance preparations and
planning, ii) institutional coordination, iii) communication, iv) use of
advanced technologies, v) redundancy and resiliency, and vi) operating
decisions (Transportation Security Against Terrorism 2009). Advance
preparation is important to crisis management. The governor and his state
personnel have to be prepared and practiced before a crisis. Coordination
among different departments is necessary for successful security
applications. No department can work in isolation with respect to these
matters. The six categories are explained, along with their uses and
functions, in Exhibit 3.10.1.

Potential Issues
New York has a long history of planning and dealing with major incidents.
Owing to that, and the experience in managing the 9/11 attacks, New York
 Operational Safety Applications 263

leads state agencies in matters relating to security. However, there are issues
related to ITS and security that should be addressed:

1. Improved communications or enhanced wireless 911: This is one of

the most important aspects in managing incidents. It was assumed
that the terrorist attacks were due to some failures in the
communication systems of New York. Insufficient wireless network
capacity, lack of information exchange, and use of different
technologies by wireless message carriers, which restricted the
transmission of information, were some of the issues. It is important
to establish the same level of emergency services that exist for wire
lines for wireless phones. The Federal Communications Commission
requires wireless providers to make enhanced wireless 911 available
everywhere. Enhanced 911 is completely dependent on longitudes
and latitudes to gauge position. However, there are obstacles, such
as funding, surcharge revenue, routing, technology, training, and
caller rights.
2. Privacy and the availability of public information: Providing too
much information publicly could possibly risk safety and lead to
privacy breach. A line has yet to be drawn in terms of public access
to information regarding transportation security systems.
3. Appropriate methods for monitoring and gathering information on
highway systems: One of the methods that is commonly used to
gather information on transportation systems and conditions is visual
reconnaissance, e.g., traffic helicopters. But after the attacks, only
specific helicopters were allowed to resume services. The use of
sensors and video surveillance fiber optics is effective but costly.
The feasibility of using remote sensing technologies was also to be
determined.
4. Taking advantage of key opportunities for funding: As a result of
decreased federal gasoline and other transportation user fees, up to
25 % of the federal funds for transportation are estimated to decline
significantly during the next round of reauthorization. However, it is
clear from reviewing the activities at the national level that
considerable sums of money will be used in developing and
deploying ITS technology for homeland security, which can present
several opportunities for New York (Peyrebrune 2002).
264 Chapter 3.10

Conclusion
Transport infrastructure is a key component of a nation’s critical
infrastructure, and also includes physical assets like railway and mass transit
networks, ports, and traffic control systems, which are also the frequent
targets for terrorist attacks because of their importance in many aspects.
Physical transportation networks provide services to a huge number of
people, hence, carrying the risk of a high number of casualties. A unique
feature is that transportation infrastructure can be both be the target and the
preventor of an attack. Efficient and coordinated action, along with
advanced planning and rehearsal, is required during a crisis. Emergency
planning enables agencies to have pre-determined responses, clear and
reasonable chains of command, accessibility of appropriate supplies, and
better identification of weaknesses in the emergency response. Coordination
between agencies and organizations is important for a successful emergency
response, which allows many to contribute their strengths and skills. New
York made several efforts at the federal, state, and the local levels to
improve transportation security by using ITS. There were many initiatives
taken by USDOT following the attack, including the creation of committees
and administrations, which mainly focus on the security aspects of
transportation and the free movement of people and goods. Many
organizations and associations representing transportation interests have
taken collaborative research efforts. As detailed crisis-response plans are
developed, systems can be controlled at higher degrees, and, hence, better
response operations can be run.
 Operational Safety Applications 265
SL. CATEGORIES USES FUNCTIONS
NO
1 Advanced • It increases the effectiveness • Have an emergency response plan.
Preparations and of emergency response. • Make plans that are specific and detail-oriented.
Planning • Allows individuals and • Plan in concert with other agencies.
agencies to work • Rehearse emergency response plans.
collaboratively and efficiently. • Review emergency plans after an event.
• Consider the emergency needs of both people and equipment.
• Insulate emergency response capacities from disruption and
compromise.
• Plan for all types of emergencies.
2 Institutional • Can coordinate with • Conduct a collaborative post-incident review.
Coordination representatives of other • Practice cooperation during normal times.
partner agencies to prepare, • Cooperate across agencies to share resources and equipment.
handle, and evaluate • Establish emergency procedures that will be easy and efficient to
emergencies. implement.
• Be aware of the importance of individual relationships.
• Utilize technology to enhance institutional coordination.
• Allow for a multi-agency response to any type of emergency as a part
of an emergency response plan.
• Consider cross-border coordination.
3 Operating • During unusual operating • Prepare for emergencies in advance to make impromptu decision-
Decisions decisions, during an event, making easier.
agencies make the quick and • Empower the relevant skilled staff to make decisions.
accurate decisions required
during the incident.
4 Role of Advanced • Helps agency personnel to • Establish reliable backup power to maintain normal ITS functions.
Technology obtain information on which • Consider ITS functionality that could be particularly useful during an
they can make better decisions emergency.
as events unfold.
266 Chapter 3.10
• Allows agencies to coordinate • Allocate ample resources for the restoration of traffic signals and
responses better with other other communications devices.
agencies.
• Allows agencies to collect and
distribute real-time
information so that they can
make decisions.
5 Communications • Gives accurate information to • Maintain reliance on “old technology,” such as the “plain old
agency officials and allows telephone system” (POTS) and portable radios.
them to make good decisions • Communicating with the public should be easy.
during allocation of resources
and setting of priorities in
response to an emergency.
6 Redundancy and • Helps in having backup • Have backup power.
Resiliency of systems in place in case of • Test and maintain backup systems.
Systems primary system fail, which is • Connect backup power to the right systems.
important in the everyday • Maintain a variety of old and advanced communications options.
management and operations of • Assess the needs of an extended loss of the primary system versus a
a system. temporary interruption.
• Be cautious when relying on neighboring agencies and contractors
for redundancy.
• Locate redundant facilities remotely.
• Consider the failure of even quadruple redundancy.
• Adopt a mindset of resiliency.

Exhibit 3.10.1: Six Different Categories of Response Actions that Should Be Taken during the Impact of Terrorists on
Transportation Systems

Source: Author’s compilation from DeBlasio et al. (2004).

 Operational Safety Applications 267

References
DeBlasio, Allan J., Terrance J. Regan, Margaret E. Zirker, Katherine S.
Fichter and Kristin Lovejoy. 2004. Effects of Catastrophic Events on
Transportation System Management and Operations. Final Report.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: US Department of Transportation, Research
and Special Programs Administration.
National Intelligent Transportation Systems Program Plan. 2002.
Washington D.C.: Intelligent Transportation Society of America.
National ITS Program Plan Five-Year Horizon. 2000. New York: US
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION ITS JOINT PROGRAM
OFFICE.
Peyrebrune, Henry P.E. 2002. Security Applications of Intelligent
Transportation Systems Management. New York: NYU Wagner Rudin
Center for Transportation Policy.
Transportation Security Against Terrorism. 2009. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
 MODULE 4

ITS:
BUSINESS AND POLICY PERSPECTIVE
 CHAPTER 4.1

STRATEGIC BUSINESS PLANNING

Introduction
Spokane Valley is a city in Spokane County, Washington, United States. It
is the seventh largest city in the state. Spokane Valley is named after the
valley of the Spokane River, in which it is located. Spokane Valley’s
population is 90,210. The Iဨ90 and Pines Road (SR 27) interchange is a
critical junction of major regional roadways within the city’s boundaries.
These routes are major arterials and are used as alternate routes during
congestion or emergencies. The purpose of the Intelligent Transportation
Systems (ITS) strategic plan, prepared for Spokane Valley, is to establish
the need for ITS investments in the region, to identify relative priorities to
direct ITS investment, to define the framework and specific technology, and
to identify specific projects to be deployed to address the Spokane Valley’s
precise needs. Advanced technology is incorporated into traffic management
and operation facilities in an ITS strategic plan, by installing or upgrading
signal control, vehicle detection, traffic monitoring, and computer equipment.
Deploying ITS in a strategic manner will use advanced technologies and
management techniques to improve mobility, efficiency, and safety on the
roadways. ITS technologies provide additional information and services
while enhancing the performance of the existing functions. The ITS
strategic plan significantly impacts infrastructure and vendor development,
and funding opportunities. Exhibit 4.1.1 shows the location of Spokane
Valley, Washington.

ITS Vision of Spokane Valley

To document the desired outcomes of the ITS implementation for Spokane
Valley, an ITS vision was developed. The city’s mission is: “Our mission
is to develop and maintain a safe and appropriate transportation
system within our community…” Based on the ideas described in the
mission, the ITS vision of the city was developed. The ITS strategic plan
uses available ITS technologies and applies them to Spokane Valley’s
vision to develop an appropriate program. Exhibit 4.1.2 shows the
 Strategic Business Planning 271

respective goals and objectives in the form of a table. The strategic plan was
developed based on the ITS deployment plan and objectives framed in the
national and regional ITS architecture. Five fundamental components to the
ITS vision were identified (Spokane Valley Strategic Plan 2011), which are
given below:

1. Improve the safety and security of the transportation system

2. Improve the efficiency of the transportation system
3. Provide improved traveler information
4. Optimize the use of transportation infrastructure
5. Integrate ITS projects with local and regional partners

Connection with Other Agencies

The Spokane Regional Transportation Management Center (SRTMC) is
Spokane County’s interagency traffic management center, which is funded
by the Cities of Spokane and Spokane Valley, Spokane Transit Authority,
Spokane County, Washington State Department of Transportation
(WSDOT), and the Spokane Regional Transportation Council. The SRTMC
is active in controlling the devices that are used to monitor and control
traffic including closedဨcircuit television (CCTV) cameras, dynamic
message signs (DMS), traffic data stations, and traffic signals; the aim for
the future is to reduce the city’s dependence on the county for these services.
In the strategic plan developed, it is assured that Spokane Valley plays an
integral role in the various ITS initiatives in the region.

Existing ITS Status

The transportation system is the backbone of an economy and a key
determinant of economic success. As the primary industries of Spokane
Valley are retail and industrial manufacturing, it is important to recognize
the importance of freight movement to the economy of Spokane Valley.
Improving the mobility of trucks and rail will ensure the efficient flow of
goods and services, helping strengthen Spokane Valley’s economy. Major
transportation routes within Spokane Valley include the Iဨ90, Pines Road
(SR 27) and Trent Avenue (SR 290), making Spokane Valley accessible to
the region. The city’s roadway system consists of a good street network that
provides access to residential and business areas, as well as through-
movement of vehicle trips originating and ending outside the city’s
boundaries. Their current ITS system consists mainly of traffic signals,
limited video detection, CCTV cameras, and one DMS. The existing ITS
272 Chapter 4.1

infrastructure that is currently deployed in the city of Spokane Valley

includes the traffic signal system, communication infrastructure, closed-
circuit television (CCTV) cameras and traffic detection. An overview of the
existing ITS infrastructure within the city limits is given below (Spokane
Valley Strategic Plan 2011):

1. Traffic Signals: There are ninety-nine signalized intersections within

the city. WSDOT owns and operates fourteen of the signalized Iဨ90
ramp intersections within the city limits. It also maintains eleven
city-owned signals along the Pines Road (SR 27) and Trent Avenue
(SR 290) corridors. All WSDOT signals in the area are synchronized
using timeဨbased coordination. The remaining signal controllers are
maintained and operated by Spokane County. There are three
components needed for a coordinated corridor: signal controller,
communication between signalized intersections, and signal
management software.
2. Communications Infrastructure: This is one of the most critical
components in the deployment of ITS infrastructure because it is
essential for local agencies to monitor, control, and operate traffic
management devices from remote locations to efficiently manage the
movement of passengers and goods. Currently, Spokane Valley
consists of a variety of media such as fiber-optic cables and a
wireless ethernet network. There are twenty-eight traffic signals
within the city, which communicate through a combination of fiber-
optic and wireless ethernet radios where one end of the wireless
system is connected to the Iဨ90 fiber-optic backbone.
3. CCTV Cameras: CCTV cameras with pan tilt and zoom (PTZ)
capabilities are used to monitor traffic conditions. Realဨtime video
streams are transmitted by CCTV cameras using fiber-optic
transceivers in the field. The video stream is then connected to a
fiber-optic receiver at the SRTMC, where it is encoded for control
and viewing.
4. Traffic Detection: The most common way to detect traffic on the
roadway is loop detection. Traffic detection is used for stopping-bar
presence and advanced pulse detection for signal operations as well
as system data collection. Spokane Valley mainly uses loops with
video detection at a few selected intersections for stop-bar detection
purposes. The city also uses video detection as a temporary method
of stop-bar detection on approaches where loops require
maintenance.
5. DMS: The city owns a DMS that was installed as part of the
Appleway ITS Phase 2 project. The DMS provides travelers with
 Strategic Business Planning 273

advance warnings regarding traffic conditions and freeway incidents

prior to their commute. Currently, WSDOT provides for the
maintenance of the DMS device, and it is controlled at the SRTMC.
6. Traffic Management Center: The SRTMC facility is used to manage
and coordinate responses to incidents. Currently, the SRTMC
utilizes the i2TMS (Integrated Interagency Traffic Management
System) software, which enables communication to signal controllers,
CCTV cameras, and DMS signs. This central system software
facilitates traffic operators in monitoring congestion, adjusting
signal parameters, and displaying traveler information to
strategically manage traffic in the region. Dispatchers in the traffic
management center post messages on the dynamic message signs
and update the traveler information web page. The center also has
access to video streams and images from cameras deployed
throughout the region.

Assessment of Needs
It is important to understand the needs and concerns of the stakeholders who
use the city’s transportation services on a daily basis. Therefore, the inputs
from the public works and signal maintenance groups were considered
during the development of an ITS strategic plan. The assessment of current
and future transportation user needs provides a backbone for the
development and evaluation of potential ITS projects for the city of Spokane
Valley. Exhibit 4.1.3 displays a detailed assessment of needs in the form of
a table. A range of ITS applications were also identified based on
consultations with representatives of the city. The following are the core
ITS components and devices required (Spokane Valley ITS Strategic Plan
May 2011):

1. Communication Systems: To allow remote monitoring of the traffic

signals and ITS devices, there is a need for infrastructure that allows
interconnection between field devices. With the amount of ITS
equipment that will be used by the communication system, enough
computational capacity and speed (bandwidth) to allow for
satisfactory monitoring and data collection are required.
2. Traffic Monitoring: CCTV cameras provide monitoring of the
roadway by allowing the city staff to move the camera, as needed, to
observe traffic flow, incidents, and conflicts. This monitoring will
allow real-time observation and adjustments.
274 Chapter 4.1

3. Real-time Data/Traveler Information: With upgraded equipment and

software, traffic data can be collected continually for analysis and
for traveler information on real-time congestion. Any future ITS
device that helps in disseminating information should also be
accessible at the SRTMC or the regional i2TMS system, allowing
key operators to post relevant information about the roadway
network conditions.
4. Data Sharing: Data, like traffic volume, occupancy, speed, and flow,
can be shared between agencies to develop a network traffic map in
the region. This is to inform travelers about the traffic conditions.
Data sharing should also involve local emergency responders and
road maintenance crews to improve incident response times and help
in effectively communicating roadway disruptions.
5. Central System Workstation: With the current i2TMS workstation at
City Hall, the city staff can manage select signal controllers, perform
traffic surveillance via CCTV cameras, and provide insights to the
county on the quality of operational changes. Regular communication
with the surrounding agencies is needed to ensure that the central
system’s hardware and software implemented at the SRTMC is up
to date.

The ITS system components presented in Exhibit 4.1.4 are potentially

capable of generating feasible, extensible, and interoperable systemic
solutions for urban regions.

Deployment Plan
It is assumed that there is a ten-year implementation timeline for the
installation of a fiber-optic communication network for the ITS strategic
plan. It is a phased approach and separates the city into eleven ITS corridors
for balancing the ITS device locations with the communication network.
The plan was developed to identify the types and locations of ITS
applications that are needed to be implemented in the city. The identified
projects propose future ITS upgrades that are consistent with the Spokane
Regional ITS Architecture Plan to fulfil the objectives below:

1. Provide access to transportation information

2. Provide access and control of ITS devices
3. Provide decision support to implement and coordinate incident
management strategies
4. Communicate information to the stakeholders, including commuters
 Strategic Business Planning 275

The administration’s vision ensures that ITS expenditure is prioritized and

falls entirely under their jurisdictions. Preliminary cost estimates were
prepared for each project. Project costs fluctuate over time and the cost
estimates presented in Exhibit 4.1.5 provided the city with planningဨlevel
information to use for budgeting and grant application purposes. The
specific components of each cost estimate, along with the identified projects
(corridors), are detailed in Exhibit 4.1.5. Funding is more readily allocated
to projects that encourage alternative modes of transportation, especially
transit.

Implementation
The ITS projects can be implemented in two ways, depending on funding:
either on a corridor-by-corridor basis or as part of a system implementation
process. The implementation plan presents projects planned along eleven
corridors, which are the city’s main arterials, that incorporate the
infrastructure necessary for ITS applications. Spokane can move ahead in a
comprehensive manner by completely funding all projects identified or it
may choose to isolate aspects of the identified projects at any time,
depending on funding and timing. The city’s physical architectural
subsystems, and related equipment packages, are described in detail in
Exhibit 4.1.6.

Conclusion
ITS are a combination of technical tools, concepts, software, hardware, and
advanced communication technologies, which are implemented in an
integrated manner with infrastructure, to achieve the desired improvements
in the transportation network. It is a cost-effective method to improve the
safety and efficiency of traffic flow. A strategic ITS plan is critical to solve
various concerns and to implement future upgradations on an existing
roadway. This plan will assist in coordinating with surrounding agencies to
provide an integrated regional transportation improvement plan. The city of
Spokane Valley efficiently used ITS technologies in their transportation
network; the traffic departments leveraged those technologies to improve
traffic mobility and enable quicker responses to varied traffic conditions that
occur within the roadway network.
276 Chapter 4.1

Exhibit 4.1.1: Map Showing the Location of Spokane Valley,

Washington

Source: http://www.spokanevalley-realestate.com/map.gif
 Strategic Business Planning 277

Exhibit 4.1.2: Goals and Objectives

Goal Objectives
Improve the Reduce frequency, duration, and effects of
safety and incidents
security of the Reduce emergency response times
transportation Reduce recurrent congestion
system Coordinate incident/security response with other
local and regional agencies
Provide redundancy for operations
Improve the Improve travel time for vehicles
efficiency of the Reduce travel time variability
transportation Reduce fuel consumption and environmental
system impacts
Provide database for systems evaluation and future
improvements
Provide Provide information about construction activities
improved Provide incident information
traveler Provide realဨtime road condition information
information including closures, speed and/or delay, and weather
information
Provide one location where customers can access
all regional and local traveler information
Optimize use of Deploy systems that fit in with future
transportation improvements
infrastructure Deploy systems that maximize the use of existing
infrastructure
Deploy systems that minimize need for
maintenance and operational support
Integrate deployments with other local and regional
projects
Integrate ITS Share resources between local and regional
projects with agencies
local and Continue to coordinate and integrate projects with
regional partners other agencies
Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)
278 Chapter 4.1

Exhibit 4.1.3: A Detailed Assessment of Needs

Needs Assessment
Traffic Upgrade the cityဨwide traffic signal system
operations Expand traffic monitoring and system detection
and Upgrade the central system workstation for active control of
management systems
Integrate systems between local transportation and emergency
agencies
Coordinate traffic signals to alleviate congested freeway offဨramps
Develop an incident response program
Monitor high accident locations for incidents
Develop an emergency/incident response plan including all
response agencies
Traveler Expand SRTMC map to include Spokane Valley arterial roadways
information Provide travelers with information about incidents, congestion,
construction, or any other event that will increase travel times
Provide congestion information along major roadways
Provide realဨtime traveler information at freeway onဨramps
Keep “realဨtime” information current (i.e., DMS, 511, HAR)
Interface and share resources with the National Weather Service
Provide more camera images for visual verification of conditions
Post information in locations that will not be obstructed by truck
traffic
Standardize message sets for DMS
Disseminate emergency information (i.e., amber alert)
Disseminate evacuation route information
Interagency Develop a city-wide fiber-optic communications infrastructure
users Implement a ringဨtype fiber network topology to create failure
redundancy
Link to surrounding agencies
Install citywide CCTV cameras, data stations and additional DMS
General Use common standards throughout the region to enhance
needs integration
Integrate the communications system between transport and
emergency management agencies to improve response times
Identify funding sources for safety improvements and interagency
coordination projects
Research and test communications systems prior to implementation
to ensure ease of use and regional functionality
Deploy ITS projects that improve a traveler’s available choices
Facilitate coordination between agencies
Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)
 Strategic Business Planning 279

Exhibit 4.1.4: The Recommended ITS System Components

ITS
Equipment Minimum
ITS Function Potential Benefits
and Recommendation
Materials
Signal Traffic Phased x Improve signal
controller management replacement of all management and
(flow and Peek 3000E operation efficiency
control) controller to Eagle x Improve interagency
M52 with ethernet integration
communications
CCTV Video IPဨbased camera, x Reduce data transfer
camera surveillance highဨdefinition rate
and monitoring video, industry x Reduce video storage
standard video size
compression x Improve safety and
MPEGဨ4 and security
H.264 x Improve interagency
video sharing
DMS Traveler NTCIP x Improve city ITS
information communication system integration,
support (national interagency
standard protocol) integration and
traveler information
dissemination
x Enables strategic
traffic management in
the region
Vehicle Intersection Induction loops x Allows traffic data
detection detection, for intersection archiving for future
system detection Initiate planning and signal
detection, softwareဨbased timing adjustment
collection, and traffic data x Improves intersection
incident acquisition pilot operations and
management project traveler information
dissemination
Highway Traveler Hardened AM x Improve traveler
advisory information band transmission information
radio devices and digital dissemination and
(HAR) recorder modules roadway safety in the
region
Fiber-optic Communication 24ဨ72 strand x Ease of future
backbone infrastructure SMFO in existing communication
2” conduits, new expansion.
280 Chapter 4.1

4” conduit, or two x Provide cityဨowned

3” conduits communication
system for improved
manageability
Ethernet Communication Managed and x Ease of future
switches between field industrial switches communication
equipment and with gigabit expansion
traffic speeds for all field x Improve
management installed devices manageability and
centers At least six RJဨ45 operation for
ports and two maintenance
fiber ports personnel
x Improve data
transmission rates
Central Traffic Maintain current x Improve city ITS
system management versions of all system integration
workstation software on the x Improve interagency
central system cooperation and data
workstation to sharing
ensure
consistency with
SRTMC
Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)
 Strategic Business Planning 281

Exhibit 4.1.5: Detailed Cost Estimates for the Identified Projects

Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)
282 Chapter 4.1

Exhibit 4.1.6: The City’s Physical Architecture Subsystems, and

Related Equipment Packages

Source: Based on the Data from the Spokane Valley Strategic Plan (2011)
 Strategic Business Planning 283

References
Spokane Valley ITS Strategic Plan. 2011. Washington: Transpo Group, Inc.
 CHAPTER 4.2

PRICING AND REVENUE MANAGEMENT

Pricing and revenue management in ITS is a key instrument for maximizing

revenue by increasing usage and ridership. A huge amount of data is
generated in ITS; this data helps operators to analyze, predict and
understand traveler preferences and needs. It is also possible to generate
probable distributions of future trips, and, thus, help transport planners to
decide on optimal pricing strategies for commercially viable and sustainable
management of ITS systems. Electronic toll collection systems, dynamic
charging, road pricing, and congestion charging are examples of some
applications of dynamic pricing and revenue management in ITS. While
applications like electronic toll collection systems and dynamic charging
have a reasonable acceptance, congestion charging often faces social
reluctance. With the deployment of ITS, administrative revenue leakage in
transport sector has significantly reduced over time. Revenue management
is a critical process and is vulnerable to tampering and manipulation if not
managed well; often, revenue-related complaints have a huge social and
political implication. In a conventional transport system, common causes
for revenue leakage are

1. Human error of the driver or conductor in public transport

operations, e.g., failure to issue the ticket, intentional discrepancy in
farebox collection, issuance of under-valued ticket, etc.
2. Fare avoidance by passengers/users, e.g., avoiding tolls, using
expired or invalid tickets while travelling, etc.
3. Third party manipulation: selling of tampered or forged tickets
4. Errors or malpractice at higher levels of transport authority

The application of ITS tamper-proofs revenue collection and management

by establishing automated fare collection techniques and using dynamic
pricing techniques.
 Pricing and Revenue Management 285

Dynamic Pricing
Transport resources, such as public vehicles, road infrastructure, and
parking spaces, face the common issue of high demand and low supply
caused by increasing population. ITS provides value added services and
solutions to meet the demand and supply imbalance, necessitating the use
of dynamic pricing, surge pricing, demand pricing, or time-based pricing.
The user pays a fee for every service/infrastructure, including roads and
highways, parking lots, public transportation, charging stations for EVs,
congestion control, travel comfort and security, etc. It is essential that the
pricing and revenue management of ITS is appealing to both the commuter
and the administrators; the fare needs to be attractive and optimal so that
ridership is not affected, but also commercially viable.

Dynamic pricing is determined by various factors, such as present and past

traffic volumes, and their respective pricing. These parameters vary with
time, demand, weather conditions, and culture. As a result, assessing and
developing suitable pricing policies is critical.

Areas of dynamic pricing in ITS are

1. Congestion-pricing: Road-pricing is the automatic charging of users

for usage of a particular road or a road network in a specific region.
Congestion-pricing, toll-pricing, and crowd-pricing are
subcategories of road-pricing schemes. Road-pricing reduces traffic
on specific roads and restricts vehicles, ensures average flow of
traffic, promotes carpooling and public transportation, generates
revenue, and balances cost between payer and payee. Toll-pricing
helps in generating revenues for infrastructure construction and
maintenance, and managing congestion at toll gates. Congestion-
pricing, at present, is used only in a few cities and on a few major
highways. Electronic road pricing in Singapore, the London
congestion charge, the Stockholm congestion tax, Milan area C, and
high-occupancy toll lanes in the United States are noteworthy
examples.
2. Parking Pricing: It i) minimizes time-loss by giving easy access to
parking spaces, ii) ensures safe and secure parking spaces, iii)
prioritizes commercial usage, iv) reduces accidents, energy
consumption and pollution, and v) encourages the usage of public
transportation.
3. Electricity-charging Pricing for EV: It provides the convenience of
charging to EV owners at appropriate pricing. It addresses the
286 Chapter 4.2

challenges of peak/non-peak loading, demand variability, power-

price fluctuations, and intermittency of renewable energy generation.

Evaluation criteria of dynamic pricing for ITS are based on revenue

generation, travel time, delay time, cost of travel, number of users in a
specific time period, computational complexity, demand, operational cost,
environmental factors, and traffic flow and ridership. Table 4.2.1 is a
tabulation of different road pricing types and Table 4.2.2 illustrates the
different fee collection methods.

TYPE DESCRIPTION
Road toll A fixed fee for driving on a particular road.
(fixed rates)
Congestion A fee that is higher under congested conditions than
pricing uncongested conditions. Intended to shift some vehicle
(time- traffic to other routes, times, and modes.
variable)
Cordon fees Fees charged for driving in a particular area.
High- A high-occupant vehicle lane that accommodates a
occupancy limited number of low-occupant vehicles for a fee.
toll lanes
Distance- A vehicle-use fee based on how many miles a vehicle
based fees is driven.
Pay-as-you- Prorate premium by mileage so vehicle insurance
drive becomes a variable cost.
insurance
Road space Revenue-neutral credits used to ration peak period
rationing roadway capacity.

Table 4.2.1: Different Road Pricing Types

Source: Author’s compilation
 Pricing and Revenue Management 287

Equipment Operating User Price

Type Description
Costs Costs Inconvenience Adjustability
Toll Motorists High High High Medium to
Booths stop and pay high
at a booth
Pass Motorists Low Low Medium Poor to
must medium
purchase a
pass to enter
a cordoned
area
Electronic An electronic High Medium Low High
Tolling system bills
the user as
they pass a
point in the
road system
GPS Track vehicle High Medium Low High
location and
data is
automatically
transmitted to
a central
computer that
bills users

Table 4.2.2: Fee Collection Methods

Source: Pricing Methods—Four Road Pricing—Congestion Pricing, Value
Pricing, Toll Roads and HOT Lanes, TDM Encyclopedia, Victoria
Transport Policy Institute

Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) in Singapore

Singapore, also known as the Garden City, the Lion City or the Little Red
Dot, is an island city-state in Southeast Asia. It has an area of 640 km sq
with a population of 5.75 million. It is a global commerce, finance, and
transport hub. It is one of the four newly industrializing economies in Asia,
the other three being Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan. With a vibrant
economy, a small land area, and a large population, there have been high
demands on Singapore's roadways. Private cars became more prevalent with
per-capita income rise. This led to increased traffic congestion, particularly
in the city center. The government has since framed policies to control the
number of private cars on the road to control pollution and congestion. Road
pricing was introduced in Singapore, for the first time in the world, in 1975,
in the form of an area license system (ALS). The system has been
consistently upgraded, from a manual system to a high-tech digital system.
The ALS was replaced by electronic road pricing (ERP), in 1998, which
288 Chapter 4.2

digitally manages traffic by way of road pricing. Road charging has been
implemented in many cities (e.g., Oslo, San Francisco, Paris, Dubai, and
Cambridge) around the world, either manually or electronically.

The ALS in Singapore was first in the series of multiple stringent strategies
adopted by the Singapore government to ease traffic congestion in the
central business district (CBD) of Singapore. Park-and-ride schemes and
carpooling are alternative schemes, implemented along with ALS. The
Road Transport Action Committee (RTAC) was set up in January 1974,
including members from the ministries of National Development,
Communications, Home Affairs and Finance. RTAC created the ALS with
the objective peak-hour traffic reduction in the city by 30 %. Under the
scheme, the CBD was marked as a restricted zone during peak hours; all
vehicles entering the CBD during these hours had to obtain a special area
license costing S$3 per day or S$60 per month. The scheme was refined
multiple times in terms of operations and pricing. ALS was replaced by the
electronic road pricing (ERP) system, after being operational for twenty-
three years. Though ALS was very useful in traffic management, operators
found it cumbersome, labor-intensive, and inflexible; it was replaced by an
automatic dedicated short-range communication (DSRC) system called the
ERP scheme, in 1995. An ERP-controlled point uses two overhead gantries,
15 m apart and 6 m above road level. Figure 4.2.1 shows an image of a
Singapore ERP gantry. Each gantry has two microwave beacons per lane.
The passage of vehicles is detected by the optical sensors on the second
gantry. Two cameras cover each lane on the first gantry and photograph the
rear license plates of vehicles without payment equipment (Walker May
2011).

Working of ERP
A cash card is inserted into the on-board unit (OBU) or in-vehicle unit (IU).
The OBU is fixed permanently in the vehicle and is powered by the vehicle
battery. Figure 4.2.2 shows an image of an OBU. When a vehicle passes an
ERP gantry, a charge is deducted. After the charge is deducted, the
remaining cash is shown on the OBU for ten seconds. If a vehicle owner
does not have sufficient value in their cash card when passing through an
ERP, the owner receives a fine by post within two weeks. The electronic
systems can dynamically vary the prices, based on traffic conditions, vehicle
type, time, and location. All vehicles are charged except emergency
vehicles. In 2005, the coverage of ERP expanded the gantries around
Singapore CBD, major arterials, and expressways. The system is upgraded
 Pricing and Revenue Management 289

each quarter to keep them efficient. After ALS had been replaced with the
ERP system, traffic congestion levels decreased by 15 %. About 65 % of
the commuters now use public transport, which is an increase of nearly 20
% (Sustainable Cities 2014).

Figure 4.2 1: A Singapore ERP Gantry

Source: images.allsingaporestuff.com

Figure 4.2.2: Images Showing On-Board Unit (OBU) Fixed Inside a Car
Source: http://ivyidaong4.blogspot.in
290 Chapter 4.2

The Pricing Model

The primary objective was to minimize vehicles on roads, and not profit
generation. The initial cost of installation for the ERP, in 1998, was
approximately S$115M. In 2003, the annual revenues from the ERP were
about S$45M, which balanced out the annual operating costs of S$9M. In
2010, annual revenues from the ERP rose to approximately S$90 million,
with a daily collection of more than S$15,000 (CITY CLIMATE
LEADERSHIP AWARDS Singapore Climate Close-Up 2013). The cost of
managing and maintaining the ERP system has increased over the years,
along with the increase in the number of gantries and IUs; however, the cost
remains at 20 %–30 % of the total revenue collected.

The ERP is an “active” system; the charges are deducted from a smart card
in the IU, and the central computer system does not keep track of the
vehicle’s movements as a record of all transactions are stored on the driver’s
smart card. In addition to making the payments easier, the ERP enables
consistent, reliable, and efficient data collection. Analysis of this data helps
communicating information that is useful to the drivers.

Insights from Best Practices

One major lesson from Singapore is to establish flexible, agile, and adaptive
schemes that target specific groups contributing to traffic congestion. The
speeds on road sections are always monitored and the charges are adjusted
up to six times a year. The pricing is dynamic depending on traffic flow—
higher with low congestion and vice versa. There was also the provision of
quality public transport choices, including mass rapid transit and light rail.
Most importantly, there was a wide-spread public acceptance of ERP. The
authorities in Singapore also stress that congestion pricing is not the only
solution to urban traffic congestion; travel demand could be better managed
by land-use planning, the right policies on decentralization, parking, car
ownership (vehicle quota system), and effective public transport. Effective
crisis management, optimizing available road capacity, and prioritizing road
network capacity can also manage traffic demand. Furthermore, the
country's small size and island boundaries helped make implementation
efficient. Their single-tiered governance and administration made decision-
making easier and implementation faster. In summary, Singapore’s
transport system is among the best, with efficient pricing policies and the
development of a well-connected public transport system.
 Pricing and Revenue Management 291

London Congestion Charging Scheme

Congestion charging is often resisted by the public. Cities like Hong Kong
and New York could not expand their congestion pricing schemes beyond
trial runs due to social rejection. London launched the London Congestion
Charging Scheme (LCCS) in February 2003. With an initial investment of
£162M, the LCCS was technically more advanced than Singapore’s ALS,
despite a similar daily licensing charging scheme. LCCS initially covered
an area of 22 km sq—which was doubled by 2007—and generated a net
revenue of £122M in the 2005 to 2006 financial year. A clear communication
strategy, and the well-defined roles and responsibilities of Transport for
London (TfL) are the key factors for its success. The number of private
vehicles entering the London urban area dropped by 39 % between 2002
and 2014. More than 18,000 private rental vehicles, like taxis (Uber, etc.)
and minicabs, are entering the congestion-charging zone daily. The TfL is
faced with a financial challenge as these taxis and minibuses are exempt
from paying the congestion charge price.

Congestion charging schemes or area licensing schemes raise two primary

concerns: i) it is not equitable, as fees maybe inconsistent with the usage,
and ii) impaired usage, to ensure the value for money (for the users), which
fails the basic purpose of reducing congestion.

Pricing Project in Stockholm and Milan

From January 2006 to July 2006, Stockholm conducted a trial run of a
congestion pricing scheme, where toll charges were levied at eighteen
points that controlled the entry and exit to the inner zone of the city. The toll
rate was based on a time-differentiated technique similar to ERP. The
maximum toll charge for each vehicle in a day was fixed at 60 SEK. The
highest toll rate occurred during the morning and evening peak hours; from
6:30 AM to 6:30 PM, the toll charge varied from 10 SEK (around $1.3) to
20 SEK.

The eco-pass road pricing scheme in Milan was implemented in January

2008, with the primary objective of improving the air quality of the city
while managing congestion effectively. The pricing cordon operates from
7:30 AM to 7:30 PM and covers an area of 8 sq km, located in central Milan.
The toll pricing is not time-variable, unlike Stockholm and Singapore, as
the primary focus is to reduce emission rather than congestion. The toll rates
are based on the five different emission levels of the vehicles; the highest
charge is €10 and the lowest is free of charge.
292 Chapter 4.2

References
CITY CLIMATE LEADERSHIP AWARDS Singapore Climate Close-Up.
2013. LONDON: C40 CITIES, SIEMENS.
Sustainable Cities. 2014. Accessed June 24, 2017.
http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-cities/sustainable-cities/all-
cases/transport/singapore-the-worlds-first-digital-congestion-charging-
system/.
Walker, John. 2011. The Acceptability of Road Pricing. London: RAC
Foundation.
 CHAPTER 4.3

SUSTAINABILITY OF ITS OPERATIONS

Introduction
In the modern economy, transport is fundamental to citizen mobility and
socioeconomic development. Well-connected, sophisticated mobility
choices are substantive to a sustainable environment and pollution control.
Ninety-five percent of transport energy is derived from fossil fuels; this is
the main contributor to most of the air pollution from the transportation
sector around the world. According to the International Energy Agency
(IEA), in 2012, transportation accounted for 22 % of energy-consumption-
related CO2 emission, with 74 % of the total CO2 emissions in transportation
coming from road traffic. Therefore, tackling air pollution and attempting
to reduce non-renewable energy consumption will have an adverse impact
on mobility. It is expected for the situation to exacerbate without sufficient
governmental policy support and technological interventions. For improved
social welfare and public good, government policies should encourage
environmental friendliness and sustainable development; it will be
productive to explore transportation options that are environmentally benign
and use clean energy.

Urban areas have little to no scope for establishing an eco-friendly

transportation infrastructure network; this is due to high population density
and the rigid space limitations of existing infrastructure. Characteristically,
urban transport infrastructure development is a brown-field project;
congestion levels are usually very severe, mobility demands continue to
increase, and since real-estate is expensive, residential regions shift to
peripheral locations, whereas commercial establishments are concentrated
in the city center. Therefore, citizens’ daily commute for livelihood reasons
is necessitated; all these burden the already constrained urban infrastructure,
reducing the overall mobility service quality. Quality deterioration becomes
evident in terms of reduced safety, increased accidents and casualties,
increased pollution (noise, air, and emissions), increased congestion,
reduced reliability, and so forth.
294 Chapter 4.3

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) are hoped to improve roadway

safety, reduce traffic congestion, and enhance mobility. In addition to that,
ITS also help reduce energy consumption and mitigate environmental
effects. In the recent years, several ITS programs have emerged that are
specifically designed to minimize the environmental impacts of transportation,
such as Milan’s road-pricing system. Such environmental ITS programs
have been shown to curb emissions by up to 15 % (Barth, Wu and
Boriboonsomsin 2015).

Traffic Problem in the US

According to a recent study, it has been estimated that the cost of traffic
congestion in US cities for 2005 was $78B, with 4.2 billion hours of delay
and 2.9 billion gallons of fuel wasted (Shrank and Lomax 2007). During the
same year, there were 5.4 million crashes and fatalities on US highways
(FHWA Safety 2007). Population growth and the resulting increase in
vehicles and vehicle miles travelled (VMT) are the leading causes of
roadway congestion in the United States. According to the report by the
Federal Highway Administration, in 2013, annual VMT increased 8 % after
the 2008 financial crisis and reached 2.97 trillion miles in the US in 2011.
These data points corroborate the poor condition of the US transportation
system and stress the urgency of government and transport agency
intervention. Consequentially, environmental impacts from the US
transportation network are also colossal and detrimental.

ITS and Their Impact on Transportation Energy and

Emissions
As described in the US National Intelligent Transportation System
Architecture, ITS consist of a wide variety of technologies and applications.
In general, ITS can be broadly categorized into three major areas, vehicle
systems, traffic management systems, and travel information systems. The
environmental benefits of these areas are briefly discussed below.

1. Vehicle Systems

By taking advantage of advanced technologies like modern control systems,

faster processors, and wireless communications, vehicle performances have
been enhanced to a great extent. This has many environmental benefits in
terms of reduced energy consumption and GHG emissions. Examples of
such emerging vehicle systems are discussed below.
 Sustainability of ITS Operations 295

Longitudinal Assistance Systems

Longitudinal Assistance Systems aim to prevent rear-end and front-end

collisions. These systems constitute sensors and computer vision
technology, which monitor headway between vehicles and reduce the
chances of collisions. These sensors are also being used for adaptive cruise
control (ACC) systems that allow a driver to travel at a consistent speed for
a specific distance. ACC can evolve into cooperative adaptive cruise control
(CACC) by integrating wireless communication systems; CACC vehicles
communicate with each other to coordinate headway distance, speed,
acceleration, and deceleration, etc.

Lateral Assistance Systems

Lateral assistance systems guide vehicles during lane changes, merges, or

any turning movements. They provide lane departure warnings by using
computer vision technology and other sensors to warn drivers of impending
lateral collisions.

Wireless Communications Systems

These systems are incorporated in vehicles as cellular communication

devices and dedicated short-range communication radios. These systems
enable V2V, V2I, and I2V communications to ensure safety. They can
minimize environmental impacts by reducing fuel consumption, improving
efficiency and safety. Longitudinal and lateral control systems coupled with
wireless communication systems establish a fully or partially automated
vehicle.

2. Traffic Management Systems

Over the last several decades, road congestion in urban areas has risen
severely. Since it may not be feasible to construct infrastructure to manage
increasing travel demand, ITS-based traffic management systems can
potentially mitigate the problem. Some of these systems are discussed
below.

Traffic Monitoring Systems

Traffic monitoring systems comprise sensors, communication channels, and

information processing technologies. They provide real-time information to
manage traffic. Advanced data processing techniques are being developed
to estimate traffic-flow, density, and speed, as well as other traffic parameters.
296 Chapter 4.3

This real-time data can be used by drivers for choosing alternative routes,
helping to reduce congestion.

Traffic Incident Management

Traffic incident management can reduce congestion on roads by

coordinating with traffic monitoring systems. This technique can be an
important tool for early detection of incidents and rapid clearance from
accident sites, so normal traffic can resume as quickly as possible.

Integrated Corridor Management

Integrated corridor management is a set of methods, which work together to

help keep traffic flowing as smoothly as possible through the corridor. Some
innovative solutions include ramp metering for freeway access, and
advanced signal timing algorithms on arterial networks, which reduce idling
time and, hence, reduces congestion.

Travel Demand Management

Travel demand management aims to reduce the number of vehicles on a

congested road by diverting the traffic volume through demand-pricing and
other initiatives. The main goal of traffic management is to utilize the
existing road infrastructure to its full capacity and maintain a smooth traffic
flow. It can reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions by large
extents as it minimizes time stuck in congestion.

Travel Information Systems

Travel information systems aim to make things convenient for travelers by

efficiently communicating relevant information. Recent developments in
these systems are discussed below.

Route Guidance Systems

Route guidance systems generally include on-board, off-board, and

smartphone-based systems. These navigation systems use geographic and
real-time traffic information to find optimal routes with minimum travel-
time, congestions, and even GHG emissions in a roadway network.

Geo-Location Systems

Geo-location systems are generally coupled with route guidance systems to

allow users to find specific locations, hence, decreasing extra driving, such
 Sustainability of ITS Operations 297

as searching for gas stations, parking spaces, etc., which, in turn, leads to
reduced fuel consumption and, hence, reduced GHG emissions.

Electronic Payment Systems

Electronic payment systems are becoming extremely prevalent, especially

since the onset of the COVID-19 Pandemic. They enable automatic toll and
other payments without disrupting the vehicle, which helps in maintaining
the smooth flow of traffic, leading to environmental benefits.

The ITS implementations discussed above can directly or indirectly reduce

GHG emissions through improvements in safety, mobility, energy
consumption, and efficiency. Other than reducing GHG emissions and
energy consumption, all these systems also enhance traveler convenience.
However, actual GHG emission reductions will vary significantly, depending
on factors such as vehicle fleet mix, traffic volume and dynamics, and the
type of roadway network and infrastructure. In the US, a variety of these
ITS applications have been designed, developed, piloted, and implemented
in different locations.

Recent Environmental ITS Programs in the United States

The US Department of Transportation (USDOT) has initiated a variety of
environmentally-focused ITS research programs. Many of these are part of
the Federal Highway Administration Exploratory Advanced Research
program. One of the research initiatives focuses on connected vehicles
(CV), of which an environmental aspect is the Applications for the
Environment: Real-time Information Synthesis (AERIS) program. Using
V2V, V2I, and I2V communications, the AERIS program aims to design
ITS applications that reduce energy consumption and GHG emissions.
Several AERIS operational concepts have been developed, including: i)
Eco-Signal Operations, ii) Eco-Lanes, iii) Dynamic Low Emissions Zones,
iv) Support for Alternative Fuel Vehicle (AFV) Operations, v) Eco-Traveler
Information, and vi) Eco-Integrated Corridor Management (ICM). The main
AERIS applications are the Eco-Traffic Signal Operations, including the
applications of Eco-Approach and Departure at Signalized Intersections,
Eco-Traffic Signal Timing, and Eco-Traffic Signal Priority, as well as Eco-
Lanes Operations, which includes the applications of Eco-Speed
Harmonization and Eco-Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control. These
applications are described in further detail below.
298 Chapter 4.3

1. Eco-Traffic Signal Operations

These operations use ITS technologies to decrease fuel consumption and

GHG emissions on arterial roadways by reducing idling, number of stops,
and unnecessary accelerations and decelerations at signalized intersections.
There are a few other signalization strategies that use V2I/I2V communications,
three of which are described below.

• Eco-Approach and Departure at Signalized Intersections: This

application uses wireless data communications sent from the traffic
signal controller to CVs to encourage “green” approaches to
signalized intersections. It is intended for the vehicle to change its
speed to stop at or cross a traffic signal energy-efficiently. The
systems include broadcasting signal phase and timing (SPaT) data
and geographic information description (GID) data. Vehicle status
messages, sent from nearby vehicles using V2V communications,
are also incorporated by the application. Upon receiving this
information, an on-board processor can calculate the optimal speed
to approach, pass through, and depart from a signalized intersection.
This speed information is communicated to the driver through a
human-machine interface, or directly to the vehicle’s longitudinal
controller (such as the ACC system). The AERIS program has found
2 % to 7 % energy savings for all vehicles and that the application is
less effective when the corridor is congested (AERIS Report 2014).
• Eco-Traffic Signal Timing: This is similar to the adaptive traffic
signal systems; however, eco-traffic signal timing’s objective is to
optimize traffic signals for the environment. The application collects
data from vehicles, such as vehicle location, speed, GHG and other
emissions using CV technologies. This data is then processed to
develop signal timing strategies that are aimed at reducing fuel
consumption and overall emissions at an intersection, along a
corridor, or for a region. This approach evaluates traffic and
environmental parameters at each signal in real-time and adapts to
serve traffic demands while minimizing the environmental impact.
The AERIS program has shown 1 % to 5.5 % energy savings, and
that the application is effective in most conditions other than full
saturation (AERIS Report 2014).
• Eco-Traffic Signal Priority: Eco-traffic signal priority allows
approaching transit and freight vehicles to request signal priority. It
considers the vehicle’s location, speed, vehicle type, and its
emissions to determine whether priority should be granted.
Information collected from vehicles approaching the intersection,
 Sustainability of ITS Operations 299

such as the transit vehicle’s schedule or passengers onboard may also

be considered in granting priority. If priority is granted, the traffic
signal attempts to facilitate the transit/freight vehicle to pass-through
the intersection without stopping. This application does not allow
signal pre-emption, which is reserved for emergency response
vehicles. The AERIS program has shown 1 % to 4 % energy savings
for all freight vehicles and 1 % to 2 % savings for transit vehicles
(AERIS Report 2014).

2. Eco-Lanes Operations

Eco-lanes use CV technologies to decrease vehicle fuel-consumption and

emissions by reducing congestion, unnecessary accelerations/decelerations,
and improving traffic flow. This could occur either on a single lane or across
multiple lanes on a freeway. It can consist a few different applications that
are specifically set up for a freeway:

• Eco-Lanes Management: This application supports the operation of

dynamic eco-lanes, including establishing qualifications for using
the lanes, defining activation periods, or geofencing the eco-lanes’
boundaries.
• Eco-Speed Harmonization: Eco-speed harmonization assists in
smoothing traffic flow, reducing unnecessary stops and starts, and
maintaining consistent speeds, thus, reducing fuel consumption,
GHGs, and other emissions on the roadway by implementing
variable speed limits.
• Eco-Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control: Eco-cooperative
adaptive cruise control allows individual drivers to take advantage
of adaptive cruise control capabilities along with V2V communications
designed to minimize vehicle accelerations and decelerations for
reducing fuel consumption and vehicle emissions.
• Eco-Ramp Metering: The eco-ramp metering application determines
the most environmentally efficient operation of traffic signals on
ramps to manage the rate of vehicles entering a freeway.
• Connected Eco-Driving: Connected eco-driving provides
customized real-time driving suggestions to drivers to adjust their
driving characteristics (e.g., speed of travel, acceleration and
deceleration rates) to save fuel and reduce emissions.
• Multi-modal Traveler Information: The multi-modal traveler
information provides pre-trip and en-route multi-modal traveler
information to encourage environmentally friendly transportation
choices.
300 Chapter 4.3

In the US, the AERIS program’s eco-lanes modelling implemented the eco-
speed harmonization and eco-cooperative adaptive cruise control
application. Using a sophisticated set of simulation modelling tools, it was
shown that under the assumption of 100 % penetration rate, eco-speed
harmonization could result in up to 12 % in energy savings, but with an 8
% reduction in mobility. However, after modifications to ensure that
mobility was not affected, energy savings were around 5 %. On the other
hand, eco-cooperative adaptive cruise control was shown to provide
upwards of 30 % in energy savings for a generic freeway segment. When
applied to a regular freeway with on and off ramps, the savings were around
15 % (Barth, Wu and Boriboonsomin 2015).

Conclusion
For the last several decades, many ITS applications, including vehicle
systems, traffic management systems, and traveler information systems,
have been utilized to improve safety and reduce congestion, with the
secondary goal of reducing fuel consumption and GHG emissions. Based
on the discussions, in this chapter, on the US, it is inferred that
environmental benefits can be maximized through the implementation of a
combination of environmentally-friendly ITS technologies. To date, the
mobility and safety impacts of environmental-ITS programs are not very
clear; as more of these ITS programs are deployed, comprehensive impact
assessments of their environmental, mobility, and safety performance are
needed. In conclusion, traffic management can be done in two ways: one is
to augment capacity and the other is to control and manage changes in
demand, such as with appropriate pricing policies.

References
AERIS—Applications for the Environment:Real-Time Information
Synthesis Report. 2014. Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation.
Barth, M., G. Wu and K. Boriboonsomsin. 2015. Intelligent Transportation
Systems for Improving Traffic Energy Efficience and Reducing GHG
Emissions from Roadways. California: National Center for Sustainable
Transportation.
FHWA Safety. 2007. US DOT Federal Highway Administration, Office of
Safety.
Freight Facts and Figures 2006. 2006. US DOT Federal Highway
Administration, Freight Management and Operations.
 Sustainability of ITS Operations 301

Grant-Muller, S., and M. Usher. 2013. “Intelligent Transport Systems: The

Propensity for Environmental and Economic Benefits. Technological
Forecasting & Social Change: 149–66.
Public Transportation Ridership Statistics. n.d. American Public
Transportation Association.
Schrank, David, and T. Lomax. 2007. Urban Mobility Report. Texas: Texas
A & M University, Texas Transportation Institute.
 CHAPTER 4.4

ROLE OF STATE AND REGULATORY BODIES

Introduction
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) use information and communication
technologies (ICT), that support and optimize all modes of transport by cost-
effectively improving their individual and cooperative operations.
Information, communication, data processing, and sensor technologies are
used in synergy with the infrastructure, vehicles, and operations and
management centers to make the transportation system efficient for all
stakeholders. ITS are overarching, multi-disciplinary transport management
systems that can make existing networks of all transport modes safer, and
more efficient, reliable, resilient, sustainable, and flexible to address
existing as well as future needs. To some extent, ITS technologies are
already widely used across all modes of transport and are developing at a
rapid pace.

The government of New Zealand is keen to capitalize the several benefits

that ITS technologies offer; it has formulated an action plan to utilize them
safely, efficiently, and effectively in New Zealand’s transportation system
to provide better transport services to its people.

Background
New Zealand is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean.
Geographically, it comprises two land masses, the North Island and the
South Island, and around 600 smaller islands, and is mostly isolated from
the rest of the world. The government of New Zealand is committed to boost
its economy and improve the quality of life of citizens. The economy of
New Zealand mainly depends on trade and services such as tourism. For
delivering these goods and services to develop its economy, a safe and
efficient transport network becomes critical. When compared to many other
countries, the geographical isolation of New Zealand puts the nation at a
competitive disadvantage in exporting. To compete in the global market, the
country needs its transportation network to be as efficient as possible. ITS
 Role of State and Regulatory Bodies 303

are already contributing, to some extent, to the improved efficiency of

supply chains in New Zealand, but need to develop at a wider scale for an
efficient and sustainable supply chain management.

The integration of ITS can ensure road safety and help discard the need for
excessive investment in new physical infrastructure. The government
recognizes the transport sector as a priority area for socioeconomic
development and growth. Through ITS implementation in New Zealand, the
government also set a target for making vehicles more fuel efficient and
reducing GHG emissions. The government’s vision is for an integrated,
effective, safe, secure, responsible, efficient, accessible, and resilient
transport system that supports the growth of the country’s economy,
provides a better quality of life, and delivers greater prosperity, security,
and opportunities to all citizens. To support these long-term objectives,
transport agencies have adopted four long-term goals for transport in New
Zealand and outlined how ITS can help achieve these goals (Exhibit 4.4.1
shows the government’s long-term goal).

Key Participants in ITS Deployment

The central, state, and local governments, and central and state-owned
transport agencies and enterprises have a key role to play in development
and deployment of ITS technologies in New Zealand. The Ministry of
Transport, the NZ Transport Agency, the Civil Aviation Authority, Airways
New Zealand, the Aviation Security Service, Kiwi Rail, Maritime New
Zealand, Land Information New Zealand, and the Met Service are the
involved agencies from the central government. Other government
departments involved are the New Zealand Police and the New Zealand
Customs Service. Some other participants involved are vehicle
manufacturers, transport users, and technology providers. Establishing an
effective and productive collaboration between these entities is one of the
most important determiners of ITS New Zealand’s success.

The Role of the Government

The government understands the potential of ITS technology and has made
significant investments in ITS for all transportation modes. The government
is determined to support the development and deployment of ITS to ensure
a better transport network in New Zealand. Apart from the government, the
New Zealand Transport Agency (NZ Transport Agency) plays a major role
in the initiative (Exhibit 4.4.2 displays the role of the NZ Transport
304 Chapter 4.4

Agency). The main responsibilities of the government in development and

deployment of ITS are listed below:

1. Strategic Leadership, Aims, and Collaboration

Strategic leadership, collaboration between multiple modes in an integrative

ITS environment, coordination of central and local governments, funding
agencies, developers, vendors, and operators are key to the development of
ITS. The Ministry of Transport, with the government, ITS stakeholders, and
multi-modal end user representatives, proposes to establish an ITS
leadership forum to develop ITS-specific long-term plans, policies, and a
strategic vision. It has also proposed to establish an ITS Technology
Working Group to guarantee coordination of actions across all stakeholders.
The Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) of New Zealand, in collaboration with
Airways NZ and other stakeholders, shall finalize and implement the
National Air Navigation Plan (NANP); the plan outlines ITS priorities in air
navigation and airspace, including system investment and airspace
management. The NZ Transport Agency proposes to draft an ITS
framework that includes land transport, network operations, asset-
management, and smart transport choices.

2. Providing a Supportive Regulatory Environment

A supportive regulatory environment, a meticulous enforcement policy, an

open market approach (including for standards development), managing
safety risks of new technology, and rapid development and deployment are
mandatory ITS features for superior public benefit. The Ministry of
Transport and the CAA proposed to draft aviation rules for implementing
NANP, and for operating remotely piloted aircraft systems. It is intended to
identify unnecessary barriers and redundancy and to eliminate them.
Legislation pertaining to advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS) and
semiautonomous vehicles is to be reviewed. In addition, to mandate
electronic stability control, the Ministry of Transport, and the NZ Transport
Agency, will develop a road vehicle standards map and land transport rules
and regulations. The transport agencies of New Zealand will review the
relevance of international standards to the local conditions to ensure
compatibility and interoperability with existing systems. Radio spectrum
allocation for ITS applications is also under the purview of the Ministry of
Business, Innovation, and Employment. The Ministry of Transport
endeavors to contribute to international ITS standard development
processes.
 Role of State and Regulatory Bodies 305

3. Funding and Procuring Infrastructure or Services

Elements such as transport and navigation infrastructure, Global Navigation

Satellite System (GNSS) coverage and three-dimensional digital mapping,
facilitating, or piloting technologies are crucial for ITS deployment in New
Zealand and should be provided by the government. The NZ Transport
Agency and the Ministry of Transport and Police will formulate a
comprehensive action plan to review ITS technologies and their operations.
As the major investor in land-based ITS, the NZ Transport Agency proposes
to publish planning and investment signals to inform suppliers about its
vision for the delivery of ITS infrastructure and services. Land Information
New Zealand (LINZ) will scout for investments in a national real-time
positioning service to support ITS applications. In conjunction with the
CAA, the LINZ and the Ministry of Transport will review and analyze the
costs and benefits of providing a national real-time positioning service that
could improve reliability, safety, and security. In consultation and
coordination with the road controlling authorities, the NZ Transport Agency
and LINZ will develop a business case for a coordinated and authenticated
national land transport network dataset. This could include a centrally
managed road speed limit map for New Zealand. Also, the LINZ, the
Ministry of Transport, and Maritime New Zealand propose to amend the
Maritime Rules, as per the International Maritime Organization
requirements. Border Security agencies plan to introduce the next
generation of Smart Gate technology to streamline commuter movements.
The Ministry for Primary Industries will conduct trials of improved
biosecurity systems for passengers and cargo.

4. Efficient Communication about ITS

The government plays the crucial role of information disseminator and

influencer; the government can influence various agencies to assist in
deploying ITS, and various other stakeholders to endorse the use of ITS.
The transport agencies of New Zealand will facilitate the sharing of
resources, management of information, and planning of investment. The
working group, established by the Leadership Forum, will oversee the
collection, communication, availability, and protection of information. The
NZ Transport Agency, supported by Maritime New Zealand, will set up a
Data Security Centre of Expertise.

Given the role of the government in the establishment of ITS, developing a

strategic vision for ITS in New Zealand becomes crucial to set clear
priorities for policy-framing and investments. ITS technologies are planned
306 Chapter 4.4

for commercial viability, and driven by consumer demand. The government

plays the role of regulator, owner, operator, enforcement agency, and is a
beneficiary of the multi-modal system.

Summary
The government plays a major role in creating a supportive regulatory
environment, facilitating effective coordination between authorities, and
establishing proper mechanisms for developing and deploying ITS. The
government, transport agencies, and other stakeholders should work in
collaboration, with the unified goal of implementing efficient ITS systems.
New Zealand managed to successfully create such an environment, and the
many benefits of the ITS systems are, hence, achieved.

References
Intelligent Transport Systems Technology Action Plan 2014-18. 2014.
Ministry of Transport, Government of New Zealand. Retrieved from
newzealand.govt.nz
NZ Transport Agency Position Statement on Intelligent Transport Systems.
2014. Wellington: NZ Transport Agency (NZTA).
 Role of State and Regulatory Bodies 307

Exhibit 4.4.1: The Government’s Long-term Goal and the Contribution of

ITS

Source: Intelligent Transport Systems Technology Action Plan 2014–18

(2014)
308 Chapter 4.4
Exhibit 4.4.2 Role of New Zealand Transport Agency in ITS Development

Investment Planning and Regulator Facilitator Influencer Follower

lead investment (reactive)
partner
Main provider Invests in ITS- Sets standards Steps in Proactively Stays informed
of the related and governance proactively influences of progress and
investment assets to mechanisms to to facilitate sector developments—
needed make their hold the sector sector practice and reacts to market.
to make the benefits to account for alignment. Has behavior to
benefits a reality. Not compliance no deliver
of intelligent the formal the best possible
transport lead investor governance mix and benefits
systems a authority, but of ITS
reality. May informally
choose adopts
to invest the leadership
directly, role to deliver
or indirectly the best possible
with or mix and benefits
through others. of ITS
technologies.

Source: NZ Transport Agency Position Statement on Intelligent Transport Systems (2014)

 CHAPTER 4.5

PUBLIC-PRIVATE PARTNERSHIPS IN ITS

“Ahmedabad’s Janmarg chosen by the UN as a showcase project to

demonstrate that addressing climate change is not a burden but an
opportunity to improve people’s lives.” (Goswami 2012)

Introduction
About two third of the nation’s GDP is generated in Indian cities; they are
the engines of economic activity. With economic success and a poor public
transportation system, there has been a steep rise in the use of private
vehicles. This has resulted in severe congestions, deteriorating air quality,
accidents, and other mobility-related issues. Several agencies are involved
in planning and managing urban transport in India; however, they lack the
proper coordination and collaboration, at several fronts, to improve public
transit. If left unchecked, the impacts of these problems could be
aggravated. Therefore, several cities are proactively working towards
mitigating mobility issues.

Transport System in Ahmedabad

Ahmedabad is a walled city on the eastern banks of river Sabarmati, the
commercial capital, and the largest metropolis in the state of Gujarat. It has
an area of 466 sq km and a strong industrial base, which attracts large
investments. It also has one of the largest informal sectors. It is a compact
city with mixed land uses, high density development, and a balanced street
network system. It is projected that the urban area will increase up to 1,000
sq km, by 2035, and this growth can only be sustained by developing an
efficient rapid mass transit system. The traffic on the streets of Ahmedabad
is dominated by the two-wheelers, both motorized and bicycles. The total
road length is about 2,400 km. To connect the eastern part to the western
part of the city, there are seven bridges across the river Sabarmati. All buses
and auto rickshaws in the city are operated on CNG (compressed natural
gas), which is relatively less polluting. There is a steady increase in the share
of cars, which often leads the city into a grid lock. To achieve the goal of a
310 Chapter 4.5

sustainable city and good quality of life, continuous efforts are being made
to improve public transport, promote non-motorized vehicles and introduce
demand management measures (National Institute of Urban Affairs 2011).

Reason for BRTS Adoption

During the year 2005, Gujarat’s Department of Urban Development
undertook various initiatives to address issues like traffic management and
enhancement of the city transport system. Therefore, the Gujarat Infrastructure
Development Board (GIDB), Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation (AMC), and
Ahmedabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA) jointly drafted a
comprehensive urban mobility plan, which included the implementation of
a bus rapid transit system (BRTS). During the same time, the Government
of India (GOI) announced the flagship mission, called the Jawaharlal Nehru
National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM), for urban development. The
AMC had, then, submitted the proposal for a BRTS to the GOI, which was
the first of its kind in the country. On approval, the BRTS project was
designed and developed in a phased manner. The urban mobility plan
provides various mobility choices to the people, such as the Ahmedabad
Municipal Transport Services (AMTS), BRTS, and informal transport
(auto-rickshaws), which complement each other.

Goals of the Project

Ahmedabad captioned its vision “Accessible Ahmedabad.” It was to
redesign the city structure and transport systems towards greater
accessibility, safety, affordability, efficient mobility, and a lower carbon
future. Main objectives of the project were as follows:

1. Reducing the need for travel

2. Reducing the length of travel
3. Reducing automobile dependence

The main concept of the project was to ensure that more people use the
public transit system. The focus was on moving people and not on moving
vehicles. The concept of BRTS is about equal access and equal sharing of
road space for people. A dedicated corridor is provided for the BRTS
vehicles, which can carry a greater number of people to the destination in
less time compared to single occupancy vehicles such as cars, two-wheelers,
etc.
 Public-private Partnerships in ITS 311

Project Description
Janmarg-BRTS Ahmedabad is a fast, reliable, secure, high-capacity service,
which has its own identity. The system has been in operation since 2009.
The project consisted of developing 217 km of routes and was undertaken
in three phases. A network of 90 km was planned under Phase I and II of
the BRTS; subsequent phases consisted of complex corridors. About 1.13
lakh passengers are carried daily by a fleet of 118 buses. Stations are
provided on the median that are accessible through signalized zebra
crossings. All BRTS stations are provided with ticketing, display, audio
systems, and other support infrastructure. Extensive use of intelligent
transport management system applications, such as automatic vehicle
tracking system (GPS/GPRS-based), electronic fare collection, traffic signal
management, real-time passenger information, and area traffic control
systems (ATCS), provide useful data for effective monitoring, operations
and maintaining the service quality of the BRTS. All of the above stated
services are managed by Ahmedabad Janmarg Limited (AJL)—a special
purpose vehicle (SPV). The BRTS project opted for a total of nine PPP
agreements to ensure its smooth development and efficient operation. The
gross cost model has been implemented for bus procurement and
operational maintenance, with the rate per kilometer retained by the
operator. Exhibit 4.5.1 shows the image of the BRTS network in
Ahmedabad.

Expected Outcomes of the Project

1. Origin-destination connectivity: The BRTS network connects
important transit points like railway stations, bus terminals,
residential areas, commercial hubs, and recreational public spaces.
The objective is to provide accessibility and better mobility to all
parts of the city. The aim was to connect the busy public destinations
and not the busy roads.
2. Catalyst for area development: The corridor passes through many
vacant mill lands on the eastern part of the city; these lands had scope
for future development. When the transformation of urban space
began, the BRTS acted as a catalyst for future development.
3. Low income and low accessibility zones: The corridor provides
connectivity to the low-income group (LIG) housing areas and
increases accessibility for the lower- and middle-income groups.
4. Availability of right of way (RoW): The availability of RoW and
ease of implementation takes utmost priority in the BRTS. The
312 Chapter 4.5

different RoWs available on the Ahmedabad BRTS roads are 60 m,

45 m, 40 m, 36 m, 30m, 24 m and 18 m.

Highlights of the Project

There are many salient features of the project. First, it is a closed BRTS,
with median bus stations. It has specially designed buses with right-hand-
side doors, and uniform heights of the bus floor and bus station platform.
There has been a complete revamp of the RoW to include cycle tracks and
pedestrian facilities. A commercial speed of 25 kmph enabled faster
commuting. There was a system of off-board fare collection. Several
innovations in the planning and designing of the system were made by
Janmarg, which included a fully “pedestrian and transit” only street section
at one location and a one-way bus lane to manage a narrow RoW. Janmarg
also has some special features, ranging from buses with GPS-enabled
facilities with two-way voice communication, a passenger information
system, e-ticketing, and extensive application of the ITS, that make it a cut
above the rest. The bus stations are equipped with the latest technology and
there are low floor buses with large central doors on both sides, making it
accessible to people with special needs (Narendra Modi 2012).

Stakeholders of the Project

An SPV was established, known as AJL. It was established under the
Companies’ Act, 1956, and is chaired by the municipal commissioner. A
dedicated urban transport fund was set up and a parking policy is now also
in place. The main roles played by AJL are the planning of services,
selection of operators, monitoring of service quality, fare revisions,
coordination with relevant departments, and the future BRTS expansion.
CEPT University was assigned the work of preparing a detailed project
report (DPR) for the implementation of the project. AJL signed a total of
nine PPP arrangements to ensure efficient operations of the BRTS. The PPP
responsibility matrix is given in Exhibit 4.5.2; it shows nine different
components and the aspects related to them. The aspects are design/station,
operations, maintenance, management, and construction/supply. The gross
cost model has been implemented for bus procurement and operational
maintenance. The gross cost contract (GCC) route is considered as a better
alternative because the ownership rights remain jointly with the government
and private player, and the operation is controlled by the government. Urban
local bodies (ULBs) preferred GCC, where the ULBs paid the bus operator
 Public-private Partnerships in ITS 313

on a per-kilometer basis and, hence, ULBs assume the revenue risk and get
a better service quality. The nine PPP arrangements are

1. Bus Procurement, Operations and Maintenance.

2. Integrated Information System, including Automatic Ticketing and
Vehicle Tracking System.
3. Supply and Service Contracts for Bus Station Sliding Doors,
Turnstiles.
4. House Keeping and Cleaning of Bus Stations.
5. Management of Pay and Park facilities.
6. Lease of Advertisement Rights.
7. Development of Foot Over Bridges on DBFOT.
8. Development and Maintenance of Landscape.
9. Maintenance Contracts for Bus Stations (Civil Works), Lighting of
Bus Stations and Corridors, Signage.

Janmarg has various departments with specific roles and responsibilities.

All of these departments are placed under three main divisions, i.e.,
operation, maintenance, and finance/administration. The operations division
ensures reliable, safe, and affordable transportation services to the people.
It manages the operational control center (OCC), with a huge manpower.
The planning department is the heart of the system; it focuses on demand
management, conducts passenger surveys, and compiles and analyzes
demand data on all modes in the city. The maintenance division is
responsible for the maintenance of the vehicles and the facilities of Janmarg.
The administration and finance division is responsible for making all
payments based on the information it receives from the operations
management cell, employment, employee services, testing, training the
workforce, contracts, and marketing and advertising of Janmarg services. It
is also responsible for revenue and general accounting, smart cards and fare
mechanisms, organization budget, grants, and financial reports.

Benefits of the Project

Ridership increased by 28 % between 2011 and 2012. The speed increased
to 24 kmph during peak hours. All the buses recovered an operating cost up
to 95 %. The earning per kilometer operated is Rs. 40. Reliability
increased—83 % of buses arrive on time, and punctuality and customer
satisfaction improved with the use of the BRTS network. There were only
three to four minor accidents in Ahmedabad involving BRTS buses during
the two-year operation. The BRTS network effectively reduced carbon
314 Chapter 4.5

dioxide emissions by 15 %. It also succeeded in keeping the trip length short

by distributing the traffic. The air quality has remained under permissible
norms along the BRTS corridor, despite the increase in the number of
vehicles. This was due to the change in the composition of vehicles. From
a social perspective, there has been an increase in the ridership of women.
Overall, the Janmarg BRTS is known nationwide for its success (Best
Practices in Urban Transport September, 2013).

Budgetary Implications
The project has been sanctioned in two phases, under the JnNURM project.
About 35 % of the funds came from the central government, under
JnNURM, and 15 % was shared by the state government. The remaining 50
% was borne by the local body. The first phase of construction of the BRTS
cost Rs. 49,332 Lakhs. The second phase cost Rs. 48,813 Lakhs. The major
revenue is from fare box. Advertisement rights on BRTS stations and
corridor, the urban transportation fund (which includes advertisement
hoarding revenue across the BRTS corridor and a premium of FSI collected
across the BRTS corridor), and pay and park facilities are non-fare-box
revenue sources. The total operations and maintenance (O&M) cost in
2011–2012 was Rs. 5.13 crore (Best Practices in Urban Transport
September, 2013). Exhibit 4.5.3 tabulates the project cost, O&M cost, and
sources of revenue.

Awards of Excellence
The project has received national and international recognition for its
successful implementation of a BRTS network. In 2009, it got the Best Mass
Transit Award, given by the MoUD. In 2010, the Janmarg BRTS was given
the 2010 Sustainable Transport Award, at the Annual TRB (Transportation
Research Board) conference, in Washington, for visionary achievements in
sustainable transportation and urban livability. It was also awarded the
Daring Ambition Award, in 2011, by the UITP and ITF. The MoUD
awarded the best ITS project to the Ahmedabad BRTS network, in 2011.
The BRTS project in Ahmedabad was also awarded the Momentum for
Change, 2012, by the UN, at Doha, Qatar. It was also recently awarded the
UITP India Political Commitment Award and Design Award for BRTS, in
2013, in Geneva. The HUDCO Award for best practices to improve the
living environment was given in February 2014, in New Delhi. It was also
one of the finalists for the Public Transport Strategy Award (UITP Award),
conducted in Milan, Italy, in June 2015.
 Public-private Partnerships in ITS 315

Project Replication
There has been a considerable shift of passengers from other travel modes
to BRTS. The statistics show that nearly 23 % of the two-wheelers, about 3
% of the car owners, and more than 25 % of the auto rickshaw users have
switched to BRTS (Institute of Urban Transport [India] 2013). After the
success of the Janmarg BRTS network in Ahmedabad, Indore started its trial
operations, in May 2013, for a pilot corridor of 11.5 km. Indore was inspired
by the design of bus stations and junctions used by Janmarg. Surat, Pune,
and Pimpri Chinchwad also used the Janmarg model of median bus lanes
with median stations. Hubli-Dharwad, Vadodara, and Bhubaneshwar are
also at various stages in planning, designing, and executing BRTS.

Summary
Providing quick, comfortable, and affordable transport to the people of
Ahmedabad, the city’s BRTS is a wonderful case study of innovative
transformation of urban transport; Janmarg was created by adopting best
practices from the world. Partnerships between the communities, and public
and private sectors have been a critical part of the Ahmedabad BRTS
project. The Ahmedabad BRTS is a PPP-based project. The public sector is
represented by an SPV, i.e., AJL, which runs and operates BRTS buses for
the citizens of Ahmedabad. The reason for the success of the Ahmedabad
BRTS is mainly due to its good institutional structure. It maximizes the
quality of service, public benefits from public sector investments, and
opportunities for private investment to cash in on private sector enterprise.
It also minimizes the cost of service. Moreover, the software (regulatory
structure, management and business model) and hardware (infrastructure
and rolling stock) used for the project makes it successful and sustainable.
Janmarg has demonstrated the success of BRTS in India as a backbone of
urban public transportation.

References
Goswami, Urmi. 2012. The Economic Times. November 26, 2012. Accessed
on June 17, 2017.
http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/industry/transportation/shipping-
/-transport/un-climate-change-negotiations-2012-ahmedabads-bus-
rapid-transit-system-to-be-showcased-by-united-
nations/articleshow/17221928.cms.
316 Chapter 4.5

Institute of Urban Transport (India). 2013. “Best Practices in Urban

Transport.” (September): 101.
Narendra Modi. 2012. Accessed June 17, 2017.
http://www.narendramodi.in/ahmedabads-brts-chosen-as-lighthouse-
project-as-part-of-uns-momentun-for-change-initiative-4890.
National Institute of Urban Affairs. 2011. “Urban Transport Initiatives in
India - Best Practices in PPP.” (March): 185.

Exhibit 4.5.1: BRTS network in Ahmedabad.

Source: Narendra Modi (2012)

 Public-private Partnerships in ITS 317

Exhibit 4.5.2: The PPP Responsibility Matrix

Source: National Institute of Urban Affairs (2011)

318 Chapter 4.5

Exhibit 4.5.3: Budget Details: Ahmedabad BRTS

Project Details
Project Phase Date of Sanction Cost in Rs Lakhs
Stretch1 of first phase
construction of a stretch of 11th August 2006 8,760
network 12 km in length
Stretch2 of first phase
construction of a stretch of 6th October 2006 40,572
network 46 km in length
BRTS Phase 2 19th August 2008 48,818
Construction of a network 300
19th August 2008 48,818
km in length
Total Rs. 98,145 Lakh
Cost of Infrastructure
Figures (Rs in
Expenditure Percentage (%)
crore)
Cost to central government 343.7 35
Cost to state government 147.3 15
Cost to city (AMC) 491 50
Total 982 100
Revenue by SPV
Monthly (Rs in
Expenditure Percentage (%)
crore)
Passes/tickets 2.71 89
Others (advertisements/royalty) 0.32 11
Total 3.03 100
Operation and Maintenance Cost (as in 2011–2012)
Expenditure Rs in crore Percentage (%)
Total O&M cost of
3.64 71
infrastructure/buses
Staff cost 1.08 21
Material cost including software
0.38 7
and maintenance cost
Other costs, including passenger
0.03 1
tax
Total 5.13 100
Source: Based on research data (Institute for Urban Transport [India]
2013)
 CHAPTER 4.6

SYSTEM SECURITY AND PRIVACY

Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) enhance ease of mobility, overall

comfort, user safety, and system efficiency by integrating sensing techniques,
control mechanisms, data analysis, and communication technologies into
travel infrastructure and transportation modes. Government and other
private sector players enhance the reliability of the public transport system
by the continuous introduction of new technologies and wide-scale research
and development in ITS. The introduction of this range of novel technologies
and increasing connectivity has exposed various privacy, safety, and security
of data considerations in ITS. Any compromise in data-handling processes
can have adverse impacts. Considering such potential harm, it is critical to
have effective security mechanisms in place to resolve and eliminate system
vulnerabilities that ITS systems and subsystems may face.

Challenges
Many of the challenges of ITS security are similar to those of the internet
of things (IoT) and Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs); there are
additional challenges concerning transport operations. These challenges are

1. Heterogeneity: The presence of numerous technologies and

components with unique functionalities and purposes makes ITS
heterogenous systems. Absence of uniform standards and designs
further complicates achieving a cohesive and synergetic system.
2. Scalability: The security solutions of ITS must provide seamless
compatibility, even on very large ITS deployments; any distribution
method or intrusion detection system must be reasonably effective.
Furthermore, as technology evolves, security solutions should
effectively adapt to the changes without requiring major alterations.
3. Complexity: ITS are similar in characteristics to a complex adaptive
system (CAS); component systems work in collaboration to produce
a desired output, which may not be possible with their independent
efforts. Analysis and control of such synergies is often complicated
320 Chapter 4.6

and intractable. (Mitchell 2009). Furthermore, much like the IoT, the
interaction of sensors and computational units is not managed
through a central system, but, rather, through a distributed network
architecture, which also increases the complexity of such systems.
4. Cost and Resource Constraints: ITS projects are cost intensive; they
are often implemented in phases. Partial implementation, covering a
limited area in the urban space, impedes the efficiency and
realization of the full potential of the ITS capability; safety and
security can also be compromised. Developers face challenges in
justifying investments for subsequent phases as realized benefits are
nominal.
5. Delay Sensitivity: ITS services need to be responsive to real-time
incidents; therefore, fast computation of large amounts of data is
essential. If technological resources are limited, then there may be
exposure to safety and security threats. Behzadan (2017) discusses
the real-time limitations of the autonomous vehicle, where myopic
decision-making leads to transfer of vehicle control to an adversary
by short-term evasive maneuvers. ITS security and privacy issues are
tabulated in Table 4.6.1.

ITS SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES

SECURITY AND
SECURITY FEATURES SECURITY AND
PRIVACY
REQUIRED PRIVACY ATTACKS
CHALLENGE
Node capture Trust
Confidentiality of user data Sybil attacks establishment
Availability of services to Wormhole attacks Identity privacy /
the authorized user always Malicious scripts user identity
Access control Replay attacks verification
Authentication and Spoofing attacks Behavioral privacy
identification Malicious code injection Location privacy
Integrity of ITS system to attack, ITS vehicles
avoid tampering of Denial of service (DoS) authentication
information False data injection ITS data privacy
Nonrepudiation to ensure Phishing attacks Scalability
communicating entities are Sinkhole attacks Latency in service
unable to refute the prior Cryptanalysis and side Computation and
conversation. injection communication
Dynamic security Interference and cost
eavesdropping

Table 4.6.1: ITS Security and Privacy Issues

Source: Author’s compilation
 System Security and Privacy 321

Intelligent transport system stations (ITS-S) with wireless communication

systems are a new and rapidly developing area of study aimed at reducing
traffic accidents, congestion, and inefficiency. ITS-S comprise vehicles,
roadside units (RSUs), and servers. An on-board unit (OBU) is mounted in
each of the ITS-S (vehicles). The OBUs enable the ITS-S (vehicles) to
communicate with other ITS-S (vehicles or RSUs).

According to the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, the

communication architecture of ITS-S is composed of a facilities layer,
networking and transport layer, and access layer. The ITS-S’ reference
architecture is presented in Figure 4.6.1. The overall structure, in particular
the facilities layer, is similar to that of the US architecture and adopted in
the EU standard (ETSI) from the US standard (SAE); however, ETSI TC
ITS architecture includes more functionality at the network layer to support
additional communication scenarios, such as multi-hop forwarding. The
three layers of ETSI TC ITS are vulnerable to various attacks. The access
layer is responsible for exchanging messages. It is vulnerable to the
following attacks: i) node capture attacks, ii) malicious code injection
attacks, iii) false data injection attacks, iv) replay attacks, v) cryptanalysis,
and vi) side channel attacks and interference and eavesdropping. The
networking and transport layer transmits data between ITS-S (vehicles or
RSUs). The security threat to this layer can be severe, due to the wireless
nature of ITS. Attacks specific to this layer are i) denial of service (DoS)
attacks, ii) spoofing attacks, iii) sinkhole attacks, iv) wormhole attacks, v)
man in the middle attacks (MIMA), and vi) sybil attacks. The third layer is
the facilities layer, which is responsible for providing users the requested
services. The threats on this layer include i) phishing attacks, ii) malicious
virus/worms, and iii) malicious script. Denial-of-service attacks can occur
in a variety of ITS technologies or functional surfaces, whereas eavesdropping
attacks may occur only in communication networks.
322 Chapter 4.6

Figure 4.6.1: ETSI TC ITS Architecture

Source: ETSI (2010)
 System Security and Privacy 323

Various entities are involved in the ITS environment. The drivers, or the
users, i.e., OBUs, are important stakeholders, and commuter safety is the
system priority. The functioning of OBUs and roadside units (RSUs) can be
classified as providing intended or malicious services. Third-party entities,
like the transportation regulatory agencies and the vehicle manufacturers,
usually ensure the security certificate management. The attackers in ITS can
be classified as follows:

1. Active and passive: Active or internal attackers are authorized to

operate within the network and distribute malicious contents to other
parts of the network to damage and alter the functionality. Passive or
external attackers spy on communications between different nodes
to gather sensitive information that can be manipulated or misused.
2. Malicious and rational: Malicious attackers usually have no specific
target and strive to damage the entire network. They are usually
adaptive, based on system configuration and set parameters. Rational
attackers target a location and produce a higher level of threat as they
are unpredictable.

Classification of Security and Privacy Issues

The security issues can be classified in the following categories:

1. Confidentiality: Maintaining confidentiality in ITS often proves

challenging due to the presence of a wide variety of equipment,
ranging from smart phones and smart vehicles to simple IoT devices
with minimal computational abilities. Confidentiality makes vehicle
identities and data completely anonymous; it allows ITS components
to transfer data and establish a secure communication with each other
over an unsecured channel while preventing disclosure of exchanged
information to the third parties and possible antagonists. For
example, smart vehicles may relay proximity information with each
other while travelling in a lane to ensure a safe distance from each
other. Confidentiality is essential for V2X technology to prevent a
range of passive and active attacks on the sensitive information in
V2X communications. Encryption serves as an effective cryptographic
solution to ensure confidentiality.
2. Integrity: To ensure effective functionality of ITS it is imperative to
maintain integrity across messages and computations between
different on-board units and roadside units. The manipulation and
tampering of data by a malicious user can alter the functionality of
key safety features. In attacks like masquerading, the vehicle deploys
324 Chapter 4.6

a valid network identifier to pose as an emergency vehicle and create

disturbance in the traffic flow. GPS spoofing is another attack on the
integrity of data where the attacker transmits false GPS data to force
the traveler to diverge from their preferred route. In attacks like data
playback, the malicious vehicle rebroadcasts obsolete messages
from the archive to create false vehicle positions on the network.
However, work in sensor fusion has been shown to offset incorrect
information from corrupting computations beyond acceptable
bounds (Jo, Chu and Sunwoo 2012). These techniques are now
widely used in ITS.
3. Availability: Denial-of-service is a common attack on the availability
of ITS services and its components. To maintain the safety of the
travelers, ITS devices and servers must continuously communicate.
The attack on the availability of the services poses high threats
because most of the ITS components and services are required to
function in real-time. Information exchanged should be processed
and made available in real-time, demanding the use of low overhead
and light cryptographic methods. The attack distorts the
communication and increases interference by transmitting noise
signals on the physical channels, rendering services unavailable.
Signature-based authentication and proof-of-work have emerged as
a successful countermeasure against denial-of-service attacks.
4. Authentication and identification: It is essential to ensure proper
identification of the user accessing and communicating with the ITS
services and components. It can be divided into three sub-
requirements: i) user authentication to ensure the user is legitimate
and registered, ii) source authentication to verify that messages were
broadcasted by authorized ITS stations, and iii) location
authentication to guarantee the accuracy and relevance of the data
received. Attacks, such as falsified entities and cryptographic
replication attacks, compromise vehicle authentication and
authorization. Falsified entities attack the user and take their network
identity to broadcast bogus messages. Cryptographic replication
generates uncertainty at the receiver’s end during the verification
process; the attacker constructs fake sensor certificates and keys.
Authentication and identification are usually ensured by message
authentication codes (MACs) or challenge response protocols, but
both of these solutions require computational overhead to the system
process. The excessive strain may compromise the real-time
efficiency or infringe the resource limits of these devices. To
enhance the privacy of the vehicular ad hoc network (VANET),
 System Security and Privacy 325

pseudonym-based privacy schemes are now preferred in place of

vehicle identifiers. While processing safety messages within ITS, the
pseudonym-based privacy schemes lead to computational overhead
as the pseudonym must first be verified by a trusted authority.
5. Non-repudiation: A non-repudiation feature is mostly significant in
the case of VANETs and V2V communication, where non-
repudiation ensures that the members of the communicating systems
cannot deny any malicious action or previous communication. Most
non-repudiation activities use the help of a third party to confirm the
real-world identity of pseudonyms widely employed in VANETs.
User privacy is another crucial aspect of ITS. Article 12 of 1948
United Nations (UN) human rights universal statement says that:
“No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy,
family, home, or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and
reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against
such interference or attacks.” Privacy issues can be categorized:
• Privacy of identity (identity privacy): It refers to the privacy of
all the details that act as an individual’s identity in the real world.
It includes first and last name, government identification
numbers, personal vehicle registration number, house address,
phone number, identification cards, etc. Pseudonym-based
privacy schemes have shown to provide promising results in
tackling this issue, especially in VANET systems. In this, a
pseudo identity is used to establish a link with the vehicle rather
than using the authentic real-world identity of the user. This
process has its own challenges; recent research has shown that
there is still a possibility to track specific vehicles that use basic
pseudonyms. Privacy-enhancing attribute-based credentials
allow users to get authenticated so that users are not linkable
between authentication events and reveal only the attributes that
are relevant to the verifier. (Behzadan and Munir 2017).
However, attribute-based credentials have high resource
requirements and necessitate the creation of shared
secrets/attributes for all desired services. In short, there is a trade-
off between preserving privacy of ITS participants and providing
the security service of non-repudiation, which is needed to
correctly identify users of the system in cases of vehicular
accidents and/or crimes. (Hahn, Munir and Behzadan 2021)
• Privacy of behavioral pattern (behavioral privacy): It refers to the
privacy of such data that can help a malicious user make
inference about user habits and behaviors based on the pattern of
326 Chapter 4.6

their actions in the ITS. ITS collect data, with respect to

movement patterns of the individual, which can be analyzed to
retrieve the behavioral profile of the user; the system can, then,
provide customized services. For example, based on user origin-
destination data and travel-pattern data, collected over a period
of time, the attacker can predict the individual’s locations and the
amount of time they spend there. To ensure behavioral privacy,
a system must be able to anonymize, and safeguard acquired user
data from disclosure, as well as hide typical ITS user behavioral
patterns.
• Privacy of location (location privacy): Location data possesses a
crucial significance in providing the efficient functionality of
many ITS services. Most of the ITS services use GPS-based
navigation systems, which always provide accurate user
information that can put user security at risk. Location cloaking
techniques are used to alter the user location by providing a
generalized area of user presence rather than pinpointing the
exact location.
 System Security and Privacy 327
Table 4.6.2 illustrates the various security attacks, their classification, countermeasures, advantages, and dis-advantages.
SECURITY
APPROACH/
ATTACK TYPE CLASSIFICATION ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
COUNTERMEASURE
EXAMPLES
Eavesdropping, Passive Confidentiality Encryption (Symmetric Low computation Key distribution
data interception key cryptography) overhead challenges
Encryption (Asymmetric Symmetric key High computation
key cryptography) distribution overhead
Steganography Secure High computation
information overhead
sharing
Masquerading, Active Integrity Message authentication Verification of Additional
data playback, data codes message contents computation overhead
alteration
Sybil, malware, Active Authentication Message authentication Verification of Challenge-response
spamming, black codes sender verification time
hole, grey hole, requirement
sink hole, worm Challenge-response Verification of Computation overhead
hole, falsified protocols sender
entity,
cryptographic
replication
Worm hole Active Non-repudiation Digital signatures Link message to Difficult in
sender pseudonymous
systems
328 Chapter 4.6
Denial of service Active Availability Signature-based Avoids Requires additional
(DoS), timing authentication unnecessary infrastructure and
attack, Pseudo-random signature rekeying scheme
Jamming, flooding frequency hopping computations
Sybil, malware, Proof-of-work Prevents false Additional
spamming, black message flooding computation overhead
hole, grey hole,
sink hole, worm
hole
GPS spoofing / Active Identity privacy Pseudonym Disguise true Vulnerable to pattern
position faking, identity analysis
variants of DoS Attribute-based Restrict access to Require shared secrets
(greedy, black credentials information based for all desired services
hole, grey hole, on shared secrets
sink hole, worm Behavioral privacy Differential privacy Limit privacy True user-level
hole, malware, exposure privacy of single data
masquerading records still
spamming, challenging
tunnelling) Public-key cryptography Integrable with Computationally
hardware intensive
Location privacy Location cloaking Personalized Requires additional
privacy infrastructure

Table 4.6.2: Security Attacks, Classification, Counter Measures, and Advantages

Source: Compiled from various literature and Hahn et al. (2021)
 System Security and Privacy 329

Security and Privacy Measures in ITS

ITS systems are always vulnerable to privacy attacks and data breach;
effective measures need to be deployed to rapidly identify the breach and
ensure minimal, or no, loss of privacy of the users. It is essential to consider
ITS privacy issues in the design of ITS, like using low overhead and
cryptographic algorithms to transfer data within the latency requirements.
Modern automobiles should have secure electronic control units (ECU)
architecture. Solutions like public key cryptography are used for secure
generation of security keys. Hardware-based security approaches, such as
physically unclonable functions (PUFs), can be used to create secret keys
on-the-fly, instead of keeping them in non-volatile memory, to minimize the
corruption of secret key storage. Resource constraints create multiple
security and maintenance issues. Sehgal et al. (2012) have explored the
requirements of IP-based network management protocols for use in resource
constrained devices. Finally, integration of security primitives in hardware
architecture can also help in meeting security requirements of devices with
limited resources, while adhering to the real-time requirements of ITS
agents (Poudel and Munir 2018). Privacy-preserving computing has
emerged as a viable option for maintaining data privacy while computing
on the vast quantities of data collected in ITS. Adaptive security frameworks
can dynamically modify security settings at run time, based on service and
application requirements, without compromising with the security and
achieving the required quality of service. Hardware security modules
(HSM) or trusted platform modules (TPM) are also being proposed and
tested to establish secure V2X communications. Along with various system
security measures, legislations in terms of data governance and minimum-
security standards for ITS components are required to be formulated.

References
Ali, Q. E., N. Ahmad, A. H. Malik, G. Ali and W. ur Rehman. 2018. “Issues,
Challenges, and Research Opportunities in Intelligent Transport
Systems for Security and Privacy.” Applied Sciences (Switzerland) 8
(10): 1–24. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8101964.
Behzadan, V. 2017. Cyber-physical Attacks on UAS Networks—Challenges
and Open Research Problems. ArXiv Preprint, arXiv:1702.01251.
Behzadan, V., and A. Munir. 2017. “Vulnerability of Deep Reinforcement
Learning to Policy Induction Attacks.” Proc. Int. Conf. Machine
Learning and Data Mining.
330 Chapter 4.6

ETSI. 2013. “EN 302 663 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS); Access
Layer Specification in the 5 GHz Frequency Band.” Etsi 1: 1–24.
ETSI. 2010. “EN 302 665 Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS);
Communications Architecture.” Etsi 1: 1–44.
Hahn, D., A. Munir and V. Behzadan. 2021. “Security and Privacy Issues
in Intelligent Transportation Systems: Classification and Challenges.”
IEEE Intelligent Transportation Systems Magazine 13 (1): 181–96.
https://doi.org/10.1109/MITS.2019.2898973.
Jo, K., K. Chu and M. Sunwoo. 2012. “Interacting Multiple Model Filter-
based Sensor Fusion of GPS with In-vehicle Sensors for Real-time
Vehicle Positioning.” IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst. 13 (1): 329–43.
Mitchell, M. 2009. Complexity: A Guided Tour. London: Oxford Univ.
Press.
Poudel, B., and A. Munir. 2018. “Design and Evaluation of a
Reconfigurable ECU Architecture for Secure and Dependable
Automotive CPS.” Proc. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure
Computing.
Sehgal, A., V. Perelman, S. Kuryla and J. Schonwalder. 2012.
“Management of Resource Constrained Devices in the Internet of
Things.” IEEE Commun. Mag. 50 (12): 144–49.
 CHAPTER 4.7

PROSPECTS OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

INFRASTRUCTURE

Introduction
The transport sector contributes to more than 25 % of the energy-related
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. It is also the prime source of air
pollutants, contributing to seven million premature deaths, annually, around
the globe. Over the years, there has been a growing preference for the
adoption of electric vehicles (EV) to support decarbonization goals in the
mobility sector and achieve the targets laid by the Paris Agreement. As per
the Global EV Outlook Report 2020, of the International Energy Agency
(IEA), between the years 2011 and 2019, the global EV sales grew at a rate
of 40 %, annually, while the sales of EVs reached 2.1 million, globally, in
the year 2019. Ambitious long-term policies, including zero-emission
vehicles, mandate fuel economy standards, along with direct subsidization,
have accelerated the uptake of EVs.

EVs were first introduced in the nineteenth century, as a preferred energy

source for vehicles, but, with the introduction of the internal combustion
(IC) engine, the use of EVs decreased. There are three main categories of
EVs: i) battery electric vehicles (BEVs), which have a rechargeable battery
as the only means of energy generation, ii) plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(PHEVs), which recharge through plugging into an external power source
and regenerative braking, and iii) hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which
can operate both on an IC engine, through conventional fuel, as well as
through electric charging.

Implementation of electric mobility requires building a comprehensive

ecosystem between the transport and power sectors, which were otherwise
independent. The ecosystem requires an environment of trust and
collaboration between the key stakeholders: i) the government is responsible
for formulating the guiding policies and regulations, ii) OEMs and suppliers
are responsible for the design and manufacture of vehicles, iii) DISCOMS
are responsible for electricity generation, transmission and distribution, iv)
332 Chapter 4.7

city-level bodies support the setting up of charging infrastructure by energy

operators / charging solution providers, and, finally, v) end consumers. Cities
around the globe take various initiatives, to accelerate the pace of EV adoption,
along with supportive policies. A few of the key global initiatives are

1. The Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI), launched in 2010, under the

Clean Energy Ministerial (CEM)
2. EV 100, launched in 2017
3. C40—Fossil Fuel Free Streets Declaration, 2017
4. Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI), 2009
5. TUMI E-Bus Mission, 2019

In 2018, the Global EV Pilot City Program was launched, at the Ninth Clean
Energy Ministerial, which aimed to build a network of one hundred cities,
to promote electric mobility, over the next five years. The EVI Global EV
Pilot City Program is jointly managed by The IEA and the Shanghai
International Automobile City (SIAC). Table 4.7.1 presents a list of cities
in the EVI Global EV Pilot City Program.

COUNTRY CITIES
Calgary, Halifax Regional Municipality, Montréal,
Canada
Stratford, Surrey, Richmond, Winnipeg, York
Chile Santiago de Chile
China Beijing, Rugao, Shanghai, Shenzhen, Yancheng
Columbia Medellín
Finland Helsinki, Espoo, Oulu, Tampere, Vantaa
Germany Offenbach am Main
India Pune
Japan Aichi, Kanagawa, Kyoto, Tokyo
Amsterdam, the Hague, Rotterdam, Utrecht and
Netherlands
Metropolitan Region Amsterdam
New Zealand Christchurch, Hauraki
Norway Oslo
Sweden Stockholm
Thailand Betong, Nonthaburi
United
Coventry, Dundee, London
Kingdom
United states New York City

Table 4.7.1: List of Cities in the EVI Global EV Pilot City Program
Source: Author’s compilation
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 333

Electric Mobility in India

The Indian transportation industry emits an estimated 142 million tons of
carbon dioxide per year, with the road transport segment, alone, accounting
for 123 million tons. Before the onset of COVID-19, India expected to have
an annual demand of ten million passenger vehicles, 2.7 million commercial
vehicles, and thirty-four million two-wheelers, making it the third largest
vehicle market in the world. As the nation largely depends on oil import to
meet its energy needs, the increase in vehicle demand will also increase the
financial burden, making the need for a fast-paced EV adoption more
crucial. India’s EV market is estimated to grow to nearly US$206 billion
(INR 1,442,200 crore) by 2030, with investments of over US $180 billion
(INR 1,250,000 crore) needed for vehicle production and charging
infrastructure to meet the country’s EV ambitions. (Pratap Singh, Chawla
and Jain 2020)

Policymakers and government agencies have been actively involved in

increasing the market share of EVs, which currently represent 1 % of the
overall market. To achieve its commitment to the Paris Climate Agreement,
India is pushing to transition to e-mobility. India is a member of the
EV30@30 Campaign, a Clean Energy Ministerial initiative that aims for the
sales share of EVs to reach 30 % by 2030. As per the database of the Society
of Indian Automobile Manufacturers (SIAM), India recorded domestic sales
of 21.5 million vehicles, in FY20, compared to 26.2 million, a year earlier.
The two-wheeler EV segment dominates the sales of EV in India,
comprising 0.9 % of all two-wheeler sales in 2019. In contrast, electric four-
wheeler sales remained around 0.1 % of all four-wheeler sales. The main
reasons for low electric four-wheeler sales are lack of choices, insufficient
charging infrastructure, high prices, and low range and performance of the
batteries.

A smooth transition to e-mobility requires consistent revision of strategic

policies and private-sector participation to support market development,
infrastructure deployment, and a sustainable financing model. The
Government of India has a range of policy initiatives, both at the central and
state level, to support the EV ecosystem in India. The implementation of the
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles
(FAME) schemes (I and II), capping of EV tariff for charging infrastructure,
reducing the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on EVs to 5 %, and an income
tax exemption of up to INR 150,000 on interest payments for EV loans are
a few government EV initiatives. This policy initiative is broadly focused
on two categories: i) demand side, which targets the end users and
334 Chapter 4.7

consumers by reducing the upfront cost of EV adoption, and ii) supply side,
which provides incentives to EV manufactures and OEMs.

In 2015, the Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric

Vehicles (FAME- I) scheme was launched, with a total demand incentive
of about INR 970 crore ($130 M). FAME II, with a total outlay of INR
10,000 crore ($1.4 B), was launched in 2019, and is extended until March
2024. The two-wheeler and three-wheeler segments account for 50 % of the
overall subsidy expenditure and 96 % of the total number of vehicles
targeted under the FAME-II plan. In January 2020, under the FAME II
scheme, the Department of Heavy Industries sanctioned a total of 2,636
charging stations (1,633 fast charger and 1,003 slow charging stations)
across sixty-two cities, as presented in Table 4.7.2.

India is expected to reach 30 % EV sales penetration by 2030, due to the

existing policy, as stated by the Global EV Outlook 2020. As of January
2021, seventeen states in India have either drafted or notified state EV
policies, as presented in Figure 4.7.1.
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 335

E2- E3- E4- HYBRID-4- E- CHARGING

WHEELERS WHEELERS WHEELERS WHEELERS BUSES INFRASTRUCTURE

Number 1,000,000 500,000 35,000 20,000 7,090 2,700 charging

of stations
vehicles
Incentive 20,000 50,000 150,000 13,000 5,000,000
per
vehicle
(INR)
Total 2,000 2,500 525 26 3,545 1,000
incentive
(INR Cr)
Demand Rs. 15,000 Rs. 10,000 Rs. 20,000 per
incentives per kWh; per kWh; kWh; Maximum
Maximum Maximum cap on
cap on cap on Incentives of
incentives of incentives of 40 % of total
20 % of total 20 % of total cost of vehicles
cost of cost of
vehicles vehicles

Table 4.7.2: FAME II Incentives—Investment Rollout Plan (FY20 to FY22)

Source: Department of Heavy Industries
336 Chapter 4.7

Figure 4.7.1: EV Sales Penetration Trend (2020–2030)

Source: NITI Aayog (2019)
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 337
YEAR
STATUS STATE NOTIFIED KEY TARGETS
/DRAFTED
Incentives for first one hundred fast chargers
INR 310 billion investment
KARNATAKA 2017
55,000 jobs created
Tariff rates of INR 4.85/kWh for EV charging
INR 250 billion investment
MAHARASHTRA 2018 1 lakh jobs created
Increase EV registration to 5 lakhs
INR 300 billion Investment
60,000 jobs created
100 % electrification of bus fleet
ANDHRA 10 lakh EV deployment by 2024
2018
NOTIFIED PRADESH Tariff rates of INR 6.95/kWh for EV charging
1 lakh slow and fast charging infrastructure by 2040
Government vehicles, including corporations, boards and government
ambulances, to be electric by 2040.
KERALA 2019 1 million EV by 2022
1,000 e-buses to be deployed by 2030
70 % public transport to be electrified
50,000 new jobs
UTTAR PRADESH 2019 100 % electrification of autorickshaws, cabs, school buses/vans, etc., in
five cities: GB Nagar, Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi and Ghaziabad by 2030
200,000 slow and fast charging infrastructures
25 % capital subsidy for first one hundred charging stations
338 Chapter 4.7

100 % waiver on vehicle registration fees across all vehicle categories

during policy period and 100 % road tax exemption for electric two-
wheelers and 75 % for other EVs for first 100,000 buyers
20 % subsidy to institutes providing training on EV and battery repair,
maintenance
INR 500 billion investment
150,000 jobs created
100 % refund of State GST (SGST) for EVs made and sold in Tamil Nadu
until 2030
TAMIL NADU 2019
Capital subsidy of 15 % and 20 % for investments in EV manufacturing
and battery production, respectively, until 2025
15 % subsidy on the cost of land for EV or parts production project in the
state’s industrial parks
25 % of all new vehicle registration to be electric
Registration fees exemption for 22,500 EV two-wheelers or total EV two-
wheelers in five years
100 % waiver in parking charges at all Urban Local Body run parking
MADHYA
2019 stations for five years
PRADESH
1 % motor vehicle tax for first 15,000 EVs/total EV two-wheelers in five
years, whichever less
Exemption of vehicle registration fees for 7,500 shared e-rickshaw / total
e-rickshaws in five years, whichever less
Providing term loan to in the range of Rs.100 million to Rs.500 million to
MSMEs interested in EV manufacturing
UTTARAKHAND 2019
Developing green highways in Dehradun, Haridwar, Rishikesh, Halwani,
Rudrapur and Kashipur
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 339

100 % exemption of permit for commercial vehicles for first 100,000

vehicles
100 % exemption on Motor vehicle tax for first 100,000 buyers
INR 290 billion investment
120,000 new job creation
TELANGANA 2020
100 % electrification of bus services operating in intracity
intercity and interstate by Telangana State Transport Corporation
25 % of all new vehicle registration to be electric by 2030
Electrification of 50 % of the public transport by 2023
Incentive of Rs. 5,000/kWh of battery capacity / vehicle, maximum up to
Rs. 30,000/vehicle
All new home/workplace to have 20 % EV holding capacity (with
DELHI 2020
supporting infrastructure)
100 % grant for purchase of charging equipment for first 30,000 charging
points
100 % of net SGST accrued to Government shall be provided as
reimbursement to the energy operators
ASSAM 2018
BIHAR 2019
GUJARAT 2019
DRAFTED
PUNJAB 2019
GOA 2020
HARYANA 2020

Table 4.7.3: Status of E-Vehicle’s Adoption in the Indian States

Source: NITI Ayog (2019)
340 Chapter 4.7

Each state EV policy has a different set of objectives and targets, though the
priorities of the policies are oriented towards public transport, paratransit,
and job generation. The validity period is also varied for different states; for
instance, the states of Tamil Nadu and Telangana have a duration of ten
years, while Delhi’s EV state policy has set a vision for only three years. To
overcome the consumer barrier of higher capex, lack of charging
infrastructure and limited range, the consumer is provided with various
purchase and operation incentives. Maharashtra and Kerala provide
subsidies based on the purchase cost of the vehicle, while states like Delhi
and Bihar use battery capacity to define the subsidy limit. Except Punjab,
all of the states provide tax exemption. The states of Delhi, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and
Punjab provide exemption to EVs from paying road taxes for a particular
period. Electric two-wheelers receive a subsidy of INR 5,000/kWh and an
additional INR 7,500/kWh for the first one lakh EVs registered in Delhi.
For scrapping and de-registering obsolete and extremely polluting two-
wheelers, Delhi provides a maximum incentive of INR 30,000 per vehicle.
Operational incentives are provided in the form of priority or permit fees,
parking incentives, and toll fee waivers. Punjab offers a 100 % exemption
on permit fees for all electric commercial vehicles, while Kerala and
Madhya Pradesh do not levy parking charges on EV. The government has
laid out reasonably progressive standards and guidelines on the charging
infrastructure, and has proposed the installation of a public charging station
at every 40–60 km span on the national highway and within a grid of 3 km
by 3 km in the city. For setting up EV manufacturing plants in six states,
OEMs are eligible for state GST refunds and capital interest subsidies,
ranging from 15 %, in Tamil Nadu, to 50%, in Punjab. Table 4.7.3 lists the
status of the adoption of EVs in the Indian States and Figure 4.7.2 illustrates
the EV value chain and ecosystem in India.
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 341

Figure 4.7.2: The EV Value Chain and Ecosystem in India

Source: Soman, Ganesan and Kaur (2019)
342 Chapter 4.7

The main challenges in the Indian context are presented in Table 4.7.4.

CATEGORIES CHALLENGES
Technical Limited range due to limited battery capacity,
Barriers performance and life
Lack of evidence on reliability and performance
due to disjointed or limited marketplace
Social Barriers Lack of knowledge of EVs
Lack of environmental awareness regarding EVs
Consumers’ limited understanding of the product
quality of EVs
Economic High capital expenditure
Barriers
Battery replacement cost
Higher electricity price for charging
Lack of credit access / financing options for EVs,
despite fiscal incentives like FAME II by
government
Infrastructure Lack of charging stations
Barriers
Lack of repair and maintenance workshops and
skilled manpower, both in private and public
sectors
Policy Barriers Absence of scrapping and recycling policies of EV
components
Lack of clarity in defining responsibility of
ownership between State Transport Undertaking
(STUs), vehicle manufacturers and private
operators
No domestic industry

Table 4.7.4: Challenges in the Adoption of EVs in India

Source: Author’s compilation
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 343

Overview of Smart Charging

At the beginning of 2019, 5.6 million EVs were sold, with China and US
having the largest market share with 2.6 million and 1.1 million EVs,
respectively. With increasing EV penetration, the burden on the power
sector is likely to increase. An unregulated EV-charging environment will
contribute to overloading, necessitating massive upgrades at the distribution
and transmission levels. A distinctive application of ITS in the e-mobility
ecosystem is providing energy efficiency by providing smart charging
solutions and battery management techniques like vehicle-to-grid (V2G),
vehicle-to-everything (V2X), off-grid charging, etc. Smart charging
solutions can make EVs a decentralized electric storage system, capable of
supporting the grid during peak hours; this could also reduce the
requirement of massive investments to upgrade the power sector. Table
4.7.5 presents some details of smart charging projects.

The current concept of smart charging solutions is based on the following:

1. Uncontrolled time-of-use tariffs: encourages user to avoid charging

during peak hours.
2. Unidirectional Controlled Charging (V1G): where vehicles or
charging infrastructure adjust their rate of charging. It helps in better
management of the grid.
3. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G): the vehicle is connected to the smart grid,
which controls vehicle charging. V2G solution enables a bidirectional
flow where it returns electricity from the EV battery to the grid
during the time of high demand and charging during off peak times.
It provides a high level of flexibility in terms of power storage
capacity to manage peak demand on a large scale.
4. Vehicle-to-Home/-Building (V2H/B): vehicles act as supplementary
power suppliers to buildings/homes during emergencies. It can
reduce the demand on grid capacity.
344 Chapter 4.7

Type of charging Examples of projects

Uncontrolled China, Germany, Japan, UK, US
time-of-use tariffs
Basic control My Electric Avenue, Scottish and Southern Energy
Power Distribution and led by EA Technology, UK
(100 households testing Esprit system)
Pepco, Maryland, US (200 households)
United Energy—Victoria, Australia (2013)
Unidirectional Green eMotion project, EU (2015): reduction of grid
controlled (V1G) reinforcement cost by 50 %
Sacramento Municipal Utility, US: reduction of grid
upgrade expense by over 70 %
Bidirectional eVgo and University of Delaware project, US, with
vehicle-to-grid transmission system operator PJM Interconnection—
(V2G) commercial operation
Nuvve, Nissan and Enel, in England and Wales, with
transmission system operator National Grid—
operating pre-commercially
Nuvve, DTU, Nissan, PSA and Enel project in
Denmark, with transmission system operator
energinet.dk (“Parker project”) —operating trial
Nuvve, The New Motion, Mitsubishi project in the
Netherlands, with transmission system operator
TenneT—commercial trial
Jeju, Republic of Korea project developing fast and
slow V2G; Toyota city project with 3,100 EVs
Renault, Elaad NL and Lombo Xnet project, Utrecht,
the Netherlands, AC V2G
ELBE project, Hamburg
Bidirectional ElaadNL and Renault, Utrecht, the Netherlands: 1,000
vehicle-to-X (e.g., public solar-powered smart charging stations with
V2H) battery storage around the region in the largest smart
charging demonstration to date, although not all of
them are V2X chargers. Increase of self-consumption
from 49 % to 62 %–87 % and decrease of peak by 27
%–67 %.
DENSO and Toyota intelligent V2H (HEMS and
V2G integrated model), Nissan (V2B)—all Japan

Table 4.7.5: Smart Charging Systems

Source: International Renewable Energy Agency [IRENA] (2019)
 Prospects of Advanced Technology Infrastructure 345

References
Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Government of India, Ministry of Power. “E-
Mobility.” https://beeindia.gov.in/content/e-mobility.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2019. Electric-Vehicle
Smart Charging Innovation Landscape Brief. Retrieved from
www.irena.org.
International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). 2019. Innovation
Landscape Brief: Electric-vehicle Smart Charging. Abu Dhabi:
International Renewable Energy Agency.
NITI Aayog. 2019. India’s Electric Mobility Transformation: Progree to
date and future opportunities. 56. Retrieved from
http://niti.gov.in/writereaddata/files/document_publication/NITI-RMI-
Report.pdf.
Pratap Singh, V., K. Chawla and S. Jain. 2020. “Financing India’s
Transition to Electric Vehicles.” CEEW Centre for Energy Finance,
(December). Retrieved from https://cef.ceew.in/solutions-factory/
publications/financing-india-transition-to-electric-vehicles.
Soman, A., K. Ganesan and H. Kaur. 2019. “India’s Electric Vehicle
Transition: Impact on Auto Industry and Building the EV Ecosystem.”
Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW) (October).
 CHAPTER 4.8

EMERGING TRENDS

MaaS: Mobility as a Service

With widespread access to digital technologies and the advancements of
ICT, the world of transport and mobility is evolving at an unprecedented
pace. Cities are struggling to keep up with the expansion of their
transportation networks as the world continues to urbanize. Urban mobility,
today, faces high levels of traffic congestion, environmental pollution,
increased fatality rates, and inequity. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is an
innovative concept that has the potential to dramatically enhance consumer
options, cut travel costs, expand network capacity, and transport
sustainability while also mitigating negative social and environmental
effects. The concept of MaaS was first publicly presented in the Tenth ITS
European Congress, organized by a non-profit organization known as ITS
Finland, in June 2014. The, then, CEO of ITS Finland, Sampo Hietanen,
who later became the founder of MaaS Global, is credited for the
introduction of the concept of MaaS. Providing an integrated and a seamless
door-to-door mobility solution is regarded as one of the key functionalities
in the futuristic vision of the transport sector. Users access a range of various
transport modes through MaaS platforms, which cover the individual's
mobility demands.

MaaS is a user-centric mobility distribution model that integrates different

modes of transport and provides a single, digital interface for the planning,
booking, and payment for an entire journey. Considering the wide scope and
functionality of MaaS, there are multiple definitions of MaaS. Kamargianni
and Matyas (2017) and MaaSLab (2018) describe MaaS as “a user-centric,
intelligent mobility management and distribution system, in which an
integrator brings together offerings of multiple mobility service providers
and provides end-users access to them through a digital interface, allowing
them to seamlessly plan and pay for mobility.” Most of the definitions used
to describe MaaS are from the perspective of market players and academic
institutions. Users may access a range of various transport modes through
MaaS platforms, which cover the individual's mobility demands.
 Emerging Trends 347

Some commonly used definitions of MaaS, as described by prominent

market players, are listed.

1. Cubic: MaaS is a combination of public and private transportation

services, within a given regional environment, that provides holistic,
optimal, and people-centered travel options to enable end-to-end
journeys paid for by the user as a single charge and aims to achieve
key public equity objectives.
2. The European Metropolitan Transport Authorities (EMTA): With
MaaS, customers fulfil and manage all their mobility needs on
demand, based on their general preferences and journey-specific
needs. The service is based on the seamless integration of all
different public and commercial modes of transport and is delivered
via a digital interface. The service must enable multi-modal travel
possibilities and, thus, allow for the planning and booking of multi-
modal journeys, supporting on-the-go payments as well as
modifying the planned journey. MaaS also generates insights into
demand, needs, and travel behavior for cities and authorities,
allowing for more targeted and effective services.
3. MaaS Global: MaaS brings all means of travel together. It combines
options from different transport providers into a single mobile
service, eliminating the hassles of planning and one-off payments.
MaaS is a simple, environmentally sound alternative to private
vehicle ownership. It works out the best option for every journey—
whether that’s a taxi, public transport, a car service, or a bike share.
4. MaaS Alliance: MaaS is the integration of various forms of transport
services into a single mobility service, accessible on demand. To
meet a customer’s request, a MaaS operator facilitates a diverse
menu of transport options, be it public transport, ride, car or bike
sharing, taxi, or car rental/lease, or a combination thereof.
5. UITP: MaaS is the integration of, and access to, different transport
services (such as public transport, ride-sharing, car sharing, bike
sharing, scooter sharing, taxi, car rental, ride-hailing and so on) in
one single digital mobility offer, with active mobility and an efficient
public transport system as its basis. This bespoke service
recommends the most appropriate solution, based on the user’s travel
needs. MaaS is available anytime and offers integrated planning,
booking and payment, as well as en-route information to provide
easy mobility, eliminating the need for a private vehicle.
6. iMove Australia: “MaaS is a framework for delivering a portfolio of
multi-modal mobility services that places the user at the center of the
offer. MaaS frameworks are ideally designed to achieve sustainable
348 Chapter 4.8

policy goals and objectives. MaaS is an integrated transport service

brokered by an integrator through a digital platform. A digital
platform provides information, booking, ticketing, payment (as
PAYG and/or subscription plans), and feedback that improves the
travel experience. The MaaS framework can operate at any spatial
scale (i.e., urban, or regional, or global) and cover any combination
of multi-modal and non-transport-related multiservice offerings,
including the private car and parking, whether subsidized, or not, by
the public sector. MaaS is not simply a digital version of a travel
planner, nor a flexible transport service (such as Mobility on
Demand), nor a single shared transport offering (such as car sharing).
‘Emerging MaaS’ best describes MaaS offered on a niche
foundation. This relates to situations where MaaS is offered on a
limited spatial scale, to a limited segment of society or focused on
limited modes of transport. The MaaS framework becomes
mainstream when the usage by travelers dominates a spatial scale
and the framework encompasses most of the modes of transport.”

Sochor et al. (2017) proposed a topology where MaaS is classified into five
levels (level 0 to level 4), based on the level of integration. A MaaS
schematic is presented in Figure 4.8.1.

1. Level 0 represents no integration. It refers to independent operations

of all modes. Different modes of transportation have their own
services and each service can be accessed by their respective portal,
site, or app to make payment and booking.
2. Level 1 represents integration of information. At this level, the user
is provided with information regarding the schedule of the transport
service, frequency, route, and other relevant data required to plan a
journey. Providers of level 1 MaaS are not responsible for the quality
of service during the journey. E.g., Google Route Search and
NAVITIME.
3. Level 2 represents integration of booking and payment. At MaaS
level 2, the user can plan, book, and pay for their journey. The level
2 operator is responsible for providing one unified mobility service
with accurate travel information and schedule details, valid tickets,
booking, and purchase of the ticket. A level 2 MaaS operator might
not be directly responsible for the actual travel services but strives
for user satisfaction with the intermediary service. E.g., Moovel
(Germany), myCicero (Italy), Tuup (Finland), NaviGoGo(Scotland),
iDPASS (France), smile (Austria).
 Emerging Trends 349

4. Level 3 represents integration of all levels of mobility services. At

level 3, MaaS does not cater to an individual journey from point A
to B but it provides a customized solution for “n” number of journeys
taken over a particular duration. The MaaS operator provides
different services (including public transport, bike sharing, car
sharing, taxi, DRT, valet service, self-drive vehicles, etc.) bundled
as a subscription. The subscription is in addition to the Pay-As You-
Go basis and can be weekly, monthly, quarterly, or yearly, with
various discounts and incentives. Level 3 MaaS provides an
alternative to a private vehicle. E.g., SHIFT(USA), UbiGo (Sweden),
Whim (Finland), ZIPSTER (Singapore), YUMUV (Switzerland), the
Sydney MaaS trial (Australia).
5. Level 4 represents integration of societal goals and mobility services.
Level 4 MaaS is not yet implemented in the real world. Level 4 MaaS
extends beyond the demand and supply of mobility solutions and
provides incentives to influence user-travel behavior and mobility
patterns across a region. A level 4 MaaS operator provides economic
incentives for choosing environmentally sustainable modes of
transport, and changing travel times to off-peak hours, etc.
350 Chapter 4.8

Figure 4.8.1: A MaaS Schematic

Source: CITIESFORUM
 Emerging Trends 351

Levels 1 to 3 optimize mobility services, while level 4 optimizes social

services as well. MaaS deployment is dependent on the socioeconomics and
sociodemographic conditions of the region as well as other factors such as
ICT infrastructure, urban geography, trip pattern, and coverage of the public
transit system. The value proposition and expectations from the MaaS
ecosystem varies among different stakeholders. With the introduction of
new mobility services and user-demands, to have a customized, door-to-
door, on-demand service, the MaaS ecosystem has become a dynamic and
constantly evolving paradigm. Figure 4.8.2 presents the MaaS topologies:
with and without bundling.
352 Chapter 4.8

Figure 4.8.2: MaaS Topologies: With and Without Bundling

Source: Hensher et al. (2021)

The key characteristics of a MaaS ecosystem are

1. User Centricity: Current transport designs are customer-focused, or

service focused. The MaaS ecosystem provides a user-centric
approach that focuses on public value enhancement.
 Emerging Trends 353

2. Flexibility: The MaaS ecosystem provides users with a wide and

flexible range of services, as per user requirements. The integration
of multi-modal transport allows users to choose and integrate the
most convenient travel modes for a particular commute. Further, the
user is provided with flexible payment options and the freedom to
choose between Pay-As-You-Go or subscription-based products.
3. Convenience and Accessibility: MaaS provides convenience to the
user in terms of providing physical and digital access to the transport
services in the region. It has the potential to improve physical and
financial accessibility to various transport modes, for all classes of
the society. Further, the MaaS ecosystem modifies the frequency of
mobility, service-quality, overall transport network coverage and
accurate travel information to the user.
4. Data Sharing and Information Availability: An active MaaS
ecosystem requires a huge amount of data from different sources to
provide a better quality of service. Presence of relevant, accurate,
and useful transport insights on the mobility patterns of users help
make better mobility policy decisions. There are concerns for data
security and safety, which need to be addressed to ensure user
acceptance of MaaS.
5. Integration: Apart from multi-modal integration, MaaS provides a
single system for planning, booking, and payment for a journey,
making it an effective future mobility solution.
6. City Mobility Management: The MaaS ecosystem can significantly
help demand and supply management of city transport services and
infrastructure. MaaS assists in effective implementation of
congestion and emission pricing and subsidies, structuring data-
driven polices and multi-modal optimization to promote societal
goals. With the advent of MaaS level 4, public agencies will become
capable of influencing commuter behavior, even in a multi-modal
setting; thus, helping to achieve societal goals such as lowering
transportation climate impacts, controlling congestion, and
extending equal access to mobility.

The features discussed, above, are realized through the following

functionalities of a MaaS Platform:

1. Information and Service Availability

MaaS platforms provide both static and dynamic information to the users.
Static data refers to the pre-planned route and schedule of public transport,
presence of multi-modal hubs, and interchange stations, etc., while dynamic
354 Chapter 4.8

data refers to real-time availability of seats in public transport, service

delays, availability of shared vehicle or on-demand mobility, surge pricing
schemes, real-time traffic information, etc. This provides users all the
necessary details required to seamlessly plan a journey. This information is
provided by different mobility providers operating in the MaaS ecosystem
via various application programming interfaces (APIs)1. A brief discussion
is presented in Table 4.8.1.

Mode of transportation Information

General data regardless of
Third-party information about services
mode of
with locations
transportation
Location, vehicle information (type,
Car/bike/scooter sharing engine, fuel/charge state), station details,
availability, price schemes
Routes, trips, stops, arrival and departure
Public transport times, service intervals, real-time
incidents and delays, tickets
Locations, vehicle and driver info, price
Ride sharing
schemes
Locations, vehicle and driver info, price
Ride hailing
schemes
Locations, hours, available vehicles,
Car/bike/scooter renting
additional info (e.g., pricing, insurance)
Locations, vehicle and driver info, pick-
Taxis
up and arrival times, price schemes
Demand-Responsive Locations, vehicle and driver info, pick-
Transport (DRT) up and arrival time, price schemes
Car and parking lot location, capacity,
Parking and charging
availability, price schemes

Table 4.8.1: Information and Service Availability in the MaaS Platform

Source: Fluidtime (2018)

2. Routing and Planning

A MaaS platform provides multi-modal options and alternative routes that

can be taken for a particular trip. MaaS platforms use data from external

1 An API (Application Programming Interface) is a software intermediary that makes

it possible for application programs to interact with each other and share data.
 Emerging Trends 355

routing providers to approximate travel-time and fares for a specific mode

of transport; a brief note is presented in Table 4.8.2.

Mode of transportation Information

General data regardless of Third-party info—weather, traffic,
mode of transportation etc., comprised in route results
Car/bike/scooter sharing Third-party info—weather, traffic,
etc., comprised in route results
Public transport Routing information (routing and
monitor service), trips, stops
Ride sharing Pick-up and arrival times
Ride hailing Pick-up and arrival times
Car/bike/scooter renting Routing based on these transport
modalities
Taxis Pick-up and arrival times
Demand-Responsive Transport Vehicle, driver and pick-up point are
(DRT) route-specific
Parking and charging Lot location is considered for routing,
i.e., walk to the car park

Table 4.8.2: Routing Data by Transport Services Integrated in a MaaS

Platform
Source: Fluidtime (2018)

3. Booking, Ticketing and Payment

A MaaS platform facilitates booking and payment for different mobility

services through a single interface. Bookings are made using standardized
APIs. These are tabulated in Table 4.8.3.

Mode of transportation Information

General data regardless of Third-party information about
mode of transportation services with locations
Car/bike/scooter sharing Booking, cancellation, access service,
tariff scheme, pricing
Public transport Booking/ticketing (reservation and
cancellation), tariff schemes, lists of
provided tickets
Ride sharing Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme,
pricing, booking info
356 Chapter 4.8

Ride hailing Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme,

pricing, booking info
Car/bike/scooter renting Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme,
pricing, booking info
Taxis Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme,
pricing, booking info
Demand-Responsive Booking, cancellation, tariff scheme,
Transport (DRT) pricing info
Parking and charging Booking, cancellation, tariff schemes,
pricing
Table 4.8.3: Booking Processes and Data in the MaaS Platform
Source: Fluidtime (2018)

4. Reporting

The logging and reporting framework of a MaaS platform allows data

processing and in-depth analysis to make useful inferences. These
inferences can be used by investors, public authorities, and transport
operators to streamline the service delivery to enhance user experience.

Global MaaS Initiatives

The first real-world implementation of MaaS was in Europe, in 2016, as
“Whim.” The European Commission focuses on compatibility, interoperability,
and continuity in the ITS policy. For more than a decade, the European
Commission has promoted ITS and multi-modal travel planners across the
EU, which is one of the main reasons behind the rapid advancement of
MaaS in the region. Development of relevant policies and physical
infrastructure, supported by strong political will, has laid the groundwork
for rapid MaaS adoption.

To date, there are more than one hundred MaaS service providers in Europe,
the UK, the US, China, and Japan. Now, there are more than forty cities in
Europe that have existing or pilot MaaS platforms. The Worldwide MaaS
service providers and their key aspects are presented in Table 4.8.4.
 Emerging Trends 357
Name of the Type of mobility Governance
Place Status Modes
initiative integration model
moovel Hamburg and Operational (2015–) Car sharing, taxi, Level 2 (partial, Private-led
Stuttgart, urban PT, regional PT. payment integration)
Germany
myCicero Italy Operational (2015–) Urban PT, regional Level 2 (partial, Private-led
PT, international PT, payment integration)
parking, permit for
urban congestion
charging zones.
NaviGoGo Dundee and Operational (2017–) Car sharing, taxi, Level 2 (partial, Private-led
Northeast Fife urban PT, regional PT. payment integration)
region,
Scotland, UK
iDPASS France Operational (2017–) Car renting, taxi, valet Level 2 (partial, Private-led
parking. payment integration)
Tuup Turku region, Operational (2016–) Car sharing, bike Level 2 (partial, Private-led
Finland sharing, taxi, urban payment integration,
PT, DRT. ticketing integration to
come in 2018)
Hannovermobil Hannover, Operational (2014–) Car sharing, taxi, Level 2 Public Private
Germany urban PT, regional PT. Partnership
EMMA (TaM) Montpellier, Operational (2014–) Bike sharing, car Level 2 Public Private
France sharing, urban PT, Partnership
parking.
358 Chapter 4.8
Smile Vienna, Austria Pilot (2014–2015) Bike sharing, car Level 2 Public-led
sharing, taxi, urban PT,
regional PT, parking.
WienMobil Vienna, Austria Operational (2017–) Bike sharing, car Level 2 Public-led
Lab sharing, taxi, urban PT,
parking.
SHIFT Las Vegas, (2013–2015) Bike sharing, car Level 3 Private-led
USA sharing, taxi, collective
DRT, valet parking.
UbiGo Gothenburg, Pilot (2013–2014), Bike sharing, car Level 3 Public-led
Sweden version 2.0 in sharing, car renting,
preparation taxi, urban PT.
Whim Helsinki, Operational (2016–) Bike sharing (car Level 3 Private-led
Finland sharing to come), car
renting, taxi, urban PT,
regional PT.
YUMUV Switzerland Operational (2020–) Bike sharing, car Level 3 Public Private
sharing, car renting, Partnership
taxi,
urban PT, regional PT.
ZIPSTER Singapore Operational (2019–) Bike sharing, car Level 3 Public Private
sharing, car renting, Partnership
taxi, urban PT,
regional PT.

Table 4.8.4: Worldwide MaaS Service Providers

Source: Author’s compilation
 Emerging Trends 359

Whim—Helsinki (Finland)
MaaS global was the first commercial start-up to develop a MaaS
subscription service, known as Whim. The service was launched in late
2016, followed by a full commercial launch in November 2017. The
application integrates public transport, taxis, car rental, car sharing and bike
rental, and allows users to combine, plan, and pay for different modes as per
their convenience. The app provides three service tiers: Whim to Go, Whim
Urban and Whim Unlimited, which are presented in Table 4.8.5.

WHIM TO WHIM
Tier WHIM URBAN
GO UNLIMITED
€49 per month
Subscription
€0 (€99 for extended €499 per month
Fee:
Helsinki Region)
• No • Unlimited
• Unlimited
monthly free number of
number of public
• Pay as you public transport
transport tickets
go tickets
• All taxi trips
• Public • Unlimited
within 5 km
Transport number of taxi
radius for max 10
tickets, taxi rides within 5 km
Benefits €
rides, radius
• Fixed 49 € daily
and rental • Unlimited rental
rental car fee
cars car use
• Unlimited city
can be all • Free to use city
bike trips up to
bought bikes for
30 minutes at a
from Whim 30 minutes at a
time
App time

Table 4.8.5: Whim Subscription Packages

Source: Ertico (2017)

A dense public transport network is a key enabler of MaaS, which was

observed in Helsinki, where 95 % of the Whim user trips were made using
public transport and 68 % of the total trips took place in areas with the
highest public transport access. The use of taxis in the MaaS ecosystem was
2.4 times higher than the Helsinki average.

In 2007, the Ministry of Transport and Communications (LVM) initiated

extensive reforms to the passenger transport legislation. The Finnish
Ministry of Transportation established a long-term strategy (TRANSPORT
360 Chapter 4.8

2030), in 2007, for transport in Finland, which was upgraded in the

following years. In Finland, communications and transport are governed by
the same ministry, which enables the Finnish government to make structural
links between transport and ICT. A key success factor of Whim was due to
the legislation passed by the Finnish Ministry of Transportation, which was
influenced by the liberalization of their telecommunications industry,
requiring public transportation to make their APIs and ticketing systems
available on vendor platforms. Phase one of the legislation was
implemented in July 2018, in which regulations related to road transports
have been unified, ensuring interoperability of data and information
systems; phase two was implemented in January 2019. Open access to
crucial data to all the interested stakeholders has been given, since January
2018. The Transport Code aims to create a level playing field for public and
private mobility operators. The code requires public and private mobility
providers to have an open application programming interface (API) so that
“all can be integrated into one seamless travel chain that can be paid by one
mobile system and all transport modes can be integrated into one holistic
system” (Ertico 2017). Finland has also initiated the development of a
national MaaS framework, which is to be embedded within the national
transport policy.

Hannover Mobility Shop—Hannover, Germany

Launched in 2016, the Hannover Mobility Shop is the first fully operational
MaaS service provided by a public transport operator. The service, run by
Üstra and the Greater Hannover Transport Association, offers a multi-modal
platform for the planning, booking and payment of trips integrating public
transport, taxi and car sharing. In 2019, the public transport company BVG,
in Berlin, launched the Jelbi app, developed by Trafi. It includes all the
public transport and shared mobility services in Berlin.

The Sydney MaaS Trial

The Australian National Centre for Research and Development of Transport
and Mobility, iMOVE, undertook a MaaS trial project in November 2019.
The trial was an iMOVE Cooperative Research Centre project that had
SkedGo as the MaaS app developer/operator. The Institute of Transport and
Logistics Studies (ITLS, The University of Sydney) was responsible for the
study, design, data collection and analysis, and overall project management.
The consortium included Insurance Australia Group (IAG), the mobility
broker who was responsible for procuring and offering MaaS products to
 Emerging Trends 361

the end users. The Sydney MaaS trial is the world’s first trial that aims to
achieve MaaS level 4 and provide quantitative evidence on MaaS bundle
uptake and induced changes in travel behavior due to MaaS. The objectives
of the trial, a timeline of which is presented in Figure 4.8.3, were as follows.

1. Identify suitable transport service combinations and the nature of

subscription plans desired by the MaaS user.
2. Understand user willingness-to-pay for MaaS and assess the impact
of designed mobility subscription bundles on user travel behavior.
3. Identify opportunity of commercialization based on first-hand user
experience of MaaS.
4. Structure documentation of the experience in designing, planning,
and undertaking a MaaS trial.

The trial ran for a duration of six months; Pay-As-You-Go service was only
available to the user in the initial two months through a specifically
customized app—Tripi. Users were then provided with a subscription
package for the remaining four months, in which a new mobility bundle was
made available each month. Each subscription package had built-in
incentives to discourage the usage of private vehicles and assessed the user
choice between using MaaS as a Pay-As-You-Go user or a monthly
subscriber. The trial also introduced two initiatives: GoGet, in January
2020, and the CO2 buster challenge, in March 2020, that provided financial
incentives for reducing the user’s carbon footprint and using alternatives to
their private car. The plans provided by the CRC consortium are provided
in Figure 4.8.4.
362 Chapter 4.8

Figure 4.8.3: Sydney Trial Timeline

Source: The Australian iMOVE Cooperative Research Center (CRC)
consortium
 Emerging Trends 363

Figure 4.8.4: Plans provided by the CRC Consortium

Source: The Australian iMOVE Cooperative Research Center (CRC)
consortium
364 Chapter 4.8

Notable findings from the trial are as follows (Hensher et al. 2021).

1. Most of the people that signed up for the trial were frequent users of
both public transport and private vehicles. This supports the notion
that multi-modal travelers are more interested in MaaS than others
and debunks the opinion that MaaS does not appeal to private vehicle
owners.
2. Although 82 % of the people that registered interest for the trial had
daily access to private vehicles, 17 % of the participants reported that
the trial changed their view of car ownership, and 82 % would have
purchased the trialed offerings, if they were actually available. This
indicates that the trialed service has the potential to reduce car
ownership; inducing travel behavior was limited.
3. The desire to make the transportation system more sustainable was
the main motivation for signing up for the trial, followed by a
curiosity about MaaS and its overall effects.
4. Many participants struggled to get accustomed to all the features of
the Tripi app. They appeared to value the support and feedback
functions more than the actual functions included in the trialed app,
such as the multi-modal travel planner and the mobility wallet. This
indicated that MaaS should include a set of subscription plans to
make it fully effective.
5. Those who have access to a large pool of customers are in a better
place to work with MaaS (as an intermediary facilitator).
6. Sustainable goals may not be achieved without adequate financial
incentives. It might be productive to provide a bundled subscription
plan, incorporating multi-modal services for different market
segments.
7. PAYG, by itself, is unlikely to make a difference in achieving
sustainable outcomes; it is bundle subscribers that decrease their car
usage and are more interested in continuing service usage than
PAYG subscribers.
8. Without a (monetary) incentive, travelers appear to see very little
value in MaaS compared to existing apps that are upgraded regularly
(such as Opal Connect, Apple Pay, Google Pay, and improved
technical platforms that facilitate payment in addition to searching
and planning). However, niche, it is difficult to make a MaaS product
scalable in the current context.
9. While a MaaS app (and, hence, technical actors) is important, it is
only one of the many factors that we need to structure a successful
MaaS program / product offer. Other key factors are customer
service, data analysis capability, marketing, sales, and billing.
 Emerging Trends 365

10. A breadth of different mobility service providers is fundamental, and

a good suite of bundle offers should be ensured.
11. An open-minded core team with complementary skills (business
development, research, app development) that is committed to
quality and open to piloting new ideas pragmatically is essential.
12. Building relationships and trust between mobility providers,
customers, digital platform developer and provider, the broker, and
regulators is possibly the most challenging part of the MaaS delivery
program. All seem to have different and, sometimes, conflicting
objectives.
13. The trial was too short to be able to test the business case and, hence,
there was no evidence of a sustainable business model without
subsidy. Commercial claims to date have not been proven.
Profitability is dependent on scalability, without which, MaaS is
unlikely to gain traction, unless it is driven by financial support from
the government or other non-mobility sources. The backbone of
MaaS is public transport, which is heavily subsided and, hence, a
profitable business model for MaaS requires cross-subsidization
and/or scalability to achieve a reasonable profit margin.
14. As with other studies, this trial has several limitations. The sample
was limited and not representative of the general population and was
confined to the Greater Sydney area.
15. The duration of the trial was impacted by COVID-19; however, post-
trial evaluation suggested growing interest in MaaS.
16. Subtle changes to either service design, target group, and/or context
were found to significantly alter the users’ perception and experience
with MaaS and this needs further research.

MaaS Ecosystem
Multiple players are involved in the creation of the MaaS ecosystem.
Building strong partnership, collaboration and trade-off among different
agencies is a relevant for MaaS development and operation. Consumers,
MaaS operators, and transit agencies evaluate multiple considerations
across travel market sectors to overcome the failures of conventional
transportation services. The stakeholders in the MaaS ecosystem are

1. MaaS user
2. MaaS operator
3. Data provider
4. Transport operator
366 Chapter 4.8

The interaction of the stakeholders within the MaaS ecosystem is illustrated

in Figure 4.8.5.

Figure 4.8.5: Interaction of Stakeholders within the MaaS Ecosystem

Source: CITIES FORUM
 Emerging Trends 367

MaaS Governance
Governance in MaaS is not as commonly discussed as technological and
transport solutions. It is essential to not only address the challenges of MaaS
but also quantify its direct and indirect impact on the overall transport
network and urban setting.

In MaaS, it is essential to safeguard the integrity of societal public value.

Though a collaborative approach is required for the constructive paradigm
shift, the role of government is the apex influencer to maximize public
value. An early collaboration with stakeholders and mobility market players
is critical to ascertain the specific roles and responsibilities of the
government and private bodies.

An unregulated MaaS ecosystem, encompassing various mobility services,

may negatively impact the public transit system and create unorganized
service standards and congestion. Thus, it is essential to create a model
framework where the role of the government is evaluated depending on the
region. The government will have crucial regulatory responsibilities for
setting performance indicators for vendors and monitoring compliances.

The role of the government in the MaaS ecosystem should be based on

1. Trust and collaboration

2. Public value

3. Current condition of the transport system

and flexibility to change

The capacity of MaaS to integrate many services makes it unsuitable for

following one stringent governance model. The different services of MaaS
appeal to different sectors of the mobility market, due to which defining one
set of regulations will undermine the efficacy of the other. The concepts,
service provided, and the outcome expected are dependent on the various
368 Chapter 4.8

mobility markets. The regulations should also consider the value-chain

assessment of the current mobility system and future potential models.

Therefore, to select a lucid and effective governance model, each city and
region should consider the following aspects:

1. Market penetration and local transport scenario

2. Relationship between public and private sector
3. Customer orientation / usability
4. Integration of local mobility providers
5. Presence of open data policy
6. Threat of a private monopoly in the long term
7. Alignment with public policy goals
8. Neutrality of the model

The four possible scenarios of governance are

1. commercial / private integrator;

2. public transporter/ local authority as the integrator;
3. open back-end platform / open ecosystem;
4. coexistence.

Figure 4.8.6: MaaS Governance Models

Source: Cities Forum and UITP
 Emerging Trends 369

1. Scenario 1: Commercial / Private Integrator

In this scenario, MaaS services are developed and provided by mobility

service providers like Uber/Ola/Meru or a separate MaaS operator. These
commercial players have the potential to provide quality MaaS services as
they have a large customer base at their disposal. In such a model, the role
of the government is mainly the facilitation of the market by providing
access to relevant transport data and system logics (e.g., reservation and
ticketing). It is based on a marketplace-oriented agreement between the
MaaS provider and public transport.

Benefits: The model has a great potential to target different segments of the
market, eventually providing users better choices. It is customer-oriented
and encourages innovative solutions. A commercial integrator has
operations over large regions; thus, it also allows for high potential for
geographical scalability.

Challenge: The model leaves little room for justified treatment to the public
transport provider and ensuring social equity. There is a risk of MaaS failing
to prioritize societal goals when given a free and unregulated market to
private players; in this case, they may steer user interest towards services
with the highest margins. In the long run, there is the possibility of private
monopolization. Private integrators are likely to limit competition, control
sharing of data, and restrict access to public authorities, hampering the
overall service quality.

Regulations to overcome challenges: Regulatory policies should be based

on market dynamics and targeted sectorial development. Seamless data-
sharing among MaaS operators, mobility service providers, and the public
authorities should be ensured to assist interventions and enhancements in
transport services, traffic management, and mobility planning. An open data
policy law, applicable to both private and public transport providers, that
makes data sharing obligatory, should be imposed.

2. Scenario 2: Public Transporter / Local Authority as the Integrator

Governments have the highest stakes to develop and implement a successful

MaaS platform, if profitability is ensured. The MaaS platform can be
indigenously developed or it can be leased/licensed through a private
operator for a specific time period. In the urban areas, public transport
should remain the backbone of mobility, and other modals should be
complementary, for gaining greater acceptance. This model will ensure a
better end-mile connectivity.
370 Chapter 4.8

Benefits: Ownership lies with the public authority, and, hence, citizen
endorsement is likely to be high. Mobility service providers are likely to
trust the impartial and stable operating environment. The model will have
public values at the core, thus, ensuring social inclusivity and personal
privacy. MaaS will act as a tool to make informed decisions and implement
the city’s mobility policy with ease as authorities will have unrestricted
access to the mobility data.

Challenge: The biggest challenge is investment risks by the local

authorities, particularly in India. Publicly procured apps may have trouble
competing in the mobility marketplace with consumer software built by
private companies. Further, the public service providers are often less user-
centric, due to which the service offered might not be aligned to the
preferences of the customers who are not users of public transport. If due
consultations with private stakeholders are not taken while formulating
legal clauses, then it will make them create MaaS services without
integrating public transport. The model is less likely to unleash its full
potential due to challenges in providing inter-regional coverage and
scalability, as different regions fall under different jurisdictions.

Regulation to overcome the challenges: The jurisdiction issues among

authorities can be regulated by establishing a unified transport authority at
a state level. Different cities might have different MaaS initiatives with
different MaaS providers, thus, co-investment between the cities and private
players aiming to have an integrated MaaS solution should be focused on.
The private providers often do not allow price comparison in a third-party
app, thus, rendering the MaaS provider incapable of providing the full
extent of service. There should be an emphasis on sharing data and creating
public APIs of various commercial service providers that are available to
the MaaS provider API to compare, book and make payment for the selected
service.

3. Scenario 3: Open Back-End Platform / Open Ecosystem

While other MaaS frameworks focus on coherence of features, this model

provides an open ecosystem of MaaS implementation; its success is largely
dependent on interoperability. It demands a presence of open data standards
and open public APIs. An open back-end platform is setup by a public body,
in line with the rules of the authority. The platform serves as an open
infrastructure that facilitates different MaaS providers to build their own
MaaS solution. The public sector regulates and ensures non-bias standards
of data sharing. All the mobility service providers in the region are obligated
 Emerging Trends 371

to open their APIs so they can be integrated into the platform. Standards like
the general transit feed specification (GTFS) and general bikeshare feed
specification (GBFS) do not cover the process of booking and paying for a
trip; they require an app which is built on these standards and can make
booking and payment due to which this model has the potential to integrate
services from multiple providers.

Benefits: The open back-end platform model is the most scalable solution
in terms of services; it provides an opportunity to local and international
mobility service providers to operate and compete in the market to create a
larger customer base. The public sector enjoys more control and provides a
level playing ground for all the stakeholders. Since the infrastructure is
public, the private mobility players can also compete in the market and
enjoy non-discriminatory access to integrated data and systems. As the
public sector has complete access to data, it can help them to enhance the
regulation of the market from time to time and upgrade infrastructure as
required.

Challenges: This model faces a major hurdle in coping with the evolving
technology and data-standards. Since the financing and operations of the
back-end platform lie with the public sector, the fiscal and technological
upgradation process is likely to become slow and bureaucratic.

Regulation to overcome the challenges: The open data policy should be

well defined; a data sharing cell, under the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, should be formed to decide the standards and regulations on
mobility data sharing for interoperability and to protect citizens’ privacy.
The body should also ensure keeping up with the fast pace of technological
advancements and establish cooperation with technology organizations to
ensure the agile management of the upgradation process.

4. Scenario 4: Coexistence

In a diversified country like India, a coexistence model of the first three

governance scenarios can serve as a potential solution, as one model might
not suit all scenarios. However, to achieve this model, data standardization
and the interoperability of the government and private mobility operator’s
platform is the key.
372 Chapter 4.8

Future of MaaS Governance in India

The heterogeneity in the MaaS model is an aspect that makes it attractive,
with immense potential, and complex at the same time. Consensus building
among multiple stakeholders of the public and private domain is an arduous
task. It is imperative to develop an open mobility data platform and a
flexible regulatory mechanism. Based on the case studies and learnings
from the successful MaaS models around the world, a collaborative MaaS
governance model between public and private providers, which is based on
the strengths of the above-mentioned MaaS governance models, is required.

Currently, in India, the service providers (public or private) interact directly

with the customers. On one hand, some market-led models act as a single
integrator of information—having bilateral agreements and APIs to process
the services. On the other hand, certain public integrators incorporate all
booking and payment services as one bundle, and share only nominal
routing, scheduling, and ticketing information to external MaaS providers.
This makes it possible to define two roles for easy management of a MaaS
ecosystem:

1. A MaaS integrator who congregates data of all service providers.

2. MaaS providers who bundle service options for the end-user.

The role of MaaS integrator and provider can be mutually decided by the
government and the private entities, based on the organizational
capabilities, future aspirations for the region, and market aims.

Irrespective of the role of the government, the following must be ensured:

1. Ability to make regulatory changes in the market ensuring public

value and benefit through data protection, security, and necessary
incentives.
2. Ensuring cross-market investment, enhancing public-private
collaboration, and providing supportive policies to sustain private
business models.

All the governance models are illustrated in Figure 4.8.6.

Regulatory Requirements
To enhance the value proposition and successful implementation of MaaS,
establishing standard policies and regulations that are flexible and adaptive
 Emerging Trends 373

is the key. Considering the multiplicity of stakeholders, both in the private

and public sector, legal and regulatory instruments must be realigned and
restructured to the institutional framework, for a less complex and attractive
MaaS ecosystem.

The regulations should not dictate, control, or coordinate the market; they
should encourage innovation and eliminate destructive behaviors that
threaten public value.

Different stakeholders of urban mobility have different objectives: i) the

user strives for value for money, less travel time, and comfort in their
commute, ii) a mobility service provider focuses on market share and a
viable and sustainable business model, and iii) the public authorities focus
on data accessibility to better plan the mobility landscape and improve
efficiency, coverage, and social service. Thus, it becomes the responsibility
of the government to act as a facilitator and protector while regulating the
entire MaaS ecosystem.

There is no one size fits all approach when it comes to defining and
facilitating regulatory frameworks for MaaS. Cities and governance
stakeholders should proactively engage with private entities, citizens,
market partners, and public entities of the region to define the regulations.
The role of the government in creating the balance in the MaaS ecosystem
is critical. The public sector access to data and regulatory control should
make It commercially attractive for the private players.

The key regulatory areas in the MaaS ecosystem are

1. privacy and data security;

2. open data standards;
3. third party ticket sales;
4. access and availability of market for new mobility services;
5. competition regulation;
6. subsidization of transport.
374 Chapter 4.8

Figure 4.8.7: MaaS Regulation Framework: A Schematic

Source: Author

A schematic of the MaaS regulation framework is shown in Figure 4.8.7.

The regulations should also include factors that influence behavioral
changes, such as limited parking for private vehicles, subsidizing fleet
services, etc. The regulations should clearly define the passengers’ rights
and ensure that both mobility-service providers and MaaS operators are
liable for their actions.

Fragmented institutional framework is another factor that creates considerable

regulatory challenges. Since MaaS depends on multi-modality, different
governing regulations and responsibilities for the transport modes may fail
to coordinate. The current institutions should either set standard regulations
or establish an institution to collate all urban mobility services into mobility
agencies.

Regulation for MaaS is quite complex and depends on multiple sectors,

jurisdictions, and technology usage. Satisfying the user needs and ensuring
market sustainability requires iterative modifications in the framework,
based on local context. Stringent regulation can sometimes create barriers
to private involvement, leading to an inefficient business model. The
objectives, complexity, flexibility, and enforcement procedure during non-
compliance must be independently considered for every market before
comprehensive structuring of the MaaS environment. As private players’
 Emerging Trends 375

motivations may not lie with public interests, the government cannot be the
sole regulatory authority. Industry stakeholders should be consulted—to
ascertain their motivations and shortcomings—to mutually decide certain
terms and conditions for providing appropriate services.

Role of Data in MaaS

Data plays a crucial role in efficient functioning of MaaS. The MaaS system
depends heavily on data from different mobility providers, open APIs, and
the interoperability of the system. Data is critical for the long-term success
of MaaS, as it increases public benefit and public transportation usage,
while creating a level playing field for privately held mobility services to
prosper.

Some main challenges related to data are

1. quality and inconsistency of data;

2. lack of data standardization;
3. lack of data portability;
4. lack of data interoperability.

Figure 4.8.8 represents the key contribution of mobility data in each level
of MaaS.

Most data standards, protocols, and algorithms have been formulated in the
US and Europe. Europe has a strong focus on standards and is largely
supported by authorities, while the US has fewer formal standards, enabling
an agile and responsible approach.
376 Chapter 4.8

Figure 4.8.8: Key Contribution at Each Level of MaaS

Source: Populus
 Emerging Trends 377

Standards Developed in the US

The first significant step towards data standardization was the introduction
of the general transit feed specification (GTFS); it became the de-facto
standard for public transport. It permitted public transit agencies to share
their geographic, schedule, fare, real-time, and other data with user
applications. In 2015, the general bikeshare feed specification (GBFS) was
introduced and officially adopted by the North American Bike Share
Association. It defined a standard format to share read-only, real-time data
of only the available vehicles in a shared-mobility system. The LA
Department of Transport introduced the mobility data specification (MDS),
in 2018, which is now managed by the Open Mobility Foundation (OMF).
It is a set of APIs that allows cities and private players to share information
about operations. MDS and GBFS serve different purposes; while GBFS
provides information of only the current status, the MDS includes past trips
and vehicle status information.

Standards Developed in Europe

The regulation EU 2017/1926, formulated on May 31, 2017, on the
provision of EU-wide, multi-modal travel information services, mandates
the standardization of formats of all traffic and travel data from all public
and private transportation modes. The introduction of the National Access
Policy (NAP) has significantly accelerated the adoption of MaaS across the
EU. The goal of the NAP is to establish an open library of mobility data and
provide access to interested stakeholders, either directly or via links. Some
major data standards are NeTEx, SIRI, DATEX II, TAP TSI, and INSPIRE.
The NeTEx and SIRI standards will be mandatory for all private and public
MaaS in Europe by 2023, enabling open mobility data to support multi-
modal travel information services. NeTEx allows multiple systems to share
data for passengers such as stops, routes, schedules, and prices, as well as
associated operational data. NeTEx is intended to be a general-purpose
XML, designed for the efficient and modifiable exchange of complex
transport data among distributed systems. SIRI is built on Transmodel for
public transportation information, just like NeTEx, and consists of a
general-purpose model and an XML schema for public transportation
information.
378 Chapter 4.8

References
Ertico. 2017. “Finland’s Transport Code Focuses on Digitalisation of
Transport.” [online] http://erticonetwork.com/finlands-transport-code-
focuses-digitalisation-transport/.
Hensher, D. A., C. Q. Ho, D. J. Reck, G. Smith, S. Lorimer and I. Lu. 2021.
The Sydney Mobility as a Service (MaaS) Trial: Design,
Implementation, Lessons and the Future.
“The Whole is Greater than the Sum of the Parts.”