What are cells?

●​ Cells make up all living organisms, they are the primary functional and
structural unit of complex organisms.
●​ Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions that
are characteristic of all living forms.
●​ The shape and size of a cell is determined by the function it performs,
and some cells may alter their appearance. For example, Amoeba.
●​ In multicellular organisms, labour is divided among various regions.
●​ In unicellular organisms too, labour is divided among various
components called cell organelles with distinct purposes.
●​ All cells divide to form more cells of their own kind, hence all cells arise
from pre-existing cells.

History of Cells:​

1665 Robert Hooke discovered cells for

the first time while examining a slice
of cork using a primitive microscope.

1674 Leeuwenhoek observed free living

cells for the first time in pond water
using the improved microscope.

1831 Robert Brown found the nucleus of

the cell.

1838 - Scheilden The cell theory was presented by

1839 - Schwann Scheilden and Schwann. (This
stated that all plants and animals are
made up of cells.)

1839 Purkinje coined the term

‘Protoplasm’ for the fluid substance
of the cell.

1855 Rudolf Virchow advanced the cell

theory by claiming that all cells arise
from pre-existing cells.

1940 Discovery of the electron

microscope.
Every cell has three distinct features: A plasma membrane, nucleus, and
cytoplasm.

1.​ Plasma Membrane/Cell Membrane

●​ Outermost covering of the cell that separates the cell’s contents from
its surroundings.

●​ Made up of proteins and lipids.

●​ It is flexible, which enables the cell to engulf food and other materials
from its external environment through endocytosis. (Takes place in
Amoeba)

●​ Permits the entry and exit of materials in and out of the cell. It restricts
the entry of certain foreign materials, hence it is called selectively
permeable.

●​ Substances like CO2 and O2 move in and out of the cell through
diffusion.

●​ Water also moves in and out of the cell through osmosis.

Osmosis and Diffusion:

Osmosis Diffusion

The movement of water from a Spontaneous movement of a

region of higher concentration to a substance from a region of higher
region of lower concentration across concentration to lower concentration.
a semi-permeable membrane till
equilibrium.

Movement is affected by the amount Plays an important role in gaseous

of solute dissolved in the solvent. exchange between cells as well as
the cell and its external environment.

Only living cells are able to absorb

water by osmosis.
Based on the movement of water, there are three kinds of solutions:​

Hypotonic Solution Hypertonic Solution Isotonic Solution

Concentration of water Concentration of water Concentration of water

outside the cell is inside the cell is greater inside and outside the
greater than the than the concentration cell is equal.
concentration of water of water outside the
inside the cell. cell.

Water moves from a Water moves from a No net movement of

region of higher region of higher water.
concentration to lower concentration to lower
concentration. Here, the concentration. Here, the
water moves from water moves from
outside to inside the inside to outside the
cell. cell.

The cell swells. The cell shrinks. The cell neither swells
nor shrinks.

This is called This is called

endosmosis. exosmosis.

2.​ Cell Wall (Only present in plant cells.)

●​ A rigid outer covering, lying outside the plasma membrane.

●​ Mainly composed of cellulose, which provides structural strength.

●​ The cell wall permits the cells of plants, fungi and bacteria to
withstand external media without bursting.

●​ When the cell swells, it exerts pressure against the cell wall, and the
wall exerts an equal pressure against the swollen cell.

Plasmolysis: Shrinkage and contraction of the contents of the cell away

from the cell wall.
 3.​ Cytoplasm

●​ Fluid, jelly-like content inside the plasma membrane.

●​ All the cell organelles, enclosed by membranes, are embedded in the

cytoplasm.

4.​ Nucleus

●​ The nucleus directs cell activities, plays a central role in cellular

reproduction (the division of a cell, the formation of two new cells.)
and determines the way the cell will develop by directing the chemical
activities of the cell.

●​ Contains chromosomes.

●​ Separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.

What are Chromosomes?

●​ Rod shaped structures that are present only when the nucleus is
about to divide.

●​ Contain DNA (Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid) and protein.

●​ Contains information for the inheritance of characteristics from the

parents. (In the form of DNA.)

What is DNA?

●​ DNA contains the information necessary for constructing and

organising cells.

●​ Functional segments of DNA are called genes.

●​ DNA is present as chromatin material in a non dividing cell.

What is Chromatin Material?

●​ Entangled mass of thread like structures that organise into

chromosomes when the cell is about to divide.

What is the Nuclear Membrane?

Nuclear Membrane

●​ Double layered covering that separates the nucleus from the

cytoplasm.

●​ Porous, allows the transfer of materials from inside the nucleus to the
cytoplasm.

On the basis of the presence of the nuclear membrane, cells are divided
into:

Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

●​ Lacks a nuclear membrane. ●​ A nuclear membrane is

present.

●​ Poorly defined nuclear region. ●​ Well defined nuclear region.

●​ Absence of membrane bound ●​ Contain membrane bound cell

cell organelles. organelles.

●​ Generally small. ●​ Generally large.

●​ Contains a single ●​ Contains more than one

chromosome. chromosome.

What are cell organelles?​

●​ Cell organelles are membrane bound structures that have distinct

purposes and carry out different chemical activities to support the
complicated structures and functions of large and complex cells.
 1.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum

●​ It is a large network of membrane bound tubes and sheets. It looks

like long tubules or round/oblong bags.

●​ It is similar in structure to the plasma membrane.

●​ It serves as a channel for the transport of materials, especially

proteins between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

●​ Provides a surface for biochemical activities.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

●​ Smooth surface. ●​ Rough surface due to

presence of ribosomes.

●​ Helps in the manufacturing of ●​ Site of protein manufacture

fat molecules (lipids). Lipids due to ribosomes.
are used in building the cell Manufactured protein is sent to
membrane (membrane various parts of the cell using
biogenesis) and others the ER.
function as enzymes and
hormones.

●​ It detoxifies many poisons and

drugs.

2.​ Golgi Apparatus

●​ Membrane bound vesicles arranged parallel to each other in stacks

called cisterns. These membranes are often connected with the
membranes of ER.

●​ Performs functions like packaging and dispatching of material

synthesised near the ER to various targets inside and outside the cell.

●​ Also involved in the storage, modification and packaging of products

 in vesicles.

●​ Involved in the formation of lysosomes and making of complex sugars

from simple sugars.

3.​ Lysosomes or suicidal bags

●​ Membrane bound sacs filled with powerful digestive enzymes.

●​ Waste disposal system that digests foreign material and worn out cell
organelles. (complex substances into simple substances)

●​ When the cell is damaged, lysosomes may burst and the enzymes
digest their own cells. Hence they are known as the suicide bags of a
cell.

4.​ Mitochondira

●​ Powerhouse of the cell.

●​ It has two membrane coverings:​

Outer membrane - porous​
Inner membrane - deeply folded

●​ The folds in the inner membrane increase the surface area for ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) chemical reactions.

●​ ATP is the energy released by the mitochondria, it is used for making

new compounds and mechanical work.

●​ Makes its own proteins as it has its own DNA and ribosomes.
4. Plastids (only present in plants)
●​ Have their own DNA and ribosomes.

There are two types of plastids:​

Chromoplasts Leukoplasts

●​ Coloured plastids ●​ White/colourless plastids

●​ Contain chlorophyll ●​ Storage for materials such as

starch protein granules and
oils.

●​ Also contain various yellow

and orange pigments.

5.​ Vacuoles

●​ Storage sacs for solid and liquid contents

●​ Small sized in animal cells, large in plant cells.

●​ In plants, the central vacuole occupies 50 to 90% of the cell volume.

●​ Plant vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to
the cell.

●​ Amino acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins are
stored here.

●​ In amoeba, the food vacuoles contain food that the amoeba has
consumed.

●​ In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play

important roles in expelling excess water and some wastes from the
cell.
Cell Division: The process by which new cells are made.

●​ Cells divide for growth of the body, for replacing dead cells and for
forming gametes for reproduction.

Mitosis Miosis

●​ Most of the cells divide by ●​ Involves two consecutive

mitosis. divisions. The cell produces 4
new cells instead of 2.

●​ The mother cell divides to form ●​ The new cells have only half
two identical daughter cells. the number of chromosomes
than that of the mother cell.

●​ The daughter cells have the

same number of
chromosomes as the mother
cell. It helps in growth and
repair of tissue in organisms.