Train the Trainers Workshop on

Medical Physics Support for

Nuclear or Radiological Emergencies

Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America

23–27 May 2016

Module 4b: Environmental Dose Assessment

SAND2016-3554 PE

Author/Presenter Terry Kraus, CHP, M.S.

Information Sandia National Laboratories
Logo of
lecturer’s
institution goes
here IAEA
International Atom ic Energy Agency
Lectures in Module 4b

• Lecture 4b.1: Environmental Releases and

Exposures
• Lecture 4b.2: Guidance and Recommendations
• Lecture 4b.3: Environmental Dose Assessment
Concepts
• Lecture 4b.4: Environmental Dose Assessment,
Contaminated Air and Ground
• Lecture 4b.5: Environmental Dose Assessment,
Contaminated Food

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Lecture 4b.1

Objectives:
• Understand potential environmental release
scenarios
• Understand potential exposure pathways
• Understand radionuclide source terms of
concern
• Understand potential for acute and chronic
exposures

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Lecture 4b.2

Objectives:
• Review applicable IAEA guidance and
recommendations
• Review applicable ICRP guidance and
recommendations
• Review applicable United States guidance
and recommendations
• Review acute and chronic risk
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Lecture 4b.3

Objectives:
• Understand major radiological dose pathways
from contaminated air and ground
• Understand factors that effect the radiation
dose resulting from environmental
contamination

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Lecture 4b.3

Objectives:
• Review internal and external radiological
assessment methods for contaminated air
and ground
• To become familiar with the Turbo FRMAC ©
radiological assessment tool to assess the
dose from contaminated air and ground (SNL,
2015a)

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Lecture 4b.5

Objectives:
• Understand food products of concern
• Review radiological assessment methods for
contaminated food
• To become familiar with the Turbo FRMAC ©
radiological assessment tool to assess the
dose from food (SNL. 2015a)

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Lecture 4b

Learning Outcomes:
• To recognize potential sources of
environmental radiation exposures
• To recognize environmental dose
assessment methods
• To estimate doses from radiologically
contaminated air, ground and food using
manual methods and the Turbo FRMAC ©
software tool (SNL, 2015a)
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Lecture 4b.1

Environmental Releases

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Environmental Release Mechanisms

Potential radiological release

mechanisms:
• Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) –
accident or sabotage
• Radiological Dispersal Devices
(RDD)
• Nuclear detonation (prompt and
fallout)
• Transportation accidents
involving nuclear weapons,
legacy wastes, spent fuel, etc.
• Sprayer devices
• Fire, wind, etc.
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Environmental Exposure Pathways
Example of exposure pathways

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Radionuclides of Concern

Medical and Industrial Devices

Radionuclides of
concern include:
• Am-241, • Pu-238,
• Cf-252, • Pu-239,
• Cm-244, • Ra-226,
• Co-60, • Sr-90, and
• Cs-137, • Tc-99m
• Ir-192,
• Po-210,

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 Radionuclides of Concern
Nuclear Power Plant Source Term (example)
Radio- Radio- Radio-
Nuclide
Am-241
(MBq)
1.42E+00
Nuclide
Mo-99
(MBq)
1.45E+07
Nuclide
Sr-92
(MBq)
8.77E+07
List does not include radioactive
Ba-139
Ba-140
4.38E+07
4.44E+08
Nb-95
Nb-95m
1.99E+07
5.60E+03
Tc-99m 1.33E+07 decay products
Te-127 5.88E+07
Ce-141 1.98E+07 Nb-97 7.87E+05
Te-127m 9.44E+06
Ce-143 1.63E+07 Nd-147 7.63E+06
Np-239 2.42E+08 Te-129 3.73E+07
Ce-144 1.60E+07
Pm-147 1.21E+03 Te-129m 3.99E+07
Cm-242 4.94E+05
Cs-134 1.41E+08 Pr-143 1.75E+07 Te-131 2.56E+07
Cs-136 5.70E+07 Pr-144 1.60E+07 Te-131m 1.14E+08
Cs-137 9.78E+07 Pu-238 2.34E+00 Te-132 8.65E+08
Cs-138 1.36E+07 Pu-239 4.26E+00 Xe-131m 5.86E+07
I-131 9.52E+08 Pu-241 1.50E+06 Xe-133 8.59E+09
I-132 1.25E+09 Rb-86 2.03E+06 Xe-133m 2.62E+08
I-133 1.66E+09 Rb-88 8.74E+08 Xe-135 3.13E+09
Rh-103m 1.28E+07
I-134 8.25E+07 Xe-135m 5.94E+08
Rh-105 8.49E+06
I-135 1.12E+09 Xe-138 1.68E+06
Ru-103 1.34E+07
Kr-83m 9.63E+07 Y-90 1.45E+06
Ru-105 4.48E+06
Kr-85 3.51E+07 Y-91 1.43E+07
Ru-106 3.73E+06
Kr-85m 4.89E+08 Y-91m 8.04E+07
Sb-127 5.46E+07
Kr-87 2.12E+08 Y-92 3.86E+07
Sb-129 9.25E+07
Kr-88 9.14E+08
Sr-89 2.27E+08 Y-93 7.83E+06
La-140 3.61E+07
Sr-90 1.75E+07 Zr-95 1.96E+07
La-141 7.90E+06
Sr-91 1.96E+08 Zr-97 1.51E+07
La-142 2.21E+06

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Radionuclides of Concern

Radionuclides
of potential
significance at
nuclear
installations
(IAEA Safety
Series 81,
1986)

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Radionuclides of Concern

Nuclear Weapon Fallout Source Terms

• Includes more
radionuclides than a
NPP source term
• Includes many
radionuclides with
very short half-lives
• Includes nuclear
fission products and
neutron activation
products
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Potential for Acute and Chronic Exposures

• Different radionuclides deliver dose at different rates

• Dose rate delivery is largely
determined by:
 Amount (Radioactivity)
 Concentration (Bq/m2)
 Half-life of parent
radionuclides
 Half-life of radioactive decay
products
 Types of radiation emitted
(alpha, beta, gamma)
 Energy of radiation emitted

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 Potential for Acute and Chronic Exposures

• Exposure scenario:
 Receptor is standing
outside (unshielded) on
contaminated ground
 Receptor stays at the
same location for a 1-
year long period starting
immediately after ground
deposition
• At what rate will the
receptor accumulate
radiation dose from
NPP, nuclear fallout
and Cs-137 sources?

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 Potential for Acute and Chronic Exposures
All radionuclide source terms ARE NOT created equal!
Percent of Total Integrated Dose Received over
0 - 365 Days from Ground-Deposited Material
100.00

90.00
50% of annual dose
delivered in first 80 days
% of Total Integrated Dose (Sv)

80.00
50% of
annual dose
70.00 delivered in
< 10 hour
60.00

50.00
Nuclear Fallout Source Term
40.00 Nuclear Power Plant Source Term
30.00 Cs-137 Source Term

20.00 50% of annual dose

delivered in first 180
10.00 days

0.00
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time Post Detonation (Day)
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Potential for Acute and Chronic Exposures

• Many environmental releases do not have the potential to

result in acute (deterministic) exposures.
• Medical sources and industrial sources are typically
relatively long-lived and are not likely to result in acute
exposures unless large activities are dispersed into the
environment at high concentrations.
• Radiopharmaceuticals usually have short-lives and it is
difficult to get enough of them together and disperse
them before they undergo significant radioactive decay.
Therefore, they are not likely to be a source of acute
exposures.

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Potential for Acute and Chronic Exposures

• NPP source terms include many short-lived radionuclides

and have the potential for acute exposures if they are
dispersed into the environment at high concentrations.
• Nuclear fallout includes many short-lived radionuclides
and may be dispersed into the environment at high
concentrations and are a potential source of acute
exposures.

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Lecture 4b.1

• Summary of Key Points:

 Environmental assessments may involve numerous
radionuclides
 Environmental assessments must consider inhalation,
external exposure, and ingestion pathways
 NPP accidents, nuclear fuel cycle, RDDs, nuclear weapons,
and accidents may releases radionuclides to the environment
 The rate at which environmental contaminants deliver dose
vary widely and are radionuclide specific
 Nuclear fallout certainly has the potential to produce
deterministic (acute) effects

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Lecture 4b.2

Regulatory Guidance and

Recommendations

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 IAEA Safety Standards, Philosophy

IAEA’s role in protecting the public and the environment

(IAEA Pub. 1578, 2014):
• The IAEA’s Statute authorizes the Agency to “establish or adopt…
standards of safety for protection of health and minimization of
danger to life and property.”
• The IAEA safety standards reflect an international consensus on
what constitutes a high level of safety for protecting people and
the environment from harmful effects of ionizing radiation.
• The Safety Guides present international good practices, and
increasingly they reflect best practices, to help users striving to
achieve high levels of safety. The recommendations provided in
Safety Guides are expressed as ‘should’ statements.

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IAEA Safety Standards
IAEA recommendations and guidance for protecting
people and the environment, include:
• Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or Radiological
Emergency, IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-R-7 (IAEA
2015)
• Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources:
International Basic Safety Standards, General Safety
requirements Part 3, No. GSR Part 3 (IAEA Pub. 1578, 2014)
• Criteria for Use in Preparedness and response for a Nuclear or
Radiological Emergency, IAEA General Safety Guide No. GSG-2
(IAEA Pub. 1467, 2011)
• Generic procedures for assessment and response during a
radiological emergency, IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (IAEA, 2000)

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Generic Dose Levels - Deterministic

TABLE IV.1.
Generic Criteria
for Acute Doses
Received within
a Short Period
… to Avoid or to
Minimize Severe
Deterministic
Effects (IAEA,
Pub. 1578,
2014)

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IAEA Generic Dose Levels - Stochastic

Table A-1. Generic Criteria for Protective Actions and Other

Response Actions in Emergency Exposure Situations to Reduce
the Risk of Stochastic Effects (IAEA Pub. 1578, 2014)

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IAEA Generic Dose Levels - Stochastic
Table A-1. (continued)

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Radiation Protection Philosophy

• Regulatory philosophy to protect the public

 Avoid severe deterministic effects,
 Limit stochastic effects
 Limit adverse effects on the environment and property
 Protective actions should achieve more good than harm,
 Duration of an intervention should be optimized so that it will
produce a maximum net benefit, considering the radiological
detriment and the social and economical costs

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Acceptable Risk
• Do not receive a dose to any organ approaching that
resulting in severe deterministic effects.
• Table 2 (IAEA 2011) list the thresholds for the onset of severe
deterministic effects.
• Do not receive a dose above which the risk of health
effects (e.g. cancers) is sufficiently high to justify taking
protective actions during an emergency
• generic criterion is 100 mSv per annum.
• protective actions are not always justified below 100 mSv per
annum and will be taken (if at all) on the basis of justified
criteria developed, with interested parties, after careful
consideration of the conditions, including the impact of any
protective action.
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OILs and EALs

• Operational Intervention Levels (OILs) and

Emergency Action Levels (EALs),are
measureable or observable criteria that can be
used as a surrogate for the generic dose
criteria
• OILs and EALs are operational criteria can be
used immediately and directly to determine the
need for appropriate protective actions and
other response actions.
• EALs are predetermined, observable
operational criteria used to detect, recognize
and determine the emergency class of an
event at facilities

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OIL1 (IAEA Pub. 1467, 2011)

• OIL1 is a measured value of ground contamination

calling for:
 Urgent protective actions (e.g. evacuation) to keep the dose
to any person living in a contaminated area below the generic
criteria for urgent protective actions provided in Table 3
 Medical actions, as required, because the dose received by
evacuees may be above the generic criteria for medical
actions provided in Table 3

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OIL2 and OIL3 (IAEA Pub. 1467, 2011)

• OIL2 is a measured value of ground contamination calling

for early protective actions to keep the dose for one year to
any person living in the area below the generic criteria for
taking actions to reasonably reduce the risk of stochastic
effects provided in Table 3.
• OIL3 is a measured value of ground contamination calling
for immediate restrictions on the consumption of leaf
vegetables, milk from animals grazing in the area and
rainwater collected for drinking to keep the dose to any
person below the generic criteria for taking the urgent
protective actions provided in Table 3.

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OIL4, 5 and 6 (IAEA Pub. 1467, 2011)

• OIL4 is a measured value of skin contamination calling for

performing decontamination or providing instructions for
self-decontamination and for limiting inadvertent ingestion
• OIL5 and OIL6 are measured values of concentrations in
food, milk or water that warrant the consideration of
restrictions on consumption so as to keep the effective
dose to any person below 10 mSv per annum.

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ICRP Radiological Protection
Recommendations
• Radiation protection recommendations, biokinetic models
and DCs are periodically updated
• We are transitioning to updated recommendations
• Current ICRP recommendations:
 ICRP 38, Radionuclide Transformations, Energy and intensity of
Emissions, defines the radiological decay data (e.g., half-life, decay
constant, decay chain)
 ICRP 60, 1990 Recommendations of the ICRP, defines dosimetric
quantities, tissue and radiation weighting factors, radiation protection
framework (e.g., dose limits), acute and deterministic effects, and
detriment estimators.
 ICRP 66, Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection,
defines physiological parameters, deposition, clearance
 ICRP 68, Dose Coefficients for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers
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ICRP Radiological Protection
Recommendations
• Current ICRP recommendations
(continued):
 ICRP 67, 69, and 72: ingestion DCs
 ICRP 70, Basic Anatomical and
Physiological Data for use in
Radiological Protection: The Skeleton
 ICRP 71,72:
 ICRP 74, Conversion Coefficients for use
in Radiological Protection against
External Radiation: absorbed dose,
radiation weighting factors,
 ICRP 119, Compendium of Dose
Coefficients based on ICRP Publication
60

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ICRP Radiological Protection
Recommendations
• New ICRP recommendations:
 ICRP Pub. 100, Human Alimentary Tract Model for Radiological
Protection, Elsevier
 ICRP Pub. 103, The 2007 Recommendations of the International
Commission on Radiological Protection, replace ICRP 60
 ICRP Pub. 107, Nuclear Decay Data for Dosimetric Calculations
 ICRP Pub. 110, Adult Reference Computational Phantoms
 ICRP Pub. 116, Conversion Coefficients for Radiological Protection
Quantities for External Radiation Exposures
• It is expected that the updated external dose coefficients will
be available in the U.S. in 2016
• Updated inhalation and ingestion DCs may not be available
for 3 – 5 years
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ICRP Radiological Protection
Recommendations
• New ICRP recommendations (continued):
• Main differences between the ICRP 38, 60 and 50-80
dosimetry models, and the ICRP 103, 107 series dosimetry
models include:
• Updated biokinetic models
• Different tissue weighting factors,
• Different radiation weighting factors
• Updating radiation detriment estimators
• Applying system of justification and optimization to radiation protection
• Updated radiological decay for some radionuclides
• Can we mix-and-match DCs based on ICRP 60 and 103
recommendations while we wait for complete set of ICRP
103-based DCs?
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 IAEA Radiation Exposure Risk
Estimates
• Radiation risk estimators are developed from acute
(deterministic) exposure data (e.g., Hiroshima, Nagasaki)
• Stochastic radiation risk estimators (ICRP Pub. 103, 2007)
 Linear No Threshold (LNT) risk estimators assume a linear dose
response and that there is no dose threshold below which there is no risk
 Combined detriment to whole population due to excess cancer (fatal and
non-fatal) and heritable effects is 5.7x10-2 Sv -1
 Detriment to whole population due to excess cancer (fatal and non-fatal)
is 5.5x10-2 Sv -1
 Detriment to whole population for heritable effects is 2x10-3 Sv -1
• Risk estimators are typically applied to both acute
(deterministic) and chronic (stochastic) exposures
• Risk estimators may overestimate the risk from low-level,
chronic exposures
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 Radiation Exposure Risk Estimates
• Radiation protection
standards are based on the
Linear No Threshold theory
(LNL)
• Assumes that long-term
biological damage (e.g.,
cancer) is directly proportional
to dose
• Assumes there is no dose
threshold below which there is
no risk
• Are risk estimators based on
acute exposures appropriate
for chronic exposures?
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Radiation Exposure Risk Estimates

• Risk of drinking water based on LNT theory

• 2007 Drinking water contest to win a video game
 18 contestants drank up to 6 L of water over 3 hours
 1 of the contestant later died of hyponatremia
• Assuming the LNT
model, how much
water could one drink
to limit their risk of
dying to 1 in 10,000?
 Assume all 18
contestants drank 6 L of
water
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Radiation Exposure Risk Estimates

1 death
Death 18 contestants 9.29E-06 death
 
ml water
 6L
contestant
 1,000 ml
L  ml water

If the LNT risk of drinking water (acute exposure) is

9.29E-06/ml, how much water can be drunk in 3 hours to
limit the risk of death to 1 in 10,000 (1.0E-04)?

1.0E-04
ml water   10.8 ml water
9.29E-06 death
ml water

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Radiation Exposure Risk Estimates

• Therefore, based on this

analysis, the safe drinking
water limit should be
established at 10.8 ml
per 3 hours to limit the risk
of death to 1 in 10,000
• Is it reasonable to use risk
estimators based on acute
exposures to estimate the
risk from low-level chronic
exposures?

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United States Guidance and References

• Protective Action Guides and Planning Guidance for Radiological

Incidents, Draft for Interim Use and public comment, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC, March 2013.
• Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions for
Nuclear Incidents, EPA 400-R-92-001, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC, 1992.
• Accidental Radioactive Contamination of Human Foods and
Animal Feeds: Recommendations for State and Local Agencies,
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC, August 13,
1998.
• Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation
Emergencies, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington,
DC, December 2001.

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Lecture 4b.2
• Summary of Key Points:
 IAEA guidance provides operational intervention levels (OILs)
and generic dose criteria for environmental assessments
 IAEA guidance provides generic assessment methods for
environmental assessments
 OILs and EALs are operational criteria can be used
immediately and directly to determine the need for appropriate
protective actions and other response actions.
 ICRP provides radiation protection recommendations, biokinetic
models and dose coefficients
 Radiation risk estimators are conservative when applied to
stochastic (chronic) exposures, assume that biological damage (e.g.,
cancer) is directly proportional to dose, and assume there is no dose
threshold below which there is no risk
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Lecture 4b.3

Environmental Dose
Assessment Concepts

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 Major Dose Pathways From
an Environmental Release
Plume Pathways

Submersion (γ)

Inhalation (α,β,γ)

Deposition

Inhalation of Resuspended Ground

Material (α,β,γ) Shine (γ)

Ground Pathways

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts

Factors that effect environmental dose, include:

• Radionuclide source terms
• Radioactive decay and in-growth
• Dose Coefficients (Parent-Daughter Relationship)
• Dose Coefficients vary by age groups
• Dose calculation depends on the time period (time phase) that
the receptor was exposed
• Weathering of radionuclides into the environments
• Resuspension of radionuclides in the environment
• Ground roughness
• Deposition Velocity
• Breathing rates
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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
External and Internal Dose Coefficients

• Dose coefficients are provided for multiple age groups:

 Adult,
 15 year old,
 10 year old,
 5 year old,
 1 year old, and
 infant (3 months old)
• Dose coefficients are provided for multiple organs
 ~20 Organ-specific DCs
 1 DC for Remainder tissues
 1 DC for Effective Dose
• DCs include the organ-specific tissue weighting factors
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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
External Dose Coefficients
• External dose coefficients are specific to one radionuclide
and do not include the dose from decay products
 For example, Ra-226 external dose coefficient does not include the
external dose from Rn-222 to Po-210
 If decay chain radionuclides are present, the external dose from decay
products must be included to estimate the total dose

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Internal Dose Coefficients

• Internal dose coefficients (i.e., inhalation and ingestion) do

include the dose from decay products that grow in
 For example, Ra-226 inhalation DC does include the dose from Rn-222 to
Po-210 that are formed by the transformation of inhaled Ra-226
• Internal dose coefficients are not provided for short-lived
radionuclides (e.g., < 10 minutes)
• Internal dose coefficient decay chain truncation:
 Decay chains are truncated after the last potentially significant decay chain
member
 Decay chains typically truncated when the cumulative energies for alpha,
electron, and photon radiation over a 100-year period are changed less
than 1% by the addition of subsequent chain members

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 Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Internal Dose Coefficients
• Internal Dose Coefficient basic facts:
 Decay products are generally assigned the same biokinetics as
the parent radionuclide

• Exceptions where decay products are assigned different

biokinetics than the parent radionuclide include (ICRP
71):
 Radioiodine formed by transformation of tellurium
 Radioisotopes of thallium, astatine, and francium formed in
thorium and uranium decay chains.
 Radon produced in soft tissues or bone surfaces

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Internal Dose Coefficients
• Internal (inhalation, ingestion) dose coefficient basic
facts:
 Commitment periods for stochastic dose estimates vary
with age at intake
o 50 years for adults and
o 70 years for children
 Commitment period for deterministic dose estimates is 30
days

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Ingestion Dose Coefficients
• ICRP Publication 30
specifies the biokinetic
model of the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract (1979)

Note: ICRP Publication 100

(2005) specifies an updated
human alimentary tract model,
but a set of ingestion dose
coefficients has not yet been
developed using the updated
model

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Inhalation Dose Coefficients
• ICRP Publication 66
specifies the biokinetic
model of the respiratory
tract (IAEA 1994)

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Environmental Dose Assessment
Concepts: Inhalation Dose Coefficients
• Inhalation DCs are available for different chemical forms of
radionuclide aerosols that have different lung clearance types
(absorption rates) into the blood from the respiratory tract

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Environmental Dose Assessment
Concepts: Inhalation Dose Coefficients

Adult, Committed
 Type V (very fast), Effective Inhalation
instantaneously absorbed Pu-239 Lung DC
Clearance (mSv/Bq)
into blood (only applies to Type
certain vapours and gases)

 NOTE: Inhalation DCs may Fast 0.119

vary greatly for different
Medium 0.0502
lung clearance types!
Slow 0.0160

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Inhalation Dose Coefficients
ICRP 68 provides lung clearance type recommendations for
various chemical forms (ICRP 1994):

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Inhalation Dose Coefficients
• ICRP 71 recommendations (ICRP 1996):
 Use lung clearance Type M when material-specific lung clearance
type information is not available and the material is not one of the
31 elements considered in ICRP 72
 In the absence of more specific information on absorption
characteristics, use Type M as a default for environmental
exposure of members of the public to radioisotopes in particulate
form.
• ICRP 72 recommendations (ICRP 1996):
 Use material-specific lung clearance types when data is available
 Use recommended lung clearance types for the 31 elements
specified in ICRP 72 if material-specific lung clearance types data
is not available
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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Inhalation Dose Coefficients

ICRP 72,
Table 2
(ICRP
1996)

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59
Environmental Dose Assessment
Concepts: Internal Dose Coefficients
Inhalation DCs also depend on the particle size distribution
(PSD) of the particles:
• Different types of PSDs: Example of
lognormal particle
 Lognormal size distribution
 Uniform
 Monodispersed

• PSDs assumptions when no specific information is available:

 Workers - Lognormal distribution, 5 μm, Activity median aerodynamic
diameter (AMAD), geometric standard deviation = 2.5
 Public/environmental - Lognormal distribution, 1 μm-AMAD, geometric
standard deviation = 2.5
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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Dose Coefficients
• Dose Coefficients (DCs) are established by the ICRP
• Types of DCs
 Inhalation of contaminated air (Sv/Bq)
 External exposure from contamination in the air (plume
submersion) (Sv•m3/Bq•h)
 External exposure from contamination on surfaces (ground)
(Sv•m2/Bq•h)
 External exposure from contamination on the skin
(Sv•m2/Bq•h)
 External exposure from immersion in contaminated water
(Sv•m3/Bq•h)
 Ingestion of contaminated food and drink (Sv/Bq)

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Dose Coefficients

Example of
external dose
coefficient (adult
age group) for
Cs-137 deposited
on the ground

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Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Radioactive Decay and In-growth
• Bateman equations used to calculate decay chain activities (Cambridge,
1910)
• Decay and in-growth equations become very complicated when multiple
radionuclides having radioactive decay products are concerned

 Equation to calculates 
Adn ,tn  Ap ,0  C1e
  p tn
 C2 e
 d1tn
 C3e
 d2 tn
 ...  Cn e
 dn tn

the activity of the “nth” where:
daughter (assuming
d d ...d
an initial mix of parent C1  1 2 n

only) at time tn (d   p )(d   p )...(d   p )

1 2 n

 You don’t want to do d d ...d

C2  1 2 n

this by hand! ( p  d )(d  d )...(d  d )

1 2 1 n 1
 Need software to
perform these
calculations quickly d d ...d
Cn  1 2 n

and accurately ( p  d )(d  d )...(d  d )

n 1 n n 1 n

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Weathering in the Environment
Weathering Factor and Weathering Parameter

• The effects of Weathering

tend to decrease the
external dose over time as
the material is weathered
deeper into the soil column
• Weathering effects vary
with climate, soil type, land
use, etc.
• Multiple weathering factor
models exist

IAEA
 Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Weathering in the Environment

Comparison of
various
Weathering Factor
Models

• Which one is
correct?

 Depends!

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Weathering in the Environment
Weathering Parameter includes effects of weathering
and radioactive decay and in-growth over time phase
t2

WPi ,TP   WF  Dp  dt

t1
t i ,t

where:
Wpi,TP = Weathering Parameter, the adjustment for radioactive decay and
in-growth and the time-dependent weathering effects that change
the amount of a radionuclide available to cause direct exposure
over the time phase under consideration (TP), Bq•s/m 2;
WFt = Weathering Factor, the adjustment for the decrease that occurs
over time as the deposited material is removed by a physical
process (e.g., migration into the soil column or wind) from t 0
(deposition) to tn (Evaluation Time), dimensionless; (HPS, 2002);
and
IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Weathering in the Environment
where (continued):
Dpi = Deposition concentration of radionuclide i at time t, Bq/m 2
NOTE: calculated using Bateman Equations (Bateman, 1910)
t1 = the start of the time phase (integration period) under
consideration, s; and
t2 = the end of the time phase (integration period) under
consideration, s.

WFt  0.4  e -1.46E-08t

 0.6  e -4.44E-10t

where:
WFt = Weathering Factor at time t, dimensionless; and
t1 = Time post deposition, s.

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Resuspension in the Environment
Resuspension Factor (K) and Parameter (KP)
• Resuspension tends to decrease over
time
• Resuspension rates can vary by orders
of magnitude
• Conservative resuspension rates are
often assumed
• Use known resuspension factor, if
known
• Resuspension factors vary with many
factors (e.g., surface type, climate,
weather, activities)
• Many resuspension factor models exist,
but they tend to converge at times
greater than 50 days post deposition

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Resuspension in the Environment

Comparison of
various
Resuspension
Factor Models

• Which one is
correct?

 Depends!

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Resuspension in the Environment
Resuspension Parameter includes effects of resuspension
and radioactive decay and in-growth over time phase
t2

KPi ,TP    K  Dp  dt
t1
t i ,t

where:
KPi,TP = Resupension Parameter, value that adjusts the airborne
radioactivity level of radionuclide i over the time phase under
consideration (TP) for radioactive decay and in-growth, and the
time-dependent resuspension factor (Kt), Bq•s/m 3;
Kt = Resuspension Factor, The fraction of radioactive material
transferred from the surface to the atmosphere at a given time (t)
after initial deposition, m -1, (HPS, 2011); and

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Resuspension in the Environment
where (continued):
Dpi = Deposition concentration of radionuclide i at time t, Bq/m 2
NOTE: calculated using Bateman Equations (Bateman, 1910)
t1 = the start of the time phase (integration period) under
consideration, s; and
t2 = the end of the time phase (integration period) under
consideration, s.

Kt  1.0E-05  e-8.1E-07t    7.0E-09  e-2.31E-08t  +1.0E-09

where:
Kt = Resupension Factor at time t, m -1; and
t1 = Time post deposition, s.

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Resuspension in the Environment
Alternatively, K may be expressed as:

• A constant value (e.g., 1.00E-06 m-1), or

• The ratio of air concentration to ground
concentration (determined from samples)
• For Example:
 Air sample = 1.60E-01 Bq/m 3
 Ground sample = 4.50E+05 Bq/m 2
K
Bq
1.6E-01
air sample m 3
K   3.6E-07m -1
ground sample 4.5E+05 Bq
m2

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6/4/2016
72
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Deposition Velocity
Deposition Velocity (Vd)
• Deposition of gases and particles is a complex physical
phenomenon, including:
 Aerodynamic, surface and transfer resistance,
 Dry or wet (rain, snow), and
 Gravitational settling
• The Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center
(FRMAC) in the United States uses simplified “Effective” Default
Assumptions for Deposition Velocity (V d):
 3.0E-03 m/s = Vd for Particulate (non-iodine) aerosols,
 6.5E-03 m/s = Vd for Particulate iodine aerosols
 6.4E-03 m/s = Vd for Reactive Gases (e.g., iodine gas released from a NPP),
and
 Vd = 0.0 m/s = Vd for Noble Gases (i.e., noble gases are assumed to remain
airborne and are not deposited on the ground).

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Deposition Velocity
Relationship between air and ground activity:
• To estimate the ground concentration from a known integrated air
activity:
Bq Bq  s m
Dpi  Ai Vd m 2

m 3

s

• To estimate the integrated air activity from a known ground

concentration:
Bq
Dpi μCi  s m 2

Ai  m 3 m
Vd s

IAEA
Environmental Dose Assessment Concepts:
Ground Roughness Factor
Ground Roughness Factor (GRF)
• The world is not an infinite flat plane
• GRF accounts for hills and valleys that tend to attenuate
gamma radiation
• Typical values = 0.7 – 0.82, dimensionless
• Ground roughness correction should be applied, as appropriate

IAEA
 Environmental Dose Assessment
Concepts: Breathing Rates
Breathing rates vary by age group and activity
Age Group Activity Total Activity
Sleeping Sitting Light Exercise Heavy Exercise Volume Avg. Rate
Rate Time Rate Time Rate Time Rate Time
m3/hr hr/day m3/hr hr/day m3/hr hr/day m3/hr hr/day m3/day m3/hr
Newborn
0.09 17.0 NA NA 0.19 7.0 NA NA 2.86 0.12
(3 month)
Infant
0.15 14.0 0.22 3.33 0.35 6.67 NA NA 5.20 0.22
(1 year)
5 yr old 0.24 12.0 0.32 4.0 0.57 8.0 NA NA 8.76 0.37
10 yr old 0.31 10.0 0.38 4.67 1.12 9.33 NA NA 15.28 0.64
15 yr old (m) 0.42 10.0 0.48 5.5 1.38 7.5 2.92 1.0 20.10 0.84
15 yr old (f) 0.35 10.0 0.4 7.0 1.3 6.75 2.57 0.25 15.72 0.66
Adult (m)
0.45 8.5 0.54 5.5 1.5 9.75 3.0 0.25 22.18 0.92
(Sedentary)
Adult (f)
0.32 8.5 0.39 5.5 1.25 9.75 2.7 0.25 17.68 0.74
(Sedentary)
See ICRP 66, Tables 8, B.16A, and B.16B for methods to calculate breathing rates.

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6/4/2016
76
Lecture 4b.3
• Summary of Key Points:
 Many factors effect the dose from environmental
contamination
 Biokinetic modelling of radionuclides is a complex process
and determine how much dose is delivered from radionuclide
intakes
 Environmental transport modelling is a complex process and
we must make some assumptions to estimate doses
 Radioactive decay and in-growth must be considered

IAEA
Lecture 4b.4

Environmental Dose
Assessment of Contaminated
Air and Ground

IAEA
Environmental Releases – IAEA Generic
Criteria and Methods
• IAEA General Safety Requirements Part 3, Radiation
Protection safety of radiation Sources: International Basic
Safety Standards (IAEA Pub. 1578, 2015) provides generic
criteria for protection of workers and the public
• IAEA-TECDOC-1162, Generic procedures for assessment
and response during a radiological emergency (IAEA,
2000), provides generic assessment methods
 Point sources,
 Line and spill sources,
 Ground contamination,
 Skin contamination,
 Air contamination, and
 Food contamination
IAEA
IAEA Methods for Ground Contamination
IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000) uses (dose) Conversion Factors from IAEA
Safety Series 81 (1986) to estimate effective dose from exposure to ground
contamination

• Section E,
Dose
Assessment,
Specifies
generic dose
assessment
methods

IAEA
IAEA Methods for Air Contamination
IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000) uses (inhalation dose) Conversion Factors to
estimate effective dose from exposure to contaminated air

IAEA
IAEA Methods for Ground Contamination

• IAEA-TECDOC-1162 dose Conversion Factors:

 Include the external (groundshine) dose and dose from inhalation of
resuspended material,
 Specified for limited set of radionuclides,
 Specified for limited set of exposures times (e.g., 1 month, 2nd month,
50 year),
 Are based on older dosimetry models,
 Calculation inputs (e.g., resuspension model) are not clearly
identified, and
 Are designed for public protection decisions (e.g., evacuation)
• Therefore, IAEA-TECDOC-1162 dose Conversion Factors
are not real useful for doing scenario-specific dose
assessments for non-default time periods

IAEA
IAEA Methods for Air Contamination

• IAEA-TECDOC-1162 uses inhalation dose Conversion

Factors from IAEA Safety Series No.115 (1996):
 Specified for limited set of radionuclides,
 Specified for 1 hour exposures, and
 Are designed for public protection decisions (e.g., evacuation)
• IAEA Safety Series No.115 (1996) was superseded by
General Safety Requirements No. GSR Part 3 (IAEA
Publication 1578, 2014)
• Therefore, not sure if it is appropriate to use the IAEA-
TECDOC-1162 inhalation dose Conversion Factors
scenario-specific dose assessments.

IAEA
United States Methods and Tools

• Federal Radiological
Monitoring and Assessment
Center (FRMAC)
Assessment Manual Volume
1, Overview and Methods,,
Sandia National
Laboratories, Albuquerque,
NM, April 2015 (SNL 2015b).
 Specifies U.S. environmental
assessment methods
 Available at:
http://www.nv.doe.gov/nationalsecurity/homelandsecurity/frmac/manuals.aspx

IAEA
 Turbo FRMAC© (TF) Software

Turbo FRMAC© (TF) Software (SNL, 2015a)

• Automates the methods in the
FRMAC Assessment Manual
• Turbo FRMAC eliminates most
human errors
• Greatly speeds up calculations
and eliminates the need to
make simplifying assumptions
• Turbo FRMAC runs on a laptop
• Latest Version is TF 2015
• Publically accessible at:
https://nirp.sandia.gov

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6/4/2016
85
Data to Support
Environmental Dose Assessment?
Where do you get air and ground concentration estimates to
support environmental assessments?
• Early on after the release
there is likely no vetted data
available.
 Any data is good data
 Guess?

• Atmospheric dispersion
models may provide first
estimates of air and ground
concentrations.
IAEA
Data to Support
Environmental Dose Assessment?
Where do you get air and ground concentration estimates to
support environmental assessments?
• Aerial Measuring
Systems can cover large
areas and give reliable
data quickly when
gamma emitters are
involved, but
 Can’t detect alpha radiation
emitters
 Can’t detect pure beta
emitters

IAEA
Data to Support
Environmental Dose Assessment?
Where do you get air and ground concentration estimates to
support environmental assessments?
• Field teams can provide accurate monitoring and sampling
data of air and ground, but
 Can be slow and limited by resources,
 Good gamma spectral analysis, and
 Can take physical sample of air, ground and media
• Lab Analysis is required to quantitate alpha and beta
emitters, but
 Can be slow, and
 expensive

IAEA
External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
External dose from submersion in an airborne plume

Submersion (γ, β)

Radiation field from submersion

in contaminated air

IAEA
External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
External dose coefficients for air submersion:
• Assume semi-infinite cloud of uniformly-distributed
contamination
• Specific to one radionuclide, not to a decay chain
 For example, Cs-137 external dose coefficient does not include the
external dose from Ba-137m

Additional Factors to Consider:

• Radioactive decay and in-growth modeling
• Are any radioactive decay products in equilibrium with parent
radionuclides?
• Must sum external dose from the parent and all progeny
radionuclides to estimate the external dose

IAEA
 External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Example of external dose from submersion in a plume:
• A Sr-90 release has occurred
• The estimated integrated air concentration is 3.0E+11 Bq•s/m3
• What is the Effective Dose from external exposure to an adult
receptor exposed to the plume?
Do you expect
the decay
product (Y-90) to
also be present if
Sr-90 is present?
• Yes, assume Y-
90 is in secular
equilibrium

IAEA
External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Note that the Air Submersion DC for the decay product, Y-90, is 8
times greater than that for Sr-90
• Always remember to consider radioactive decay products!

9.83E-14

7.91E-13

IAEA
 External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
External dose calculation from submersion in a plume:
n
Pl_ExDP =  (Pl_ExDC × Ã )
i
i i

mSv  m3 Bq  s
mSv  
Bq  s m3
where:
Pl_ExDP = Plume External Dose Parameter, the external dose from
submersion in an airborne plume of radionuclides, mSv
Pl_ExDCi = Plume External Dose Coefficient, the external dose rate from
submersion in radionuclide i in the plume, mSv•m3/Bq•s; and
Ãi = Integrated air activity of radionuclide i in a release, Bq•s/m3.

IAEA
 External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Example of external dose from plume submersion:
n
Pl_ExDP =  (Pl_ExDCi × Ãi )
i
External Air
Submersion Dose Integrated Air
Radio- Half-Life Branch Coefficient Concentration Effective Dose
nuclide (y) Factor (mSv•m3/Bq•s) (Bq•s/m3) (mSv)
Sr-90 29.1 N/A 9.83E-14 3.0E+11 2.95E-02
Y-90 7.30E-03 1.0 7.91E-13 3.0E+11 2.37E-01
Total = 2.66E-01
Therefore, the effective dose to an adult standing in an airborne
plume of Sr-90 and Y-90, in secular equilibrium, at a
concentration of 3.0E+11 Bq•s/m3 is 0.27 mSv.
NOTE: > 89% of dose comes dose from the decay product, Y-90

IAEA
External Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume

Example of external dose from submersion in a plume

using the Turbo FRMAC © software tool (SNL,
2015a)

IAEA
Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Inhalation dose from submersion in an airborne plume

Inhalation (α, β, γ)

Inhalation of radioactive
materials in an airborne plume

IAEA
Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
• Inhalation DC basic facts:
 DCs depend on the particle size distribution (PSD) of the particles
 DCs depend on the lung clearance type (Fast, Medium, Slow)

• General assumptions for environmental dose

assessments when you do not know specific details:
 Physical form is particulate (aerosol) unless it is a noble gas
 Workers - Lognormal distribution, 5 μm, Activity median
aerodynamic diameter (AMAD), geometric standard deviation = 2.5
 Public - Lognormal distribution, 1 μm, Activity median aerodynamic
diameter (AMAD), geometric standard deviation = 2.5

IAEA
Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
• General assumptions … when you do not know
specific details (continued):
 Public/environmental - Lognormal distribution, 1 μm-AMAD,
geometric standard deviation = 2.5, and
 See ICRP 68, 71, and 72 for guidance on Lung clearance type.
o Assume the lung clearance type is Medium (M) if no information is
available
 Breathing rate
o Assume adult, light-activity breathing rate, 1.5 m3/h (4.17E-04 m3/h)
Additional Factors to Consider:
• Radioactive decay and in-growth modeling
• Are any radioactive decay products in equilibrium with parent
radionuclides?

IAEA
 Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Example of inhalation dose from plume submersion when
integrated air activity in known:
• A Sr-90 release has occurred
• The integrated air concentration is 3.0E+11 Bq•s/m3
• What is the Committed Effective Dose from inhalation to an
adult receptor exposed to the plume?
 Assume no respiratory protection

• Do you expect the decay

product (Y-90) to also be
present if Sr-90 is present?
 Yes, assume Y-90 is in
secular equilibrium

IAEA
 Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Inhalation dose coefficients:
• What PSD and
lung clearance
type do you
assume?
 Assume the PSD
is 1 μm AMAD
 Assume lung
clearance type for
Sr-90 is class “M”
per ICRP Report
72, Table 2

IAEA
 Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Inhalation dose calculation from submersion in a plume when
integrated air concentration is known:
n
Pl_InhDP =  (InhDC × Ã  BR
i
i i LE )

mSv Bq  s m 3
mSv   3

Bq m s
where:
Pl_InhDP = Plume Inhalation Dose Parameter, the committed dose from the
inhalation of plume-borne radionuclides over the time phase under
consideration (TP), mSv;
InhDCi = Inhalation Dose Coefficient, the committed dose from inhalation of plume-
borne radionuclide i, mSv/Bq,
Ãi = Integrated air activity of radionuclide i in the airborne plume, Bq•s/m3; and
BRLE = Light Exercise Breathing Rate, the volume of air breathed per unit time by
an adult male during light exercise (ICRP, 1994, Table 6), 4.17E-04 m3/s.

IAEA
Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Example of inhalation dose from plume submersion when
integrated air concentration is known:
n
Pl_InhDP =  (InhDCi × Ãi  BR LE )
i
Inhalation
Integrated Air Dose Breathing
Radio- Half-Life Branch Concentration Coefficient rate Effective Dose
nuclide (y) Factor (Bq•s/m3) (mSv/Bq) (m3/s) (mSv)
Sr-90 29.1 N/A 3.0E+11 3.56E-05 4.17E-04 4.45E+03
Y-90 7.30E-03 1.0 3.0E+11 1.50E-06 4.17E-04 1.87E+02
Total = 4.64E+03
Therefore, the Committed Effective dose from inhalation to an
adult standing in an airborne plume of Sr-90 and Y-90, in
secular equilibrium, at a concentration of 3.0E+11 Bq•s/m3 is
4,640 mSv.
IAEA
 Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Example of inhalation dose from plume submersion when
average air concentration in known:
• A Sr-90 release has occurred
• The Sr-90 average air concentration is 1.0E+08 Bq/m 3
• An adult worker was in the plume for 1 hour (3,600 s)
• What is the Effective Dose from inhalation to an adult receptor exposed
to the plume?
Do you expect the
decay product
(Y-90) to also be
present if Sr-90 is
present?
• Yes, assume Y-90 is
in secular equilibrium

IAEA
 Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Inhalation dose calculation from submersion in a plume when
average air concentration is known:
n
Pl_InhDP =  (InhDC × C  BR
i
i i LE  t)

mSv Bq m 3
mSv   3  s
Bq m s
where:
Pl_InhDP = Plume Inhalation Dose Parameter, the committed dose from the inhalation of
plume-borne radionuclides over the time phase under consideration (TP), mSv;
InhDCi = Inhalation Dose Coefficient, the committed dose from inhalation of plume-borne
radionuclide i, mSv/Bq,
Ci = average air activity concentration of radionuclide i in the airborne plume, Bq/m3;
BRLE = Light Exercise Breathing Rate, the volume of air breathed per unit time by an
adult male during light exercise (ICRP, 1994, Table 6), 4.17E-04 m3/s; and
t = time that the receptor was in the plume, s.

IAEA
Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume
Example of inhalation dose from plume submersion when
average air concentration is known:
n
Pl_InhDP =  (InhDC × C  BR
i
i i LE  t)
Inhalation
Dose Air Breathing Effective
Radio- Half-Life Branch Coefficient Concentration rate Time Dose
nuclide (y) Factor (mSv/Bq) (Bq/m3) (m3/s) (s) (mSv)
Sr-90 29.1 N/A 3.56E-05 1.0E+08 4.17E-04 3,600 5.34E+03
Y-90 7.30E-03 1.0 1.50E-06 1.0E+08 4.17E-04 3,600 2.25E+02
Total = 5.57E+03
Therefore, the Committed Effective dose from inhalation to an
adult standing in an airborne plume of Sr-90 and Y-90, in
secular equilibrium, at an average concentration of 1.0E+08
Bq/m3 is 5,570 mSv.
IAEA
Inhalation Dose from Submersion in an
Airborne Plume

Example of inhalation dose from plume submersion

using the Turbo FRMAC © software tool (SNL,
2015a)

IAEA
 External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
Radiation field from standing on
contaminated ground

Deposition

Ground
Shine (γ)

Ground Pathways

IAEA
6/4/2016
107
External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
External dose from radionuclides deposited on the ground

Radiation field from

contaminated ground plane
(EPA-4020R-93-081)

IAEA
External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
External dose coefficients for surface contamination:
• Assume an infinite, perfectly flat, plane is contaminated at a
specified depth in the soil.
• Specific to one radionuclide, not to a decay chain
 For example, Cs-137 external dose coefficient does not include the
external dose from Ba-137m
• DCs specified for 5 depths:
 Surface contamination
 Mixed to depth of 1 cm
 Mixed to depth of 5 cm
 Mixed to depth of 10 cm
 Mixed to depth of 15 cm
 Mixed to infinite depth

IAEA
External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground

Additional Factors to Consider:

• Radioactive decay and in-growth modeling
• Are any radioactive decay products in equilibrium with parent
radionuclides?
• Ground Roughness Factor (GRF)
 the world is not an infinite flat plane
• Weathering Factor and Weathering Parameter modeling

IAEA
 External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
Example of external dose from surface contamination:
• A large surface area is contaminated with Cs-137 at 1.0E9 Bq/m2
• What is the Effective Dose to an Adult receptor standing in the
contaminated area for 10 hour, starting 8 hour after deposition?

Do you expect
the decay
product (Ba-
137m) to also be
present if Cs-137
is present?
• Yes!

IAEA
External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
Note that the Groundshine Dose Coefficient for the decay product,
Ba-137m, is 184 times greater than that for Cs-137
• Always remember to consider radioactive decay products!

3.15E-15
5.77E-13

IAEA
 External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
External dose calculation from standing on a contaminated
surface: n
Dp_ExDP =  (Dp_ExDC × GRF  WP
i
i i ,TP )
mSv  m 2 Bq  s
mSv =  unitless 
Bq  s m2
where:
Dp_ExDP = Deposition External Dose Parameter, the external dose from all
radionuclides over the time phase under consideration, Sv
GRF = Ground Roughness Factor, 0.82 (dimensionless)
Dp_ExDCi = Deposition External (groundshine) Dose Coefficient, the external dose rate
from radionuclide i per unit activity deposited on the ground, mSv•m2/Bq•s;
WPi = Weathering Parameter, the adjustment for radioactive decay and in-growth
and the time-dependent weathering effects that change the amount of a
radionuclide available to cause direct exposure over the time phase under
consideration (TP), Bq•s/m2.

IAEA
 External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground
Example of surface contamination:
n
Dp_ExDP =  (Dp_ExDC × GRF  WP
i
i i ,TP )
Ground Ground
Con- External Dose Roughness Effective
Radio- Half-Life Branch centration Coefficient Factor WP Dose
nuclide (y) Factor (Bq/m2) (mSv•m2/Bq•s) (dimensionless) (Bq•s/m2) (mSv)
Cs-137 30 N/A 1.0E+09 3.13E-15 0.82 3.60E+13 9.24E-02
Ba-137m 4.85E-06 0.946 9.46E+08 5.77E-13 0.82 3.40E+13 1.61E+01
Total = 1.62E+01

Therefore, the Effective Dose to an adult standing on ground

contaminated with 1.0E+09 Bq/m2 from a time phase of 8 – 18
hours following deposition is 16.2 Sv
NOTE: > 99% of dose comes dose from the decay product, Ba-137m

IAEA
External Dose from Standing on
Contaminated Ground

Example of external dose from surface

contamination using the Turbo FRMAC © software
tool (SNL, 2015a)

IAEA
Dose from Inhalation of Resuspended
Material while in Contaminated Area
A small fraction of the material deposited on surfaces
(ground) is resuspended into the breathing zone

Inhalation of radioactive
materials resuspended from the
ground and into the breathing
zone

Inhalation of Resuspended
Material (α,β,γ)

IAEA
Dose from Inhalation of Resuspended
Material while in Contaminated Area

Additional Factors to Consider:

• Radioactive decay and in-growth modeling
• Are any radioactive decay products in equilibrium with parent
radionuclides?
• Commitment periods
• Lung clearance (absorption) types
• Particle size distribution
• Chemical and physical forms
• Resuspension Factor and Resuspension Parameter
modeling
• Age of receptor
• Breathing rate
IAEA
 Dose from Inhalation of Resuspended
Material while in Contaminated Area
Example of dose from inhalation of resuspended contamination:
• A large surface area is contaminated with Cs-137 at 1.0E9 Bq/m2
• What is the Committed Effective Dose to an Adult receptor
standing in the contaminated area for 10 hour, starting 8 hour
after deposition?

Do you expect
the decay
product (Ba-
137m) to also be
present if Cs-137
is present?
• Yes!

IAEA
 Dose from Inhalation of Resuspended
Material while in Contaminated Area
Inhalation dose coefficients:
• What PSD and lung
clearance type do you
assume?
 Assume the PSD is 1
μm AMAD
 Assume lung clearance
type for Cs-137 is class
“F” per ICRP Report 72,
Table 2

NOTES:
• Because Ba-137m has a half-life < 10 minutes (i.e., 2.55 minutes) it is not given
an Inhalation DC.
• However, the Cs-137 DC does include the dose from Ba-137m that is formed
inside the body after intake
IAEA
Dose from Inhalation of Resuspended
Material while in Contaminated Area
Dose calculation for inhalation of resuspended material:
n
Dp_InhDP =  (InhDC × KP
i
i i ,TP  BR AA )
mSv Bq  s m3
mSv =  3

where: Bq m s
Dp_InhDP = Deposition Inhalation Dose Parameter, the committed dose from the inhalation
of plume-borne radionuclides over the time phase under consideration (TP),
mSv;
InhDCi = Inhalation Dose Coefficient, the committed dose from inhalation of plume-
borne radionuclide i, mSv/Bq,
KPi,TP = Resuspension Parameter, value that adjusts the airborne radioactivity level of
radionuclide i over the time phase under consideration (TP) for radioactive
decay and in-growth and the time-dependent resuspension factor (Kt),
Bq•s/m3; and
BRAA = Activity-Averaged Breathing Rate, the volume of air breathed per unit time by
an adult male during light exercise (ICRP, 1994, Table 6), 2.56E-04 m3/s.

IAEA
 Dose from Inhalation of Resuspended
Material while in Contaminated Area
Example of external dose from plume submersion:
n
Dp_InhDP =  (InhDCi × KPi ,TP  BR AA )
i
Inhalation
Dose Resupension Breathing
Radio- Half-Life Branch Coefficient Parameter rate Effective Dose
nuclide (y) Factor (mSv/Bq) (Bq•s/m3) (m3/s) (mSv)
Cs-137 30 N/A 4.67E-06 3.47E+08 2.56E-04 4.15E-01
Ba-137m 4.85E-06 0.946 NA 3.28E+08 2.56E-04 0
Total = 4.15E-01

Therefore, the Committed Effective dose from inhalation of

resuspended material to an adult standing on ground
contaminated with Cs-137 and Ba-137m, in secular equilibrium,
at a concentration of 1.0E+09 Bq/m2 is 4.15E-01 mSv.

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem

Example of projected
dose from living/working
in a contaminated area
using the Turbo
FRMAC © software tool
(SNL, 2015a)

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem

• A large surface area is contaminated with radioactive materials

released from a nuclear power plant
• Based on preliminary models and monitoring results for an area
occupied by members of the public, the estimated deposited
radionuclides of concern are:
Radio- Results
nuclide (MBq/m2)
Cs-134 3.26
Cs-136 0.112
Cs-137 3.25
I-131 1.25
I-132 1.110
La-140 0.655
Nb-95 0.195
Te-129m 1.23
Te-132 0.143

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem

• You have been asked to estimate the:

• Committed Effective dose and
• Committed EquivalentThyroid dose
to Adult members of the public that were exposed to the radioactive
material over a period of 0 – 7 days
• Assume the receptor was outside (unprotected) for the
entire exposure period
• Assume the “maximum” lung clearance type
• Include the dose from:
 External dose from submersion in the air-borne plume,
 Inhalation dose from submersion in the air-borne plume,
 External dose from standing in the contaminated area, and
 Inhalation dose from resuspended material while standing in the
area
IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem

• How do the estimated Committed Effective dose and Committed

EquivalentThyroid compare to the IAEA’s generic dose criteria?

Table A-1.
Generic Criteria
for Protective
Actions and
Other Response
Actions in
Emergency
Exposure
Situations to
Reduce the Risk
of Stochastic
Effects (IAEA
Pub. 1578, 2014)

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem

• Start the Turbo FRMAC © software tool

• Open a blank projected public dose case

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem
• Set the time phases you want to consider
• Set the dose pathways you want to include

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem
• Enter the Nuclear Power Plant radionuclide mixture based
on the estimated ground concentration data

IAEA
 Example Public Dose Problem
• Note that:
 The integrated air activity is added based on the ground concentration
 Decay products that are expected to be in equilibrium are automatically
added

IAEA
 Example Public Dose Problem
• Also, note that the default physical forms for iodine released from a
NPP are assumed

IAEA
 Example Public Dose Problem
• Click on Projected Public Dose to view the estimated dose results
• Select the desired Age Group and Organ

IAEA
 Example Public Dose Problem
• Click on Projected Public Dose to view the estimated dose results
• Select the desired Age Group and Organ

IAEA
Example Public Dose Problem
Committed Total Generic
Effective Effective Effective Criteria, Total Were any
Time Dose (E) Dose (E) Dose (E) Effective Dose
Period (mSv) (mSv) (mSv) (mSv)
IAEA
1st Week 31.0 4.14 35.1 100 generic
1st Year 0.658 141 142 100 criteria
exceeded?
Committed Total
Equivalent Equivalent Equivalent Generic Yes, the 1st
Dose Dose Dose Criteria, Total
Time (Hthyroid) (Hthyroid) (Hthyroid) Effective Dose Year Total
Period (mSv) (mSv) (mSv) (mSv) Effective
1st Week 49.4 4.18 53.6 100
Dose
1st Year 0.388 144 145 Not Applicable
criteria was
exceeded!
IAEA
Lecture 4b.4

• Summary of Key Points:

 Major environmental dose pathways include:
o External (submersion) dose from radionuclides in the air-borne plume,
o Inhalation dose from radionuclides in the air-borne plume,
o External (groundshine) dose from radionuclides deposited on the ground,
o Inhalation dose from the resuspension of radionuclides deposited on the
ground
 Environmental dose assessments are complex and difficult to
do by hand
 Use software to increase the speed and accuracy of
environmental assessments

IAEA
Lecture Module 4b

Lecture 4b.4: Environmental Dose Assessment,

Contaminated Food

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food
What are safe levels of
contamination in food?
• OIL5 and OIL6 are
measured values of
concentrations in food,
milk or water that warrant
the consideration of
restrictions on
consumption so as to
keep the effective dose to
any person below 10
Default OILs (IAEA, 2011)
mSv per annum (IAEA a ’+’ indicates radionuclides with progeny listed
in Table
Publication 1467, 2011) 11 that are assumed to be in equilibrium with the parent
radionuclide and therefore do not need to be considered
independently when assessing compliance with OILs

IAEA
 Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food
Accessing Food Safety:
• Survey to compare gross beta
and alpha activity to OIL5 values
• If food contamination exceeds
OIL5 values, food should be
sampled and analyzed, and
compared to the corresponding
OIL6 value
• If the radionuclide concentrations
is greater than the OIL6,
consumption of non-essential
food, milk or water should be Process for assessing radionuclide
stopped (IAEA, 2011) concentrations in food (IAEA, 2011)

IAEA
6/4/2016
137
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food
Food can become contaminated by:
• Contamination directly depositing on the edible part of the plant
• Contamination being incorporated into the plant through root uptake
• Resuspended material
being deposited on the
edible portion of the
plant
• Animals consuming
contaminated feed and
water and then
incorporating the
contamination into their
flesh, milk, eggs, etc.
IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food

Food contamination level projections:

• Methods are available to project contamination levels
in food that have been contaminated by direct
contamination, root uptake, and by incorporation into
animal products (meat, milk, eggs, etc.)
• These methods can help farmers decide whether or
not they should continue spending resources on the
food resource.
• Food embargo decisions should always be based on
laboratory analysis, not on model projections.

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food

Additional Factors to Consider:

• Age group that will consume the food
• How much food do they consume (e.g., kg/yr)
• How long will the contaminated food be eaten?
• Radioactive decay and in-growth modeling
• Are any radioactive decay products in equilibrium with parent
radionuclides?

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA
• IAEA-TECDOC-955 (1997) and IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000)
specify ingestion dose assessment method
• IAEA General Safety Requirements Part 3 (IAEA Publication
1578, 2014) provides Ingestion dose coefficients for members
of the public and workers

IAEA
 Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA

 C  U f ,i  DIi  CFi    RFi , j

n n
E Ing = f ,i
where: i j 1
EIng = Committed effective dose from ingestion, mSv;
Cf,i = Activity concentration in food of radionuclide i, Bq/kg;
Ufi = The amount of food f consumed by the population of interest per day. For
dirt ingestion maximum adult ingestion is about 100 mg/d with an average
of about 25 mg/d; the maximum consumption for a child is 500 mg/d with
an average of 100 mg/d, kg/d or L/d;
DIi = Days of intake is the period food is assumed to be consumed. If T 1/2 is >
21 days use 30 days. If T1/2 is < 21 days use the mean life Tm of the
radionuclide, d;
Tm = Mean Life, d;

Tm = T1/2  1.44
where:
T1/2 = Radionuclide half-life, d.

IAEA
 Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA

 C  U f ,i  DIi  CFi    RFi , j

n n
E Ing = f ,i
i j 1
where (continued):
CFi = Ingestion dose conversion factor (Table IIIA of IAEA, 1997), mSv/Bq;
RFj = Reduction Factor is the fraction of contamination remaining after the decay
that occurs while the food is held up before consumption, dimensionless.
NOTE: RFs included in IAEA-TECDOC-955, but not included in IAEA-TECDOC-1162
where:
RFi,j = Reduction Factor for decay that occurs while the food is held up
before consumption, dimensionless.
 Td 
 
 T1/2 
RFi = 0.5
where:
Td = Time food is held before consumption, d;

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA

 C  U f ,i  DIi  CFi    RFi , j

n n
E Ing = f ,i
i j 1
where (continued):
RFj = Reduction Factor for
some process j used
to reduce the
contamination before
food is consumed,
dimensionless. See
Table F8 in Procedure
F4 for RFs (IAEA,
1997);

IAEA
 Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA
Accessing Food Safety:
• OIL6 is exceeded when:

n C f ,i
 OIL6
i
>1
i

where:
Cf,i = is the concentration of radionuclide i in the food, milk or water, Bq/kg
and
OIL6i = the concentration of radionuclide i from Table 10 of IAEA Publication
1467, Bq/kg.

IAEA
6/4/2016
145
 Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA
Example of ingestion dose from contaminated food:
• A leaf lettuce crop is contaminated with I-131 at 3.0E3 Bq/kg
• The lettuce will be held 2 days before it is eaten
• The lettuce crop will be washed before it is eaten
• What is the Committed Effective dose to an adult eating the lettuce?
• How many kg of lettuce/day does the adult eat? Assume the adults eats
0.25 kg/d of lettuce

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA
• Ingestion dose coefficients for members of the public from IAEA
General Safety Requirements Part 3 (IAEA Publication 1578, 2014)

IAEA
 Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA

 C  U f ,i  DIi  CFi    RFi , j

n n
E Ing = f ,i
where: i j 1
EIng = Adult Committed Effective dose from ingestion of I-131, mSv;
Cf,i = I-131 activity concentration in food of radionuclide i, 3E+03 Bq/kg;
Ufi = Adult lettuce intake, 0.250 kg/d
DIi = I-131 days of intake, 11.6 d;

Tm = T1/2  1.44 = 8.04 d  1.44 = 11.6 d

CFi = Adult Committed Effective Ingestion dose conversion factor, 2.2E-05 mSv/Bq;
RFj = Reduction Factor for decay over 2 day hold up period, 0.84, dimensionless;
and  Td   2.0 d 
   
RFi = 0.5 T1/2 
= 0.5  8.04 d 
 0.84
RFj = Reduction Factor for washing, 0.5, dimensionless;

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food - IAEA
n  3.0+03 Bq I 131 0.25 kg 2.2E-05 mSv 
E Ing , I 131 =     11.6 d    (0.84  0.5)
i  Kg d Bq I 131 i 
= 0.080 mSv

Therefore, the adult’s Committed Effective Dose from eating the

contaminated leaf lettuce is 0.080 mSv.

Does this exceed the IAEA’s generic dose criterion for ingestion?

NO!, because the generic dose limit

criterion for ingestion is 10 mSv per annum

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food – United States
• A similar method is used in the United States to
assess the dose from contaminated food, milk, and
water.
• Method 3.5 in the FRMAC Assessment Manual,
Volume 1
• The main differences are:
• 30% of the entire diet intake (kg/d) is assumed to be the
contaminated food being assessed
• Default intake period is 365 days (IAEA is ≤ 30 days)
• Radioactive decay is accounted intake period

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food – United States
EIng ,age    DFIR
Subgroup
subgroup , age  FFCsubgroup  IngDPE ,avg ,age 

 kg wet mSv  d 
mSv    d
Subgroup 
 unitless  
kg wet 
where:
Eing,age = Committed Effective Dose from ingestion, the dose to the
whole body, received by a specific age group from ingestion of
all radionuclides in all contaminated food types, mSv;
DFIRsubgroup,age = Daily Food Intake Rate for a food subgroup (as prepared for
consumption, i.e. wet mass) for a specific age group, kgwet/d;
FFCsubgroup,i = Fraction of Food Subgroup Contaminated, dimensionless;
IngDPE, avg,age = Average Ingestion Dose Parameter for a food subgroup, the
average of the individual IngDPE,f,age for each type of
contaminated food in a subgroup for a specific age group,
mSv∙d/kgwet.;

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food – United States
 1  e  i tc

IngDPE , f ,age    C f ,i  IngDCE ,age ,i  e  i th
 
i  i 
mSv d  μCi mSv unitless 
    unitless  
kg wet i  kg wet Bq d -1 
where:
IngDPE,f,age = Ingestion Dose Parameter, the committed effective dose
received from ingestion of all radionuclides in a specific food
type (f) by a specific age group, mSv∙d/kgwet;
Cf,i = Food Contamination, the level of contamination of radionuclide
i in a specific food type (f), Bq/kgwet or Bq/l;
IngDCE,age,i = Ingestion Dose Coefficient, the ingestion pathway dose
coefficient for the whole body (E) for a specific age group for
radionuclide i, mSv/Bq;
λi = Decay constant for radionuclide i, d-1;

IAEA
Dose from Ingestion of Radiologically
Contaminated Food – United States
 1  e  i tc

IngDPE , f ,age    C f ,i  IngDCE ,age ,i  e  i th
 
i  i 

Where (continued):
th = Hold Time, the time elapsed from sample measurement to the
beginning of the consumption period, d;

e  i th = Radioactive Decay adjustment for radionuclide i over time th,

unitless;
th = Hold Time, the time elapsed from sample measurement to the
beginning of the consumption period, d;
tc = Consumption Time, the length of the consumption period
(default 365 days), d; and
1  e  i tc
= Integrated decay of radionuclide i over the length of
i consumption period, d.

IAEA
Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

Example of projected
dose from eating
contaminated food using
the Turbo FRMAC ©
software tool (SNL,
2015a)

IAEA
Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food
• A batch of fresh produce (fruit) was suspected of being
contaminated after it was consumed over a 30 day period.
• Based on laboratory analyses, the radionuclide concentrations
at the beginning of the 30 d consumption period were:
Radio- Results
nuclide (Bq/kg) Mmmmm!
Mommy this
Am-241 40.1 watermelon
Pu-238 125 tastes like
Americium and
Pu-239 520 Plutonium!
Can I eat it
without
exceeding the
IAEA’s generic
criteria?

IAEA
Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• You have been asked to:

• Estimate the Committed Effective dose to all age groups,
• To identify the most restrictive age group,
• Consider if it is appropriate to use the most conservative age group
(e.g., does this age group eat significant amounts of fresh
produce?), and
• To estimate if the generic criteria has been exceeded.
• Assume that the receptor’s entire dietary intake (kg/d) of
fresh produce was the contaminated produce
• Assume the contaminated produce was consumed for 30 d

IAEA
Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• IAEA Criteria for Use in Preparedness and Response for a

Nuclear or Radiological Emergency, General Safety Guide
No. GSG-2, Publication 1467, International Atomic Energy
Agency, 2011
• OIL5 and OIL6 are measured values of concentrations in
food, milk or water that warrant the consideration of
restrictions on consumption so as to keep the effective
dose to any person below 10 mSv per annum.

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• Start the Turbo

FRMAC ©
software tool
(SNL, 2015a)
• Open a blank
Solid Food
Ingestion Dose
case

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• Enter the
radionuclide
contamination
values of the
fresh produce

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• Select the
fresh
produce
intake rates

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• Select the
Consumption
Period
• Select the
Hold Time
(assume no
hold time
because lab.
results were
set at the time
consumption
began)

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food

• Set the
Fraction of
Food
Contaminated
to 1.0 for all
radionuclides
and for all age
groups

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food
• Click on Ingestion Dose to view the estimated dose results
• Select the desired Age Group and Organ

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food
• Select the Most Conservative Age Group and Organ
• Does this age group eat significant amounts of fresh produce?

IAEA
 Example of Dose from Ingestion of
Radiologically Contaminated Food
• Is the Generic Criteria of 10 mSv (Effective Dose) met or exceeded?
• Does the 3 month old eat significant amounts of fresh produce?
Estimated Committed Effective and Committed Equivalent (Bone
Surface) doses from eating contaminated fresh produce
Committed Effective Most Conservative Equivalent
Dose (E) Dose (HBone Surfaces)
Age Group (mSv) (mSv)
Adult 1.43 47.7
15 y old 1.30 38.8
10 y old 1.32 33.7
5 y old 1.30 27.8
1 y old 1.36 24.7
3 month old 13.1 235

IAEA
Lecture 4b.5

• Summary of Key Points:

• IAEA guidance provides operational intervention levels (OILs),
emergency action levels (EALs), and generic dose criteria for
ingestion assessments
• Ingestion dose assessments can be relatively simple, but
quickly become more complicated as the number of
radionuclide contaminants increase
• Use a software tool to speed up assessments and to minimize
errors

IAEA
Reference List
• Cambridge (1910). “Solution of a System of Differential Equations Occurring in the Theory
of Radioactive Transformations,” Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. IS, 423 (1910), H. Bateman.
• EPA (1989). Evaluation of Skin and Ingestion Exposure Pathways, EPA 520/1-89-016,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
• EPA (1992). Manual of Protective Action Guides and Protective Actions for Nuclear
Incidents, EPA 400-R-92-001, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
• EPA (2011). Exposure Factors Handbook, EPA/600/R-090/052F, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
• EPA (2103). Protective Action Guides and Planning Guidance for Radiological Incidents,
Draft for Interim Use and public comment, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
• FDA (1998). Accidental Radioactive Contamination of Human Foods and Animal Feeds:
Recommendations for State and Local Agencies, U.S. Food and Drug Administration,
Washington, DC.
• FDA (2001). Potassium Iodide as a Thyroid Blocking Agent in Radiation Emergencies,
U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC.
• HPS (2002). “Movement of Radionuclides in Terrestrial Ecosystems by Physical
Processes,” Health Physics, Vol. 82, pp. 670-679, Anspaugh, L. R., et al.

IAEA
Reference List
• HPS (2011). “An Improved Model for Prediction of Resuspension,” Health Physics,
Volume 101, pp. 722-730, Maxwell, R. and Anspaugh, L.
• IAEA (1986). Derived Intervention Levels for Application in Controlling Radiation Doses to
the Public in the Event of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency, Safety Series
No. 81, Vienna.
• IAEA (1996). International Atomic Energy Agency, International Basic Safety Standards
for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources, Safely
Series 115, Vienna.
• IAEA (1997). Generic assessment procedures for determining protective actions during a
reactor incident, IAEA-TECDOC-955, Vienna.
• IAEA (2000). Generic procedures for assessment and response during a radiological
emergency, IAEA-TECDOC-1162, Vienna.
• IAEA (2011). IAEA Criteria for Use in Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or
Radiological Emergency, General Safety Guide No. GSG-2, Publication 1467, Vienna.
• IAEA (2014). Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources: International Basic
Safety Standards, General Safety requirements Part 3, No. GSR Part 3, Publication
1578, Vienna.
• IAEA (2015). Preparedness and Response for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency,
IAEA Safety Standards Series No. GS-R-7, Vienna.

IAEA
Reference List
• ICRP (1975). Limits for Intakes of radionuclides by Workers, Publication 30, Pergamon
Press, International Commission on Radiological Protection.
• ICRP (1983). Radionuclide Transformations, Energy and intensity of Emissions, Publication
38, Pergamon Press.
• ICRP (1990). 1990 Recommendations of the ICRP, Publication 60, Pergamon Press.
• ICRP (1994). Human Respiratory Tract Model for Radiological Protection, Publication 66,
Pergamon Press.
• ICRP (1993). Age-dependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of radionuclides:
Part 2 Ingestion dose Coefficients, Publication 67, Pergamon Press.
• ICRP (1994). Dose Coefficients for Intakes of Radionuclides by Workers, Publication 68,
Pergamon Press.
• ICRP (1995). Age-dependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of radionuclides:
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