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Health Care in Malaysia The Dynamics of Provision
Financing and Access Routledge Malaysian Studies Series
1st Edition H. Barrac Chee Digital Instant Download
Author(s): H. Barrac Chee
ISBN(s): 9780415418799, 0415418798
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 1.17 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Health Care in Malaysia

The health care system in Malaysia has undergone a fundamental transforma-

tion over the last two decades. For many years after Independence, Malaysia
enjoyed widely available and accessible health care services. Funding was
through central taxation, and hospital care almost totally provided by gov-
ernment. In the 1980s this began to change under the influence of growing
health care demand and utilization fuelled by rising incomes, urbanization
and the emergent middle classes. The hospital sector is now seeing the rapid
rise of corporate, investor-owned services and specialist clinics, whilst the
proposed National Health Security Fund will essentially transform Malaysian
health care from a taxation-based system to a social insurance system.
This book examines this transformation in Malaysia’s health care system,
and explores the pressing issues it faces today. It describes the evolution of
the system since Independence, from the colonial legacy of national provi-
sion bequeathed from the British to the impact of the global ideological shift
against statism in the 1980s. It considers the responses of the Malaysian
state and government policy, and addresses important issues such as equity
of provision, women’s access to health care services, HIV/AIDS health
care, care for the elderly and provision for indigenous peoples. Overall, this
book provides a detailed examination of the changing face of health care in
Malaysia, and its impact on Malaysian citizens, users and society.

Chee Heng Leng is Senior Research Fellow in the Asia Research Institute
at the National University of Singapore. Her publications include Health
and Health Care in Malaysia: Present Trends and Implications for the Future,
and she was a member of the writing team for the World Health Organiza-
tion report Genomics and World Health. She works in the areas of health
and health care, gender, women and family.

Simon Barraclough teaches health policy and international health relations

in the School of Public Health, La Trobe University, Australia. His research
interests include the political economy of health systems in developing
countries, international investment in health services, health industry exports,
international health relations and tobacco control policies in developing
countries.
Routledge Malaysian Studies Series

Published in association with Malaysian Social Science Association (MSSA)

Series Editors
Mohammed Hazim Shah, University of Malaya
Shamsul A.B., University Kebangsaan Malaysia
Terence Gomez, University of Malaya

The Routledge Malaysian Studies Series publishes high quality scholarship that pro-
vides important new contributions to knowledge on Malaysia. It also signals research
that spans comparative studies, involving the Malaysian experience with that of other
nations.
This series, initiated by the Malaysian Social Science Association (MSSA) to pro-
mote study of contemporary and historical issues in Malaysia, and designed to respond
to the growing need to publish important research, also serves as a forum for debate on
key issues in Malaysian society. As an academic series, it will be used to generate new
theoretical debates in the social sciences and on processes of change in this society.
The Routledge Malaysian Studies Series will cover a broad range of subjects
including history, politics, economics, sociology, international relations, geography,
business, education, religion, literature, culture and ethnicity. The series will encour-
age work adopting an interdisciplinary approach.

The State of Malaysia

Ethnicity, equity and reform
Edited by Edmund Terence Gomez

Feminism and the Women’s Movement in Malaysia

An unsung (r)evolution
Cecilia Ng, Maznah Mohamad and tan beng hui

Governments and Markets in East Asia

The politics of economic crises
Jungug Choi

Health Care in Malaysia

The dynamics of provision, financing and access
Edited by Chee Heng Leng and Simon Barraclough
Health Care in Malaysia
The dynamics of provision,
financing and access

Edited by
Chee Heng Leng and
Simon Barraclough
First published 2007 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
270 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group,
an informa business
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2007.
To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

© 2007 editorial selection and matter, Chee Heng Leng and Simon
Barraclough; individual chapters, the contributors

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or

reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0-203-96483-7 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN10: 0–415–41879–8 (hbk)

ISBN10: 0–203–96483–7 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–41879–9 (hbk)

ISBN13: 978–0–203–96483–5 (ebk)
Contents

List of tables vii

List of figures x
List of contributors xi
Preface xiii
Foreword xiv
Abbreviations and glossary of Malay terms xx

Introduction: The transformation of health

care in Malaysia 1
CHEE HENG LENG AND SIMON BARRACLOUGH

PART I
The state and the private sector in the financing
and provision of health care 17

1 The growth of corporate health care in Malaysia 19

CHEE HENG LENG AND SIMON BARRACLOUGH

2 Regulating Malaysia’s private health care sector 40

NIK ROSNAH WAN ABDULLAH

3 Rising health care costs: the contradictory responses

of the Malaysian state 59
PHUA KAI LIT

4 Malaysian health policy in comparative perspective 72

M. RAMESH

5 The welfarist state under duress: global influences

and local contingencies in Malaysia 85
CHAN CHEE KHOON
vi Contents
6 Equity in Malaysian health care: an analysis of
public health expenditures and health care facilities 102
WEE CHONG HUI AND JOMO K.S.

PART II
People’s access to health care 117

7 Health care for the Orang Asli: consequences of

paternalism and non-recognition 119
COLIN NICHOLAS AND ADELA BAER

8 Women’s access to health care services in Malaysia 137

CHEE HENG LENG AND WONG YUT LIN

9 HIV/AIDS health care policy and practice in Malaysia 154

HUANG MARY S.L. AND MOHD NASIR MOHD TAIB

10 Health care and long-term care issues for the elderly 170
ONG FON SIM

11 Health care in Sarawak: model of a public system 187

KHOO KHAY JIN

Epilogue: Civil society and health care policy

in Malaysia 208
CHEE HENG LENG AND SIMON BARRACLOUGH

Index 218
Tables

1.1 Private medical facilities and national income 24

1.2 Utilization of private and public medical facilities 24
2.1 Number of hospitals providing social or community
services by hospital size, Malaysia, 1999 44
2.2 Number of complaints received by the Malaysian Medical
Association Ethics Committee, 1987–1997 49
2.3 Number of complaints received by the Malaysian Medical
Council 1986–1994 52
3.1 Ministry of Health allocated budget, and health care
cost inflation, Malaysia, 1980–2001 61
3.2 Total health expenditure and health care cost inflation,
Malaysia, 1997–2003 62
3.3 Government health expenditure and total health
expenditure in 2001 for countries with comparable
gross national income per capita (in purchasing power
parity international dollars) 63
3.4 ‘Health system responsiveness’ and ‘fairness of
contribution to the health system’ for 13 countries
with comparable gross national product per
capita (in purchasing power parity international
dollars) 64
4.1 Hospital beds and physicians for selected countries
(per 1,000 people) 74
4.2 Health expenditure in Malaysia and selected countries
(per capita, total and government) 77
4.3 Government expenditure on health, a comparison
of Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, the United
Kindom and the USA 78
4.4 Comparative private expenditures on health, 1995,
1998 and 2002, for selected countries 78
4.5 Life expectancy at birth and infant mortality rates
for selected countries 80
4.6 Health-adjusted life expectancy, 2002 81
viii Tables
6.1 Proportion of federal government expenditure by
functional classification, Malaysia (%) 104
6.2 Ministry of Health, Malaysia: operating expenditure,
1981–1999 105
6.3 Average distance from health facilities by income quintile,
1996 (kilometres) 106
6.4 Cost of seeking outpatient care from government
services and gross household income, 1973/74,
1986/87, 1996 (RM per visit) 107
6.5 Population per doctor and poverty incidence by state,
1985, 1990, 1995 and 1997 109
6.6 Visits per capita for government health services by
income group, 1973/74, 1996 110
6.7 Patients of the National Heart Institute, 1992–2001,
% distribution by status/type 111
6.8 Subsidization of various government health services
by income quintile, 1973/74 112
6.9 Subsidization of various government health services by
income quintile, 1996 113
6.10 Ministry of Health operating budget and gross household
income by state, 1998 114
8.1 International comparisons of maternal mortality rate
and life expectancy 141
10.1 Past, present and future elderly population trends,
Malaysia, 1970–2030 172
10.2 Age distribution of the Malaysian population,
1970, 1980, 1991 and 2000 173
10.3 Percentage of elderly by ethnicity, 1991 and 2000 173
10.4 Percentage distribution of elderly by marital status,
sex and age group, Malaysia 2000 174
10.5 Frequency of health problems among one group of
urban elderly in Peninsular Malaysia, 2002 177
10.6 Health problems reported among one group of urban
elderly in Peninsular Malaysia, 2002 177
10.7 Patronage behaviour among the elderly for health services
by location, 2004 178
10.8 Reasons for patronizing health service providers, 2004 179
11.1 Population of Sarawak by ethnicity and urbanization
rate, 2000 189
11.2 Income and poverty by ethnicity, Sarawak, 2002 190
11.3 Public/private mix in health service provision, Sarawak 192
11.4 Nearest medical facility by stratum, 1996 193
11.5 Medical facility consulted by nearest facility, 1996 194
11.6 Costs of utilization, and mean transportation time,
by facility and stratum, 1996 194
 Tables ix
11.7 Provision of water and sanitation, 2001 197
11.8 Immunization coverage, Sarawak, 2001 197
11.9 Infant mortality rate by state and territory, Malaysia,
2000 and 2003 198
11.10 Malaria incidence by ethnicity, Sarawak, 2000 200
11.11 Incidence of syphilis and gonococcal infections
per 100,000 for 1999 201
Figures

9.1 Reported and cumulative HIV cases by year, Malaysia 156

9.2 Number of women infected with HIV and AIDS, and
number of deaths by year, Malaysia 157
11.1 Malaria cases 1994–2003, Sarawak 200
Contributors

Adela Baer is Adjunct Professor in the Department of Zoology, Oregon

State University, USA.
Simon Barraclough is Senior Lecturer, in the School of Public Health, La
Trobe University, Victoria, Australia.
Chan Chee Khoon is Professor in the School of Social Sciences, Universiti
Sains Malaysia.
Chee Heng Leng is Senior Research Fellow in the Asia Research Institute,
National University of Singapore.
Huang Mary S.L. is Associate Professor in the Department of Nutrition and
Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra
Malaysia.
Jomo K.S. is Assistant Secretary-General in the Department of Economic
and Social Affairs of the United Nations.
Khoo Khay Jin is an independent researcher based in Kuching, Sarawak,
Malaysia.
Mohd Nasir Mohd Taib is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Nutrition
and Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti
Putra Malaysia.
Colin Nicholas is Coordinator for the Centre for Orang Asli Concerns,
Selangor, Malaysia.
Nik Rosnah Wan Abdullah is Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Administrative Studies and Politics, Faculty of Economics and Adm-
inistration, University of Malaya.
Ong Fon Sim is Associate Professor in the Faculty of Business and
Accountancy, University of Malaya.
Phua Kai Lit is Associate Professor in the School of Medicine and Health
Sciences, Monash University Malaysia.
xii Contributors
M. Ramesh is Associate Professor at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public
Policy, National University of Singapore.
Wee Chong Hui is Associate Professor, Economics in the Universiti Teknologi
MARA, Kota Samarahan, Sarawak.
Wong Yut Lin is Associate Professor in the Health Research Development
Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Preface

The chapters in this volume were first presented at a workshop entitled ‘Health
Care in Malaysia’, held at the National University of Singapore from 9–11
September 2004. We are grateful for the support we received from the Asia
Research Institute (ARI), National University of Singapore, for the organ-
ization of the workshop as well as for the preparation of this volume.
We would like to thank the many individuals who contributed to the
success of the workshop, in particular the chairpersons and participants,
and the Events Team at ARI. Adela Baer, Angelique Chan, Chan Chee
Khoon, Joel Kahn, Phua Kai Hong, Volker Schmidt, Vineeta Sinha and
Wong Mee Lian very generously spent time reading the various papers and
giving their comments as discussants at the workshop. We would also like to
place on record our appreciation for the participation of Mary Cardosa,
Chua Hong Teck, Kumar Devaraj and Ooi Giok Ling.
From the conception of the workshop to the completion of this volume,
we benefited from the support and input of many individuals. The idea for a
workshop on health care in Malaysia, from which an edited volume would
result, came initially from Anthony Reid, Director of ARI, without whose
encouragement this volume would never have been produced. We also wish
to thank Gavin Jones, Research Leader of the Changing Family in Asia
Research Cluster at ARI for his help at various critical junctures.
Early on, Chan Chee Khoon and Jomo Sundaram were involved in the
conceptualization of this volume; they also read and commented on various
chapters, with Chee Khoon contributing to an early draft of the Introduction.
M.K. Rajakumar who gave a keynote address at the workshop, and who has
also kindly graced us with a Foreword, provided many invaluable comments.
In this regard, we also wish to thank Gerald Bloom, who also gave a keynote
address at the workshop, for his critical comments and insights. Tan Boon
Kean lent his editing expertise for the Introduction and the Epilogue, and
provided support and encouragement during the long and arduous process of
editing. Nonetheless, as editors, we bear the responsibility for the final shape
and contents of this volume. And to all the contributors of the volume, ribuan
terima kasih for collaborating with us in bringing this project to fruition.
The Editors
 Foreword
M.K. Rajakumar

Health is a requirement for fitness to earn a living, to attract a mate

and to raise children, indeed for life itself: it is a special good that you
cannot do without. Shared health care, and education, are the principal
sources of social solidarity and social cohesion between peoples sharing
a land in the modern state. This is more strongly a factor in new states such
as Malaysia.
Health investment also reflects the distribution of political power. Equity in
access to health care is a measure of the effective functioning of democracy.
Rapid economic growth in Asia has reduced poverty, but we need measures
of equity that incorporate timely access to health care and education, to give
direction to further economic growth.
In a complex plural society like Malaysia, continued ethnic harmony is
contingent on the acceptance of a reasonable degree of economic and social
inequities, and on an electoral consensus based on the assurance of progress
in remedying these inequities.
It is useful to consider the development of health services in Malaysia in
several phases, as determined by the governing power:

• Foreign administration
British colonial period, before and after the Second World War
Japanese military administration
Postwar British administration
• Independence, elected government
‘Malayanization’
Modernization
Privatization

British colonialism
Modern scientific medicine, so-called ‘western medicine’, was introduced
during the colonial period. It was directed towards the health care of the
British and, separately, for preserving a fit workforce in the plantations and
tin mines. The principal cause of disability and death was malaria: rushed
 Foreword xv
felling of the forests for plantations created a favourable environment for
the mosquito vector of the malarial parasite; and in reclaiming land for Port
Swettenham, nearly half the indentured labour from India died every year
so that constant replacement of imported labour was needed. On the planta-
tions and mines, where British personnel were also exposed, anti-malarial
work to keep the environment free of the mosquito vector was conducted
vigorously.
As populations became concentrated into townships, prevention of
epidemics of water-borne infections, typhoid and cholera necessitated
investment in providing safe water. The health services moved into the hands
of professionals who brought a degree of professionalism and conscientious-
ness to their work.
Only low status employment was given to Asian doctors, nurses and lab
technologists, who were discouraged from acquiring postgraduate qualifica-
tions. In Singapore, the determination of the Chinese community was shown
when it funded a medical school. Its graduates, as well as doctors qualified
in India and elsewhere, were designated ‘assistant medical officers’ ranking
below British matrons. This included a few who had acquired postgraduate
qualifications on their own initiative from the United Kingdom (UK) royal
colleges. (This formed the basis of a long, friendly, professional association
with the royal colleges that lasted beyond British colonial rule.) Neverthe-
less, on returning home, they were denied specialist status, remaining ‘assist-
ants’. Asian doctors held low rank in the hierarchy but were doing major
surgery and managing all illnesses. Some resigned in disgust and entered
private practice, which gave general practice a wide range of skills, high status
and acceptance in the community that has lasted.

Japanese military administration

The Japanese faced a hostile population. Their brutality in China had earned
the hostility of the Chinese in Southeast Asia. The British, when abandon-
ing their territories, armed the Communists, mainly Chinese, to provide a
resistance. The Japanese sought to subdue the people by terror, brutality
and killing, particularly targeting the Chinese.
Japanese doctors and medicines were needed for their soldiers, and the
care of the population was relegated to Asian doctors. Overnight, Asian
doctors found themselves running hospitals, and training their younger
colleagues in managing severe illness and doing major surgery. A medical
school was started in Malacca by the Japanese administration, and its
students were to become the first entrants – mature, tough and experienced
– to the medical school in Singapore when it reopened after the war.
A cadre of self-confident and experienced Asian doctors was in exis-
tence when the British returned to re-establish colonial administration. They
would not accept reverting to being the juniors to inexperienced British
doctors.
xvi Foreword
Postwar British administration
Events in Asia reflected a vastly different political climate. Malay nation-
alism was a powerful force and the civil servants and professionals moved
to push out the British officers who remained. The reluctance to allow
Asian doctors to acquire higher specialist qualifications in the UK was now
remedied by sending their younger colleagues, with much experience and
skills, but lacking formal qualifications, to the UK for the royal college
diplomas.

‘Malayanization’
With Independence in 1957, the drive to replace British staff with locals
became effective. The new ministers went along with their influential profes-
sional staff. The driving force behind Malayanization were the medical alumni
from Singapore. They moved systematically to replace the British doctors,
although they personally liked some of them. In Kuala Lumpur, a medical
school was started, which soon became a university. Demand for tertiary
education – the principal channel for upward mobility, apart from politics
– resulted in rapid proliferation of universities, both public and private,
many of which set up medical schools.
The leaders of the health professions retained their orientation to British
education, and doctors turned to the royal colleges for postgraduate training
and certification. Soon local medical schools created their own postgraduate
specialist programme in response to demands for Malays to be trained as
medical specialists. The success of this policy can be seen in the preponder-
ance of Malay doctors of all grades in public hospitals now. The same
process took place in the civil service.
There was for the first time a preoccupation with the needs of our people.
A rural health service was initiated, new specialties created, including the
speciality of family medicine/general practice, and generous allocations of
research funds became available. Even larger numbers of young doctors were
sent abroad, still mainly to the UK, for training and certification.

Modernization
Following ‘Malayanization’, a high degree of professionalism emerged.
Advanced training developed which was in time offered to other developing
countries. The first new universities achieved high standards, and entered
postgraduate training and qualifications. A self-confident generation of ex-
perts filled posts in the public services, gently replacing their local seniors
who had risen by seniority out of the old colonial service.
In medicine, an emphasis on science and expertise, and keeping up to date
with research became the paradigm. Research was regarded as important,
and public health research, beyond malaria, received attention and funding.
 Foreword xvii
New specialty institutions began to appear at the Kuala Lumpur General
Hospital.
The public health services, underpaid and over-extended, remain the
mainstay of health care for the majority of people. They are further strained
by VIP pressure for privileged access and expensive care. Health care is
virtually free to anyone willing to wait, and to overlook the shabbiness of
facilities and shortage of staff. Some 80 per cent of those hospitalized are
in public hospitals, and half of all outpatients attend public clinics and the
outpatient departments of public hospitals. The numbers increase sharply
when the economy slows.
The public sector trains all categories of medical staff, and does all research.
It is the exclusive source of care for perhaps half the population and provides
a safety net for those whose incomes fluctuate with the economy. It is also
provider of last resort for patients who are very ill and whose savings have
been exhausted, or who have been admitted as emergencies.
Our health indices are very good. For example, in 2005, life expectancy
was 76 years for women, and 71 years for men, and the infant mortality rate
was 5.8 per 1000 live births. Since Independence, the public health services
have performed brilliantly in dealing with the principal causes of mortality
and morbidity associated with a poor colonial territory. The challenge to
improve further will be more difficult.
The ‘developed’ country pattern of disease is the price of rising living
standards. The new causes of morbidity and mortality, replacing malaria,
tuberculosis, infant gastroenteritis and respiratory infection, are hypertension,
diabetes, ischaemic heart disease/atherosclerosis and cancer. Increasingly
important are the consequences of ‘lifestyles’ – tobacco smoking, alcohol
excess, excess fat and calorie intake, physical inactivity and obesity, and
sexually transmitted infections. Infections spread by international travel are
a new phenomenon, including HIV and SARS. More research will be required
to design new public health approaches, and a high degree of personalized
intervention will be needed to reduce morbidity and mortality from the new
causes of death.
Public hospitals and ambulatory care provide open access to all Malaysians.
No financial barrier exists for ambulance services, receiving emergency or
normal treatment, or for admission to open wards, that is ‘Third Class’,
where conscientious care will be given by overworked and underpaid nurses
and doctors. Government servants have assured medical care, and ward
accommodation allocated according to rank. There is continuity with the
colonial practice of East India Company employees in ‘Company’ hospitals!
The public health care system is the ‘safety net’ for the great majority
of Malaysians, and they are fiercely protective of this right to free access. It
is now in a bad state, unable to deter all categories of staff from leaving for
the private sector. Nevertheless, resources continue to be diverted to private
contracts for building more hospitals that are beyond the available staffing
capacity.
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- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 15: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 17: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 3: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 23: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 28: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Section 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 31: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 33: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 37: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 39: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Topic 5: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 40: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 45: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 46: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 49: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 6: Study tips and learning strategies
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 51: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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