A SUSTAINABILITY SPECIFICATION FOR EMERGENCY HOUSING

J. Gibberd, CSIR, South Africa, [email protected]

Abstract
There is a need to provide emergency accommodation for households in the event of a disaster
such as flooding. In South Africa, this is catered for in the National Housing Code developed
by the Department of Human Settlements in 2009. Since 2009 there has been an increasing
requirement for human settlements and housing to address issues such as climate change,
sustainable development, and more recently, COVID-19. This study aims to understand these
requirements and how they can be met in emergency housing. It uses the Sustainable Building
Assessment Tool (SBAT) to review current provision for emergency housing in the Housing
Code. This provides the basis for proposing sustainability specifications which incorporate
appropriate technologies for emergency housing. These are critically evaluated and discussed
to develop conclusions and recommendations. The study identifies measures that could be
incorporated into emergency housing to make a contribution to improving the quality of life of
occupants as well as enhancing the sustainability performance of the housing.

Keywords: appropriate technology, emergency housing, estimating tools, South Africa,

sustainability

Introduction

Emergency housing is a response to disasters and aims to accommodate displaced households

and enable them to restart their lives as soon as possible after an event. Emergency housing,
however, is often controversial and criticised for being too expensive, too late and for having
negative impacts on local environments (Johnson, 2007). Quarantelli (1995) shows how
emergency housing is catered for after a disaster. Initially, emergency shelter, as an
immediate response, is provided and this may include temporary accommodation in a hall,
school or under plastic sheeting. This is followed by temporary shelters such as tents which
are used for a few weeks after the disaster and include the provision of food and medical care.
The third stage is emergency or temporary housing which enables occupants to return to
normal daily activities such as going to work, school and shopping for food. This
accommodation is normally in the form of prefabricated houses. Finally, there is permanent
housing, when occupants return to their former homes after reconstruction or move to new
homes. These stages may not happen in all cases and there may be situations where
occupants move directly from temporary shelters to permanent housing. This study focusses
on the third stage, where temporary or emergency housing is provided and where occupants
may live for three to five years (Johnson, 2007; Department of Human Settlements, 2009).
 Figure 1: Temporary and emergency housing as part of a system (Johnson, 2007).
Johnson (2007) shows that it is important to consider temporary housing as part of a wider
reconstruction effort which includes disaster mitigation, economic recovery, policy reform,
job creation and education (see Figure 1). By placing temporary housing within a larger
context, Johnson (2007) argues that the success of an emergency housing programme is
linked to these wider systems and, in turn, the success of these efforts at a local level is
dependent on the nature and quality of the emergency housing.

In South Africa, the growth of vulnerable informal settlements combined with natural
disasters attributed to climate change such as flooding or the outbreak of disease such as the
COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in the growing importance of effective emergency housing
strategies (Department of Human Settlements, 2020; National Treasury, 2020). Emergency
housing in South Africa is catered for the National Housing Code developed in 2009
(Department of Human Settlements, 2009).

This paper reviews the provision for emergency housing contained in the Housing Code
within a context where it is becoming increasingly important to address sustainable
development, climate change and COVID-19. The review draws on a sustainable building
assessment tool, the Sustainable Building Assessment Tool, to identify ways the existing
provision could address sustainability, climate change and COVID-19 more comprehensively
and proposes outline specifications for emergency housing that aim to achieve this. These
specifications are critically reviewed to ascertain their value in supplementing existing
guidance, and conclusions and recommendations are proposed.

Methodology

The methodology is based on the following steps:

1. The Emergency Housing Programme in the Housing Code is introduced and described.
2. The Sustainable Building Assessment Tool (SBAT) is described and the evaluation criteria
listed.
3. Results from applying the SBAT to assess the Emergency Housing Programme are
provided.
4. Results from the SBAT assessment are used to propose an alternative sustainable
emergency housing specification.
5. This specification is critically reviewed.
6. Conclusions and recommendations are developed.
Emergency Housing Programme

The Emergency Housing Programme is Part 3 of the National Housing Code (Department of
Human Settlements, 2009). The Programme was developed to support the right to adequate
housing enshrined in the South African Constitution. It addresses the needs of households that
have had their existing accommodation destroyed or damaged and need immediate shelter. The
programme provides grants to municipalities to enable them to respond rapidly to emergencies
and can fund land acquisition, settlement planning, basic municipal engineering, the
construction of temporary shelters (or the materials for this) and the cost of consumption of
water, sanitation, refuse collection and street lighting for up to three years.

Minimum performance requirements for housing provision outlined in the Programme are
summarised below:

• Water: the provision of access to a water point or tap for every 25 families.
• Sanitation: temporary sanitary facilities must be provided. Where conditions permit
the use of Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines (VIP toilets) must be provided as a first
option. An acceptable standard is one VIP toilet per five families.
• Access, roads, and stormwater: a main access road and open lined stormwater
management system must be provided.
• Electricity: the programme will only fund the provision of high-mast lighting in
special circumstances.
• Temporary shelters: these should be basic, simple in form and easy to construct. The
floor area of shelters should be at least 24m² and may vary up to 30m². The temporary
shelter should be appropriate for the specific environment and as far as possible be
acceptable to beneficiaries.
• Construction: shelters can be provided through the supply of materials to beneficiaries
on-site to construct their own shelters or to be constructed for them, depending on the
exceptional nature of the situation. The preferred option for the provision of shelter is
the supply of prefabricated units. Where beneficiaries have supplied their own
materials, advice and assistance can be offered with regard to the construction of the
shelters.
• Roof covering: this should be trafficable and waterproof, to suit purlin spacing.
• Side cladding: this should meet OHS Act requirements and be safe, sustain normal
weather conditions as well as provide adequate resistance to water penetration. The
minimum height should be 2.2 m.
• Column footings: these should be concrete.
• Door: these must be framed, lockable and hinged.
• Windows: a minimum 5% of floor area must be framed and glazed.
• Flooring: this should be level, solid on compacted fill and 150 mm above ground.
• Thermal efficiency: this should suit the roofing material and local conditions.
• Settlement density: up to 5 shelters (per ordinary stand of 250m²) could be
considered.
• Ownership: the ownership of temporary shelters to be provided under the Programme
should be vested in the provincial department.

The Programme also provides drawings (see Figure 2) and a set of criteria that can be used to
measure the performance of emergency housing projects. These are as follows:
 • Where applicable, the temporary facilities should be converted into permanent
sustainable housing facilities. Where the facilities are not transformed into permanent
housing facilities, they should be re-used when future emergency circumstances arise.
• A beneficiary satisfaction survey should be conducted to determine the impact of the
development on their lives.
• The willingness and ability of residents to pay for facilities as demonstrated by
increased local government revenues and the willingness and ability of government
agencies to maintain and operate public infrastructure developed through emergency
housing projects should be ascertained.
• The environmental impact of emergency housing projects should be determined.
• Improvements in living conditions should be measured through:
- Health indicators (particularly a decline in waterborne diseases and infant
mortality rates, where these indicators have been recorded and are available);
- Access to water and sanitation (households having access to “improved”
drinking water and sanitation).

Figure 2: Drawings of typical emergency housing (Department of Human Settlements, 2009).

The performance requirements, performance criteria and drawings of emergency housing in
the Code are reviewed using the Sustainable Building Assessment Tool.

The Sustainable Building Assessment Tool

The Sustainable Building Assessment Tool (SBAT) or Residential tool was developed by the
author to assess the sustainability performance of housing as well as their immediate
neighbourhoods (Gibberd, 2002; 2020). This tool is based on an approach that indicates that
buildings and environments are not sustainable in themselves but must enable and encourage
sustainable living and the working patterns of their occupants. The tool, therefore, measures
the capability of the built environment (characteristics and facilities) which enables users
(occupants) to live sustainably. The tool is suitable for developing country contexts and has
an equal weighting between environmental, social and economic sustainability performance.
The tool explicitly addresses issues such as health, education and employment which are not
addressed by green building rating tools. The benefits to the local economy of locally
developed, maintained and appropriate technologies for sustainability are recognised in the tool
which weights these significantly more heavily than imported technologies which are
inappropriate for local conditions.

The tool consists of an Excel-based spreadsheet and manual. Buildings are assessed in terms
of 15 criteria which measure the environmental, economic and social sustainability
performance of the building. Results of the assessment are presented in a report with a spider
diagram shown in Figure 3. Performance in each area is reflected in a score from 0 to 5, with
5 indicating excellent sustainability performance; and 0 no performance.
Area Indicator

EN1 Orientation, EN2 Building Depth, EN3 Roof Construction, EN4 Wall
Construction, EN5 Floor Construction, EN6 Window to Wall Ratio, EN7
Energy Ventilation openings, EN8 Daylight, EN9 Internal Lighting, EN10
External Lighting, EN11 Installed Equipment Power Density, EN12 Food
Cooking, EN13 Water Heating, EN14 Renewable Energy Generation

WA1 Toilets, WA2 Wash Hand Basins, WA4 Showers, WA5 Hot Water,
Water
WA6 Landscape, WA7 Rainwater harvesting

WE1 Recycling Area, WE2 Recycling Collection, WE3 Organic Waste,

Waste
WE4 Sewage, WE5 Construction Waste

MA1 Building Reuse, MA2 Timber Doors and Windows, MA3 Timber
Materials Structure, MA4 Refrigerants, MA5 Volatile Organic Compounds, MA6
Formaldehyde, MA7 Locally Sourced Materials

BI1 Brownfield Site, B14 Municipal Boundary, BI3 Vegetation B14

Biodiversity
Ecosystems

Transport TR1 Pedestrian Routes, TR3 Cycling, TR3 Public Transport

RE1 Site Density, RE2 Area per occupant RE3 Renewable Energy
Resources
Generation, RE4 Food Production

MN1 Manual, MN2 Energy Metering, MN3 Water Metering, MN4

Management
Recording, MN5 Residents Association

Local LE1 Locally Sourced Materials and Products, LE2 Small Enterprise, LE3
Economy Construction Workers Support

Services SP1 Fruit and Vegetables, SP2 Bakery Products, SP3 Beans and
and pulses, SP4 Milk and Eggs, SP5 Clothing, SP6 Furniture, SP7
Products Equipment Hire, SP8 Notice Board

AC1 Internet Access, AC2 Banking, AC3 Groceries, AC4 Post Office,
Access
AC5 Creche, AC6 Primary Schools

HE1 Exercise, HE2 Health facility, HE3 Fruit and Vegetables, HE4 Bean
and Pulses, HE5 Milk and Eggs, HE6 Water, HE7 External Views, HE8
Health Daylight, HE9 Openings, HE10 Roof Construction, HE11 Wall
Construction, HE12 Volatile Organic Compounds, HE13 Formaldehyde,
HE15 Construction Worker Health

ED1 Primary Schools, ED2 Secondary Schools, ED3 Ongoing

Education education, ED4 Internet, ED5 Noticeboards, ED6 Space for Learning,
ED7 Building User Manual, ED8 Construction Worker Education

IN1 Public Transport, IN2 Groceries, IN3 External Routes, IN4 Entrances
and Exits, IN5 Lobby, IN6 Window, door and lighting controls, IN7 Doors,
Inclusion
IN8 Bathroom, IN9 Kitchen, IN10 Inclusive Employment, IN11
Affordability

Social SC1 Occupants, SC2 Community space, SC3 External Facilities, SC4
Cohesion Residents Association

Figure 3: The Sustainable Building Assessment Tool and Criteria

Results

A review of the results indicates that the provisions in the Emergency Housing Programme
meet the following SBAT criteria: Energy EN10 External lighting; Materials MA1 Building
reuse; MA4 Refrigerants; MA6 Formaldehyde; Water WA1 Toilets; Resource Use criteria
RE1 Site Density and RE2 Area per occupant; and Health HE5 Water. For other SBAT
criteria, these are either not met, or the criteria cannot be assessed because the issue is not
addressed in the documentation provided in the Code.
Figure 4 provides shows an extract from the SBAT report of the assessment. This shows that
environmental sustainability performance is 1.1 out of 5, the economic sustainability
performance is 0.6 out of 5 and social sustainability is 0.3 out of 5. These results indicate low
levels of performance. This is attributed mainly to a lack of detail within the Code. This is
understandable, as guidance in the Code may only have been provided in outline deliberately,
with the intention that detailed decisions would be made by government officials and
professionals on the ground. While this may work well in areas where there are strong
institutional systems and officials and built-environment professionals with relevant
experience and skills, it may not be adequate in situations where there is limited capacity. In
these cases, more comprehensive guidance may be valuable in supporting effective local
decision-making. This may be particularly important in disaster situations where emergency
housing needs to be put in place rapidly and there is limited time to undertake research or
consult. This study, therefore, proposes specifications for emergency housing that addresses
sustainability more comprehensively. As an input to these specifications, the SBAT
assessment of the provision in the Housing Code identifies the following areas where further
detail could be provided:

• Energy: energy in the buildings should be addressed as the buildings may be used for
up to three years and families will need energy for lighting and cooking.
• Water: washing facilities need to be addressed especially as washing hands is seen as
a key precaution against infection during pandemics such as COVID-19.
• Waste: waste should be managed to avoid potential environmental health issues
developing.
• Materials: the provision appears to favour a prefabricated steel frame and cladding
systems. Other materials such as timber, cellulose insulation and bio-based cladding
systems should be also considered. These may have better environmental and thermal
performance, be cheaper and support local industries and small entrepreneurs.
• Biocapacity: biocapacity and planting should be addressed as trees can create shading
and more comfortable environments. Vegetables can also be planted for food.
• Transport: provision for walking, cycling and public transport should be addressed as
it is likely that people in emergency housing are likely to rely on walking and non-
motorised transport more than on private vehicles.
• Resource use: the provision emphasises spatial efficiency but does not include a
requirement to make use of leftover/available space for food production and the
generation of energy. Both of these activities could provide valuable local
employment as well as other benefits such as reduced carbon emissions and increased
food security, so should be included.
• Management: there is an indication that the government would cover the costs for
services such as water, sanitation, refuse collection, and street lighting for emergency
housing for up to three years. If these services are not managed they may not be used
efficiently and as a result, could place a heavy economic burden on the local
municipality. Therefore, the inclusion of management of services should be
addressed. Involving occupants in the design and management of the temporary
housing and settlement also has other benefits such as the development of housing
layouts that are more culturally appropriate, and the speeding up of the reconstruction
processes (Turner, 1972, 1976; UNDRO, 1982).
• Local economy: support for the local economy is not addressed. Local content
procurement requirements can be used to support local small enterprises and are an
important part of government policy.
 • Products and services: products and services such as food are likely to be one of the
chief concerns of people moving into emergency housing. It is, therefore, important to
address this issue.
• Access: facilities such as schools and the internet that may need to be accessed
regularly by occupants should be included.
• Health: issues required to support health, comfort and productivity should be
addressed to ensure that the health of vulnerable households moving into emergency
housing is supported.
• Education: as households moving into emergency housing may include children and
unemployed people seeking employment, this issue must be addressed.
• Inclusiveness: displaced households may include vulnerable people such as those with
disabilities and old and ill people. It is, therefore, important that facilities are
inclusive, safe and easy to use.
• Social cohesion: as households moving into emergency housing are likely to have
experienced a disruptive event and be cut off from their normal social networks, it is
important that people can interact with their neighbours and form new social
networks. Facilities to support social cohesion should, therefore, be provided.

The Outline Specifications for Emergency Housing include the next aim in the issues
identified in this review.

SUSTAINABLE BUILDING ASSESSMENT TOOL RESIDENTIAL

1.04
Achieved
SB SBAT REPORT 0.7

SB1 Project
Emergency Housing
SB2 Address
0
SB3 SBAT Graph
Actual Target
Energy 0.3 4.0
Water 0.9 5
Waste Energy 0.0 3
Materials Social Cohesion 5.0 Water 3.5 2
Biocapacity 4.0 0.8 3
Transport Inclusion Waste 0.0 3.0
Resource Use 3.0 3.0 4
Management 2.0 0.0 2
Services and Products
Local Economy Materials 0.0 3
1.0
Access 0.0 3.0
Actual
Health 0.0 1.4 4.0
Education
Education Biocapacity 0.0 Target
5
Services and Products 0.0 5
Inclusion 0.0 4
Social CohesionHealth Transport 0.0 4

Access Resource Use

Local Economy Management

SB4 Environmental, Social and Economic Performance Score

Environmental 1.1
Economic 0.6
Social 0.3
SBAT Rating 0.7

Figure 4: The Sustainable Building Assessment Tool report on emergency housing provision.
Proposed Outline Specifications for Emergency Housing

The following proposed outline specifications for emergency housing aim to address key
issues identified through the SBAT assessment of the provision for emergency housing.

Site

The site should be within 2km of social infrastructure such as creches, schools, clinics and
recreational facilities. It should also be within 2km of locations where affordable, healthy
food can be purchased, where there are opportunities for employment and where affordable
public transport can be accessed.

Housing layouts

Housing layouts should be developed and discussed with prospective occupants. These
should ensure that all houses have good access to daylight and ventilation and therefore
housing should be at least 3m apart where there are doors and windows (not party walls). The
long face of buildings should be orientated within 15 degrees of north. Densities achieved
should be at least 150 persons per ha and building occupancy densities should be 10-19m2 per
person. Layouts should include provision for small businesses, retail, recycling, recreation
facilities and creches (Gibberd, 2019). Safe walking routes should be provided between
housing, the main facilities and neighbouring areas. Where social facilities such as clinics and
schools are not available within 2km, provision for these should be made within the
development (Johnson, 2014).
Water

A clean, reliable water supply must be provided within 50m of houses. Designs and
management systems should ensure that the supply is as reliable as possible and periods
without water should be avoided. Local onsite water supplies from rainwater harvesting
should be considered to reduce costs and improve the resilience of supply.

Sanitation

Mains sewage, ecological sanitation or a container-based composting toilet system should be

provided for the development. Effective management and maintenance systems must also be
put in place.

Electricity

Sufficient electricity to power LED lighting and a radio/computer/tv should be provided for
each house. As a minimum, this should consist of a photovoltaic system with batteries, 3
LED lights and 2 sockets for a TV/radio/computer. The system should be guaranteed for at
least three years.

Stormwater

Stormwater for the settlement should be designed to avoid any standing water around housing
and minimise the risk of flooding.

Building design

Yard and internal house layouts should be prepared and tested for suitability with the
intended occupants. These should show facilities for washing, cooking, food preparation,
social spaces, homework, sleeping and toilets and ensure that they are safely catered for.

Washing

A private washing space should be provided. This should be drained and provided with cold
and hot water. Each house should have at least one facility where hands can be washed easily.
Minimum provision should include a 20l container with a tap and soap on a stand 1m off the
ground near the entrance of the house. Greywater from washing should be collected to be
used for irrigation.

Toilets

Toilet facilities should be provided in the house or yard. If these are outside, lighting should
be provided.

Food preparation and cooking

A space for food preparation and cooking should be provided. This should include a working
surface, storage area and cooking equipment. Support for clean, affordable, safe cooking
equipment should be provided as far as possible. This could include gas, solar cookers,
ethanol gel cookers or electrical equipment (where there is sufficient power) such as
microwave ovens, or a combination of these.

Social space

Social spaces should be provided for occupants and visitors to eat and socialise together.

Homework and administration

A space for homework and simple administrative tasks should be provided. This should have
a workspace, good daylighting and electrical lighting.

Sleeping

Sleeping spaces suitable for the household should be provided. This may include a space for
parents and a space for children.

Building structure

The building structure should be designed to meet potential loadings and comply with SABS
0160. The structure could be steel or timber and be designed to enable it to be disassembled
and reassembled easily.

Building foundations

Building foundations can be concrete where housing is intended to be permanent, while

moveable precast concrete or timber footings can be used where buildings may be relocated.

Roof

A durable smooth roof material suitable for reuse and rainwater harvesting should be used
(Centre for Affordable Water and Sanitation Technology, 2011). The roof construction
should achieve a minimum total R-value of 2.7 K•m²/W and have a light-coloured external
surface with a solar absorbance of 0.55 or less, to minimise heat gains.

Wall construction

Wall construction should have a minimum R-value of 1.9 K•m²/W.

Floors

Floors should have a high thermal mass, or if suspended, should have an R-value of 1.9
K•m²/W.

Materials

The length of time that emergency housing is required should be used to inform the choice of
materials. For example, if emergency housing is required for under three years, a frame-based
approach with bio-based cladding may be preferable to steel and masonry products as this
will be more cost-effective and have a lower environmental impact (Johnson, 2014). Local
materials and products should be used for construction and the value of local content should
be 100%. No materials that are harmful to health should be used. Materials such as timber
products, paints and varnishes that include Formaldehyde and Volatile Organic Compounds
should be avoided.

Ventilation

Windows should be provided on opposite walls and an opening size of at least 10% of the
floor area should be provided to enable effective cross-ventilation and cooling.

Daylight

Windows should be located to provide a 2% daylight factor in the house.

Electrical lighting

LED or similarly efficient electrical lighting should be provided inside the house. This should
provide at least 200lux on kitchen and homework work surfaces. Where washing, cooking or
toilets are provided in the yard of house (outside), external lighting should be provided.

Food gardens

Within the yard or nearby, there should be provision for growing vegetables. This could be
irrigated with greywater.

Construction

Where possible, houses should be assembled or built by occupants or by local people to

support local development and reconstruction. Designs should ensure that the construction of
units is easy and can be carried out by non-skilled people. Designs should ensure that
materials and components can be reused if houses need to be moved.

Procurement

Where possible and economically competitive, materials, components, prefabricated systems

and construction services should be procured from local manufacturers, suppliers and
contractors to support local reconstruction and economic development (Johnson, 2014).
Ownership

The ownership of houses, materials and components should, over time, revert to occupants if
they wish to purchase these. This ensures that houses are cared for and costs can be recovered
from occupants through low-interest loans (Johnson, 2014).

Discussion

The proposed Outline Specifications for Emergency Housing aim to ensure that emergency
housing addresses sustainability more effectively. The specifications, however, should be
tested and developed before being applied on a large scale to ensure that unforeseen
consequences are avoided. In addition, they should also be reviewed against the latest
standards and regulations as these are being updated.

In their current form, aspects may also be difficult to implement. For instance, they require
that activities such as washing, cooking, socialising, homework and sleeping are to be shown
on the site and building layouts. If there are more than two occupants in a 24m2 house, it may
be difficult to fit in all of these activities. This highlights a difficulty with the existing
provisions which do not appear to take into account daily activities such as cooking, washing,
socialising and doing homework. It also identifies the need to have a range of house types to
accommodate different-sized households, from individuals and couples to families with
children.

The inclusion of the sample house plans within the Code is useful because it indicates what
sort of provision would meet requirements. This approach should also be expanded with the
proposed specifications and sample drawings provided to show how the proposed
specifications could be realised. The process of developing these sample plans could also be
used to test and refine the specifications and improve their applicability and practicality.

Conclusions and recommendations

The study reviews the provisions for emergency housing in the Department of Human
Settlements National Housing Code using the Sustainable Building Assessment Tool. The
review indicates that it may be useful to supplement existing provisions with specifications
that address sustainability more comprehensively. To this end, the Proposed Outline
Specifications for Emergency Housing are developed. A critical analysis of the proposed
specifications indicates that these may play a valuable role in ensuring sustainability is
addressed in emergency housing. It, however, suggests that the specifications should be
tested and refined through an iterative design process and piloting.

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