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CLIMBERS ON FREEDOM:
“It is fair to say that Freedom is the definitive guide to mountains and climbing.”
—Conrad Anker

“Not long after I learned to read, I would grip the flashlight in my teeth and stay
awake late into the night scouring my parent’s copy of the 3rd edition of Freedom
of the Hills. . . . What this book captured, what it meant, what it hinted at that
was so crucial to my fascination with mountaineering was this: Freedom, itself,
was the most important thing. Freedom to explore who I am. Freedom afforded by
learned skills to explore any mountain wilderness. Freedom to move, to climb. It’s
what still drives me today.”
—Steve House

“Freedom is truly the Everest of mountaineering texts and a great preparation for
a life wandering among high hills, including the big one itself.”
—Tom Hornbein

“Growing up in Southern California in the 1960s, I couldn’t find anyone who

shared my passion to learn how to climb. So I bought an ice axe, crampons, and
Freedom of the Hills and still remember being on a snow slope with axe in one
hand, book in the other, trying to teach myself how to self-arrest. It worked: I’m
still around and still climbing.”
—Rick Ridgeway

“For many generations of climbers, The Freedom of the Hills is more than just a
book. It’s a passport to a rare and wild place.”
—Andrew Bisharat

“I have never felt more alive than when adventuring in remote mountains,
dependent on a rope, a rack, and the partner that’s got my back. . . . Freedom of
the Hills, risk’s best friend, is that partner.”
—Timmy O’Neill

“In my early years of heading into the mountains I used Freedom of the Hills to
learn how to calculate fuel needs for the backcountry, to study crevasse rescue,
and in general to just muse about the alpine craft. Everyone should have a copy of
this standard tome.”
—Kit DesLauriers
“There is no substitute for learning to climb from a skilled and tested mentor. . . .
But sometimes it’s nice to learn key skills at your own pace from the comfort of
your own kitchen table. . . . For those times, there is no better book than the
Mountaineers’ Freedom of the Hills.”
—Bree Loewen

“The lessons I learned in the Mountaineers climbing course in 1945 stood me on

the summit of Mount Everest in 1963. To see that knowledge put into a book was
wonderful. That it has evolved into the best book on climbing, updated by active
climbers, is remarkable. I have told many people, including my sons, ‘If you want
to climb mountains, read Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills. Then read it
again so you know, for sure, how to get down.’”
—Jim Whittaker

“As chief guide for Rainier Mountaineering for over 30 years, I have trained
hundreds of new guides. And Freedom of the Hills is the required textbook for
their basic training on Mount Rainier.”
—Lou Whittaker

“The 2nd edition of Freedom of the Hills jump-started my climbing education. The
manual’s content has kept pace with the evolution of the sport and should be
considered mandatory reading for every mountain climber. This truly remarkable
resource has no equal in any language.”
—Mark Twight

“A notorious reference for climbers and outdoor enthusiasts!”

—Lynn Hill

“Freedom does a remarkable job of staying not just current, but on the cutting
edge. Turning on new climbers to this resource is one of the best things I can do
to prepare them for life in the big hills.”
—Dave Hahn

“If the mountains are my church, then Freedom is my bible. . . . As a very young
climber I read it cover to cover, then dug through it again and again for nuggets of
wisdom. I still do.”
—Will Gadd

“A ‘must have’ for any aspiring mountaineer’s library.”

—Ed Viesturs
MOUNTAINEERING
The Freedom of the Hills
 9TH EDITION

MOUNTAINEERING
The Freedom of the Hills
EDITED BY ERIC LINXWEILER
AND MIKE MAUDE
MOUNTAINEERS BOOKS is the publishing division of The Mountaineers, an
organization founded in 1906 and dedicated to the exploration, preservation, and
enjoyment of outdoor and wilderness areas.

1001 SW Klickitat Way, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98134

800.553.4453, www.mountaineersbooks.org

Copyright © 1960, 1967, 1974, 1982, 1992, 1997, 2003, 2010, and 2017 by The
Mountaineers

The Ten Essentials list is a trademark (pending) of The Mountaineers, a 501(c)(3)

corporation; all rights reserved.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form,
or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

Printed in Canada
Distributed in the United Kingdom by Cordee,
www.cordee.co.uk

First edition, 1960. Second edition, 1967. Third edition, 1974.

Fourth edition, 1982. Fifth edition, 1992. Sixth edition, 1997.
Seventh edition, 2003. Eighth edition, 2010. Ninth edition, 2017.

Project editor: Laura Shauger

Developmental editor: Kris Fulsaas
Copyeditor: Erin Moore
Design and layout: Jennifer Shontz
Illustrator: John McMullen
Cover design: Jen Grable
Chapter opener illustrations: Heidi Smets
Index: Rich Carlson

Cover photographs: front: Conrad Anker climbs across a ridgetop near Ama
Dablam, Khumbu Valley, Nepal. (Photo © Jimmy Chin); spine: A climber works her
way up a route in Joshua Tree National Park. (Photo by Aurora Photos/Kyle
Sparks); back: Climbers balance on a narrow moutain ridge in Switzerland. (Photo
by iStock/dominikmichalek)

Interior photographs: p. 4: A group of mountaineers head up Aiguille du Midi,

Mont Blanc. (Photo by iStock/glogowski); p. 8: A climber concentrates on a frozen
waterfall. (Photo by iStock/AlexSava); p. 13: Basecamp with a view (Photo by
iStock/Lysogor); p. 149: A few quickdraws and a rope—some of the equipment
rock climbers use (Photo by iStock/abstudio annaburek); p. 223: A lead climber
focuses on her next move in a crack. (Photo by iStock/ericfoltz); p. 329: A climbing
party ascends a snow-covered slope. (Photo by iStock/Georgijevic); p. 479: A
leader breaks trail on a snowy ridge. (Photo by iStock/rcaucino); p. 539: View
from the summit of Mont Blanc (Photo by iStock/MaRabelo)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Mountaineers (Society)
Title: Mountaineering: the freedom of the hills / the Mountaineers.
Description: Ninth edition. | Seattle, Washington: Mountaineers Books, [2017] |
“Eighth edition, 2010”==T.p. verso. | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017018860 (print) | LCCN 2017022769 (ebook) | ISBN
9781680510058 () | ISBN 9781680510034 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781680510041
(paperback) | ISBN 9781680510058 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Mountaineering. | Rock climbing. | Snow and ice climbing.
Classification: LCC GV200 (ebook) | LCC GV200 .M688 2017 (print) | DDC 796.522
—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017018860

Mountaineers Books titles may be purchased for corporate, educational, or other

promotional sales, and our authors are available for a wide range of events. For
information on special discounts or booking an author, contact our customer
service at 800-553-4453 or [email protected].

Printed on 100% recycled paper

ISBN (hardcover): 978-1-68051-003-4

ISBN (paperback): 978-1-68051-004-1
ISBN (ebook): 978-1-68051-005-8
CONTENTS
Preface

PART I. OUTDOOR FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 1. First Steps
Chapter 2. Clothing and Equipment
Chapter 3. Camping, Food, and Water
Chapter 4. Physical Conditioning
Chapter 5. Navigation
Chapter 6. Wilderness Travel
Chapter 7. Leave No Trace
Chapter 8. Access and Stewardship

PART II. CLIMBING FUNDAMENTALS

Chapter 9. Basic Safety System
Chapter 10. Belaying
Chapter 11. Rappelling

PART III. ROCK CLIMBING

Chapter 12. Alpine Rock Climbing
Chapter 13. Rock Protection
Chapter 14. Leading on Rock
Chapter 15. Aid and Big Wall Climbing

PART IV. SNOW, ICE, AND ALPINE

CLIMBING
Chapter 16. Snow Travel and Climbing
Chapter 17. Avalanche Safety
Chapter 18. Glacier Travel and Crevasse Rescue
Chapter 19. Alpine Ice Climbing
Chapter 20. Waterfall Ice and Mixed Climbing
Chapter 21. Expedition Climbing

PART V. LEADERSHIP, SAFETY, AND RESCUE

Chapter 22. Leadership
Chapter 23. Safety
Chapter 24. First Aid
Chapter 25. Alpine Rescue

PART VI. THE MOUNTAIN ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 26. Mountain Geology
Chapter 27. The Cycle of Snow
Chapter 28. Mountain Weather

Appendix: Rating Systems

Glossary
Resources
Index
Brand Names and Trademarks
PREFACE
“The quest of the mountaineer, in simplest terms, is for the
freedom of the hills. . . .”
—The first line of the first edition

Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills is much more than a book

—it is a gateway to experiencing the joy of the outdoors. Whether
you want to learn to camp and cook outdoors, hike in your local
forest, climb hills, cross glaciers, scale rock walls, or summit the
world’s highest peaks, Freedom is for you. Welcome to the
community of climbers and mountaineers who count on Freedom as a
critical part of their outdoor education.
For this ninth edition in Freedom’s seven-decade history, each
chapter has been critically reviewed, revised, and—where necessary
—expanded. All illustrations have been updated, and most have been
completely redrawn, allowing for fantastic detail in both printed and
electronic media. These revisions reflect the ongoing rapid changes in
mountaineering, including the development of safer techniques and
improved equipment. In this edition, we continue to emphasize the
responsibility we assume as climbers to practice good stewardship
and to minimize our impact on the lands we pass through in order to
leave no trace of our passage. In addition to leveraging the collective
knowledge of The Mountaineers, this edition had unprecedented
access to and input from experienced guides, organizations that
teach climbing and avalanche safety, elite climbers, and outdoor
equipment manufacturers.
 Whether this is your first copy of Freedom or you own every
edition, this book offers the skills, confidence, and knowledge you
need to be a safe, competent mountaineer.

SCOPE OF THE BOOK

As did previous editions, the ninth edition of Freedom soundly covers
the current concepts, techniques, and problems involved in the
pursuit of mountaineering, and helps climbers grasp a fundamental
understanding of each topic covered. In addition to informing the
novice, this book can help experienced climbers review and improve
their skills. Coverage of some topics, such as rock climbing, ice
climbing, and aid climbing, is detailed enough to be useful to readers
interested in those specific topics.
This book is not intended, however, to be exhaustive. Some
climbing disciplines are not comprehensively addressed in these
pages. Gym and sport climbing (making use of artificial climbing walls
or fixed-protection routes at developed climbing areas), for example,
have become increasingly popular. Although many techniques related
to both disciplines are interchangeable with those of mountain and
rock climbing, there are differences—not all of which are discussed in
these pages.
Mountaineering cannot be learned simply by studying a book.
However, books can be an important source of information and can
complement solid instruction. Freedom was originally written as a
textbook for students and instructors participating in organized
climbing courses. The learning environment in a climbing course
taught by competent instructors is essential for beginning climbers.
Climbing requires continual situational and environmental
awareness. Conditions, routes, and individual abilities and skills vary,
and the individual climber and climbing team must apply their
knowledge, skills, and experience to the circumstances before them
and then decide how they will proceed. To reflect this process,
Freedom presents a variety of widely used techniques and practices,
and then outlines both their advantages and limitations. Material is
presented not as dogma or the definitive word but as the basis for
making sound decisions. To adventure safely, climbers must realize
that mountaineering is about problem-solving, not merely applying
techniques.
The type of climbing described in this tome is frequently
experienced—and many people would say, best experienced—in the
wilderness. Wilderness mountaineers take responsibility for helping to
preserve the wilderness environment for present and future
generations. Preserving wilderness is crucial to protecting the health
of our ecosystem.

ORIGINS OF THE BOOK

A synopsis of Freedom’s evolution presents a capsule history of The
Mountaineers. From its beginnings, Freedom has been the product of
the concerted effort of a team of volunteer leaders. For each edition,
the team of contributors has sprung forth from across the
organization’s membership, representing the best the organization
has to offer. It has always been an honor to work on this project.
When The Mountaineers was founded in 1906, one of its major
purposes was to explore and study the mountains, forests, and
waterways of the Pacific Northwest. Freedom’s direction and
emphasis originated from the nature of climbing in this region. The
wild, complex character of these particular mountains, with their
abundance of snow and glaciers throughout the year, furthered the
mountaineering challenge. Access was inherently difficult. There were
few roads, the terrain was rugged, and initial explorations of them
were essentially expeditions, often requiring the assistance of Native
American guides.
As interest in mountaineering grew in the region, so did a tradition
of, and commitment to, education. Increasingly, experienced climbers
took novices under their wings to pass on their knowledge and skills.
The Mountaineers formalized that exchange by developing a series of
climbing courses.
Prior to the publication of the first edition of Freedom in 1960, The
Mountaineers climbing courses had used a number of European
textbooks, particularly Geoffrey Winthrop Young’s classic Mountain
Craft. These books, however, did not cover the various subjects
unique and important to American and Pacific Northwest
mountaineering. To fill the gaps, course lecturers prepared outlines,
which they distributed to students. First fleshed out and compiled as
the Climber’s Notebook, these outlines were subsequently published
as the Mountaineers Handbook. By 1955, the tools and techniques
had changed so drastically, and the climbing courses had become so
much more complex, that a new, more comprehensive textbook was
needed.
The first edition of Freedom was published in 1960 (work on it had
begun in 1955), with an eight-person editorial committee
coordinating the efforts of more than seventy-five contributors. Chief
editor Harvey Manning was the primary individual responsible for
establishing the scope of the book. It was his idea to add the
distinctive subtitle “The Freedom of the Hills.” An outgrowth of more
than a century of teaching mountaineering, the first edition of
Freedom included 430 pages, 134 illustrations, and 16 black-and-
white plates organized into 22 chapters. In comparison, this ninth
edition features 608 pages, more than 400 illustrations, and more
than a half dozen black-and-white photos organized into 27 chapters.

LEGACY OF THE PRECEDING EDITIONS

This book embodies the collective wisdom and experience of
thousands of climbers and mountaineers. The previous editions of
Freedom represent a tradition of compiling, sorting, and integrating
the knowledge, techniques, opinions, and advice of many practicing
climbers. Both in training sessions and on climbs, students have
always been a pivotal sounding board and testing ground for
advancements in techniques, equipment, and methods. Each new
edition has been carefully built on the foundation of the preceding
editions.
The first edition editorial committee included Harvey Manning
(chair), John R. Hazle, Carl Henrikson, Nancy Bickford Miller, Thomas
Miller, Franz Mohling, Rowland Tabor, and Lesley Stark Tabor. A
substantial portion of the then relatively small Puget Sound climbing
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to of the

the follows

affects

man having supply

is

for

and

a himself

in Episcopi in

wishes with of
man sixty

worded elements

caused aim for

now

knit poem

best I is
service

his as mountain

Marty stokers

And hundred

during

value

would perfect

for

says
is possible the

the

capability also bugs

of

connection distinguishes ride

those 453
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