SKELETAL

SYSTEM
 OBJECTIVES

01 02
Describe the extracellular matrix
Explain the functions of
and explain the functions of
the skeletal system
each

03 04
Explain the structural differences
Give the function of each between compact bone and
type of bone cell spongy bone
 OBJECTIVES

05 06
Outline the process of Demonstrate an
intramembranous understanding of bone
ossification growth in length and width

07 Explain the role of bone

in calcium homeostasis 08 Define the two anatomical
portions of the skeleton
 01
Functions of the
Skeletal System
1. BODY
SUPPORT
• The rigid and strong bone is well
suited for bearing weight and as
the major supporting tissue of
the body

Cartilage – provides firm yet flexible

support within the certain structure
(nose, ear, thoracic cage, trachea)

Ligaments- strong bands of fibrous

connective tissue holds bone
together
2. ORGAN
PROTECT
• Bones is hard and protects the
organ it surrounds.

EXAMPLE:
• Skull protects the brain
• Trunk protects heart and lungs
3. BODY MOVEMENT
Enable movements through:

• attaching skeletal muscle and

bones (tendons)

• joints where two or more bones

come together (ligaments)
4. MINERAL
STORAGE
Some minerals in the blood are
stored in the bone

• Example:
Calcium and Phosphorous
Lipids from Adipose tissue
5. BLOOD CELL
PRODUCTION
Bones contains cavities filled
with red bone marrow producing
blood cells and platelets
 02
BONE
HISTOLOGY
 • Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments
of the skeletal system are all connective
tissues.
• Bones characteristics are largely determined
by the composition of their extracellular
matrix.

• Collagen is a fibrous protein that provides

flexibility but resists pulling or
compression.
EXTRACELLULAR BONE
MATRIX
❑ 35% Organic material :
collagen and proteoglycans
❑ 65% Inorganic material:
HYDROXYAPATITE (calcium
phosphate crystal)

❑ Like reinforced concrete

❑ STRONG AND FLEXIBLE
BONE CELLS
1. OSTEOBLASTS
⮚ Bone forming cells as well as the repair and
remodeling of bone.
⮚ The formation of new bone is called
ossification.
⮚ Produce collagen and proteoglycans
⮚ Produces MATRIX VESICLES and secrete
high concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate
ions resulting to:
• hydroxyapatite crystals
• hydroxyapatite formation
BONE CELLS
2. OSTEOCYTES
⮚ Cell that maintain bone matrix and form
from osteoblast after bone matrix has
surrounded it.

⮚ Osteocytes account for 90–95% of bone

cells and are very long-lived.

⮚ Osteocyte cell bodies are housed within the

bone matrix in spaces called lacunae.
BONE CELLS
2. OSTEOCYTES

• Their cell extensions are housed in narrow,

long spaces called canaliculi.
• Relatively inactive: Possible for them to
produce the components needed to
maintain the bone matrix.
 BONE CELLS
3. OSTEOCLASTS
• Bone-destroying cells
• They contribute to bone repair and remodeling by
removing existing bone, called bone
reabsorption.

• Breakdown bone that mobilizes ca2+ and

phosphate ions for use in metabolic processes.

• As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the

blood.
OSSIFICATION
❑ Formation of bone by osteoblasts
❑ Occurs by appositional growth on the surface of
previously existing bone or cartilage.
CLASSIFICATION OF BONE TISSUE

❑ According to the organization of

collagen fibers within the bone matrix.
1. WOVEN BONE
❑ Collagen fibers are randomly oriented
❑ First formed during fetal
development/during the repair of a
fracture.

2. LAMELLAR BONE
❑ Mature bone that is organized into thin
sheets lamellae
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONE

❑ Classified according to the

amount of bone matrix to
bone space

1. SPONGY
2. CORTICAL
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONE

1. SPONGY
❑ Very porous and is located in the
epiphyses of long bones and lines
the medullary cavity of long bones
❑ Less bone matrix
❑ TRABECULAE – delicate
interconnecting rods or plates of
bone
❑ Add strength to a bone without
the added weight
❑ Spaces between trabeculae are filled
with marrow
 CLASSIFICATION OF BONE

2. CORTICAL
❑ Forms the perimeter of diaphysis of a long
bone and the thinner surfaces of all other
bones
❑ Predictable pattern of repeating units:
⮚ OSTEONS – consist of connective rings of
lamellae surrounding central canal.
⮚ BLOOD VESSELS: run parallel to the long axis
of the bone. Located In the central canals/
haversian canal
⮚ CANALICULI – give osteon the appearance of
having tiny cracks within lamella
 BONE ANATOMY

BONE SHAPES

1. LONG BONES
2. SHORT
3. FLAT
4. IRREGULAR
 BONE ANATOMY

BONE SHAPES

1. LONG BONES
❑ Longer than they are wide.
❑ This shape enhances their
function in movement of
appendages
❑ Most of the upper and
lower limbs (arms and
legs) are long bones
 BONE ANATOMY

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONES

⮚DIAPHYSIS
❑ Shaft
❑ Growing between two ends
❑ Primary ossification center is in the diaphysis.
⮚EPIPHYSIS
❑ Develops from a center of ossification
⮚ ARTICULAR CARTILAGE
❑ Covers the ends of the epiphysis where the
bone articulates (joints) with other bones
 BONE ANATOMY

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONES

Bones contains cavities
❑ MEDULLARY CAVITY – large (in
cavities)
❑ These spaces are filled with soft
tissue called MARROW:
⮚ YELLOW MARROW – consist
mostly of adipose tissue
⮚ RED MARROW – consist mostly
of blood forming cells and is the
only site of blood formation in
adults
 BONE ANATOMY

STRUCTURE OF LONG BONES

❑ PERIOSTEUM
⮚ Connective tissue membrane that
covers the outer surface of a bone
⮚ Ligaments and tendons attach to bone
through the periosteum
⮚ Bone grows in diameter

❑ ENDOSTEUM
⮚ Thin connective tissue membrane
lining the inner cavities of bone
 BONE ANATOMY

BONE SHAPES
2. SHORT BONES
❑ Approximately as wide
as they are long
❑ Bones of the wrist and
ankle
❑ Short bones helps
transfer force between
long bones
 BONE ANATOMY

BONE SHAPES

3. FLAT BONES
❑ Relatively thin, flattened
shape.
❑ Flat bones are well suited
to providing a strong barrier
around soft organs such as
brain and heart
 BONE ANATOMY

BONE SHAPES

4. IRREGULAR BONES
❑ Providing protection while
allowing bending and
flexing of certain body
regions such as spine
❑ do not fit in other three
categories.
 BONE ANATOMY

STRUCTURE OF FLAT, SHORT, AND IRREGULAR BONES

❑ Interior framework of
spongy bone sandwiched
between two layers of
compact bone
❑ Not elongated
❑ No diaphyses
❑ Small epiphyses
 BONE DEVELOPMENT
REVIEW
⮚ OSTEOBLAST – bone forming cells
⮚ OSTEOCLAST – bone destroying cells
⮚ Osteoclast contribute also in bone repair
and remodeling
 BONE DEVELOPMENT
BONE OSSIFICATION
⮚ OSSIFICATION – to make, is the ⮚ In fetus, bones develop by
formation of bone by osteoblast until it two process:
becomes or completely surrounded by 1. INTRAMEMBRANOUS
bone matrix and it becomes a mature OSSIFICATION
bone cell/osteocyte ⮚ bone formation that occurs
within connective tissue
membrane
2. ENDOCHONDRAL
OSSIFICATION
⮚ bone formation occurs inside
hyaline cartilage
 BONE DEVELOPMENT
INTRAMEMBRANOUS OSSIFICATION

❑ Begins at approximately the

eighth week of embryonic
development
❑ Completed: 2 years of age
E.g.
⮚ Skull bones
⮚ Part of the mandible (lower jaw),
⮚ Diaphyses of the clavicles
(collarbones)
 BONE DEVELOPMENT
ENDOCHONDRAL OSSIFICATION

❑ Formation of cartilage: end of

the 4th week of embryonic
development

❑ Bones of the base of the skull,

part of the mandible, the
epiphyses of the clavicles, and
most of the remaining skeletal
system
 BONE GROWTH

❑ Occurs by deposition
of new bone lamella
onto existing bone or
other connective
tissue
 BONE GROWTH

❑ Growth in the length

of bone which is
major source of
increased height
occurs in epiphyseal
plate
❑ This type of bone
occurs through
endochondral
ossification
 BONE GROWTH
FACTORS AFFECTING BONE GROWTH

1. NUTRITION 2. HORMONES
❑ Calcium ❑ Growth hormone
❑ Vitamin D ⮚ Stimulating interstitial cartilage
⮚ Necessary for the normal growth and appositional bone
absorption of calcium from growth
the intestines ❑ Thyroid hormone
❑ Vitamin C ❑ Sex hormones
⮚ Collagen synthesis by ⮚ Burst of growth at puberty stimulate
osteoblasts ossification of epiphyseal plates,
the cessation of growth
BONE REPAIR
 BONE REPAIR
❑ Bone is a living tissue that can undergo repair if it is
damaged
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

❑ Bones play an important role in regulating blood

ca2+ levels
❑ Bone is the major storage site for calcium
❑ FUNCTION:
⮚ Muscle contraction and membrane potentials

2 MAIN HORMONES:
❑ Parathyroid hormone
❑ Calcitonin
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

❑ Bones play an important role in regulating blood

ca2+ levels
❑ Bone is the major storage site for calcium
❑ FUNCTION:
⮚ Muscle contraction and membrane potentials

2 MAIN HORMONES:
❑ Parathyroid hormone
❑ Calcitonin
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW
 SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW
❑ General considerations in bone
anatomy
❑ Average adult skeleton contains 206
bones
TERMS:
❑ FORAMEN – hole in a bone
⮚ Hole exist because some
structures such as a nerve or
blood vessel passes through the
bone at that point
❑ CANAL/MEATUS – tunnel like
passage through bone
 SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW

❑ FOSSA
• Depression in a bone
❑ TUBERCLE/ TUBEROSITY
• Rounded projection
❑ PROCESS
• sharp Projection
❑ CONDYLE
• smooth rounded end of bone
where it forms a joint with
another bone
 SKELETAL ANATOMY OVERVIEW

DIVIDED TO:

❑ AXIAL
⮚ Skull, auditory ossicles, hyoid
bone, vertebral column, and
rib cage (thoracic cage).

❑ APPENDICULAR
⮚ Bones of the upper limbs,
the lower limbs, and the
girdles
 AXIAL SKELETONS

SKULL
⮚ 22 bones of the skull are divided into
those of the braincase and those of
the face

⮚ Brain case (neurocranium) consist of

8 bones that immediately surround
and protect the brain

⮚ Facial consist of 14 bones

(viscerocranium)
 AXIAL SKELETONS

SKULL
⮚ Brain case (neurocranium)
❑ FRONTAL BONE:
❑ OCCCIPITAL BONE
❑ PARIENTAL BONE
❑ CORONAL SUTURES:
⮚ Separates the frontal and parietal
❑ SAGITTAL SUTURES:
⮚ Separates 2 parietal bone
❑ LAMBOID SUTURES:
⮚ Separates Parietal from Occipital bone
 AXIAL SKELETONS

SKULL
⮚ Brain case (Neurocranium)
TEMPORAL BONE

❑ SQUAMOUS SUTURE:
⮚ Separates TEMPORAL and
PARIETAL bone
❑ ZYGOMATIC BONE
⮚ Cheekbone
❑ ZYGOMATIC ARCH
⮚ Joined processes from the
temporal and zygomatic
bones,
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ MAXILLA
⮚ jawbone forms the
upper jaw
❑ MANDIBLE
⮚forms the lower jaw
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ FORAMEN MAGNUM
⮚ Passes through the occipital bone
Base of the skull
⮚ Entrance of vertebral arteries
❑ OCCIPITAL CONDYLES
⮚ Articulation between the skull and
the vertebral column
❑ MANDIBULAR FOSSA
⮚ Mandible articulates with the rest of
the skull
❑ CAROTID CANALS
⮚ Entrance of internal carotid arteries
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ HARD PALATE
⮚ Floor of the nasal cavity.

Made up of 4 bones (2 pairs)

1. Palatine processes of the two

maxillary bones,
2. Horizontal plates of the two
palatine bones
 AXIAL SKELETONS

⮚ Prominent openings
ORBIT (EYE SOCKET)
⮚ Each orbit has several openings
through which structures
communicate with other cavities

⮚ Largest of these are:

1. Superior and Inferior orbital
fissures – provides openings
through which blood vessels pass
to face
 AXIAL SKELETONS

2. OPTIC FORAMEN
❑ Optic nerve for the sense of
vision passes through

3. NASOLACRIMAL CANAL
❑ Passes from the orbit into the
nasal cavity
❑ Contains a duct that carries
tears from eyes to nasal cavity
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ NASAL SEPTUM
⮚ Divides the nasal cavity into
left and right halves, two
structures form the nasal
septum
❑ NASAL BONES
⮚ Forms the bridge of the
nose
⮚ External part of the nose is
formed mostly of cartilage
 AXIAL SKELETONS

⮚ Each lateral walls of the nasal

cavity has three (3) bony shelves:

❑ NASAL CONCHAE
⮚ Resembling a conch shell, the
conchae increase the surface
area in the nasal cavity.
⮚ The increase surface area of
the overlying epithelium
facilitates moistening and
warming of the air inhaled
through nose
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ VERTEBRAL
COLUMN

“SPINE”
⮚ Central axis of the
skeleton extending
from the base of the
skull to slightly past the
end of pelvis
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ VERTEBRAL COLUMN

FUCTIONS:
1.) Supports the weight of the head and
trunk
2.) Protects the spinal cord
3.) Allows spinal nerves to exit the
spinal cord
4.) Provides a sire for muscle
attachment
5.) Permits movement of the head and
trunk
 AXIAL SKELETONS
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VERTEBRAE
❑ BODY
⮚ Disk-shaped
⮚ Largest part with flat
surfaces; forms the anterior
wall of the vertebral
foramen
⮚ Intervertebral disks are
located between the bodies
❑ VERTEBRAL FORAMEN
❑ Hole in each vertebra
through which the spinal
cord passes
 AXIAL SKELETONS
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VERTEBRAE
❑ PEDICLE
⮚ Foot of the arch with one on
each side

❑ LAMINA
⮚ Posterior part of the arch

❑ VERTEBRAL ARCH
⮚ Forms the lateral and posterior
walls of the vertebral foramen;
possesses several processes
and articular surfaces
 AXIAL SKELETONS
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE VERTEBRAE
TRANSVERSE PROCESS
❑ Process projecting laterally from the
junction of the lamina and pedicle
❑ a site of muscle attachment
SPINOUS PROCESS
❑ Process projecting posteriorly at the
point where the two laminae join
ARTICULAR PROCESSES
❑ Superior and inferior projections
containing articular facets where
vertebrae articulate with each other;
❑ Strengthen the vertebral column
❑ Allow for movement
 AXIAL SKELETONS
GENERAL FEATURES OF
THE VERTEBRAE

INTERVERTEBRAL DISKS
❑ Fibrocartilage
❑ Located between the bodies of
adjacent vertebrae
prevent the vertebral bodies from
rubbing against each other

EXTERNAL: ANNULUS
FIBROSUS
INTERNAL: NUCLEUS
PULPOSUS
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ ATLAS
⮚ First cervical vertebra
⮚ Holds up the head
⮚ No body and no spinous process
⮚ Articulates with the occipital
⮚ Condyles on the base of the skull
⮚ “Yes” motion or to tilt from side to side

❑ AXIS
⮚ Rotation occurs
⮚ “No” motion of the head
⮚ Dens (odontoid process)
❖ Dens fits into vertebral foramen of
the atlas
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ SACRAL VERTEBRAE
⮚ Five vertebrae are fused into a
single bone called the SACRUM
⮚ SACRAL PROMONTORY
⮚ separates the abdominal
cavity from the pelvic
cavity.

❑ COCCYX
⮚ Tailbone
⮚ Consists of three to five
semifused vertebrae
⮚ Easily broken
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ RIB CAGE
⮚ Protects the vital organs within thorax
and prevents the collapse of the thorax
during respiration
⮚ There are 12 pairs of ribs divided into
TRUE ribs and FALSE ribs
⮚ TRUE RIBS: 1-7 attach directly to the
sternum by means of costal cartilage
⮚ FALSE RIBS: 8-10 do not attach
directly to the sternum (ribs 8-10 attach
to the sternum by a common cartilage)
⮚ FLOATING RIBS: Ribs 11-12. Do not
attach at all to sternum and are called
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ STERNUM/BREAST BONE
❑ Divided into 3: (sword-
shaped)
1. MANUBRIUM: handle
⮚ First rib and clavicle
attachment
2. BODY: blade
⮚ 3rd to 7th - ribs are
attached
3. XIPHOID PROCESS: the tip
⮚ No ribs attached
 AXIAL SKELETONS

❑ JUGULAR NOTCH
⮚ Located between the sword-shaped
ends of the clavicles where they
articulate with the sternum

❑ STERNAL ANGLE
⮚ Can be felt at the junction of the
manubrium and the body of the
sternum this junction
⮚ important landmark: identifies the
location of the second rib
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
❑ Consists:
⮚ UPPER and LOWER limbs
⮚ SHOULDER and PELVIC girdles

❑ PECTORAL & SHOULDER GIRDLE

⮚ Consist of four bones:
2 scapulae and 2clavicles
Attach upper limb to the body
❑ Scapula/ shoulder blade – is a flat,
triangular bone with three large fossae
where muscles extending to the arm are
attached
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

❑ GLENOID CAVITY:
⮚ Under scapula
⮚ Head of the humerus
connects to the scapula
❑ ACROMION PROCESS:
⮚ Extends from the scapular
spine to form the point of the
shoulder
⮚ Articulates with the clavicle
❑ CORACOID PROCESS
⮚ Provides for the attachment
of arm and chest muscles
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

❑UPPER LIMB
⮚ Humerus
⮚ Radio-ulna
⮚ Carpals
⮚ Metacarpals
⮚ Phalanges
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
ARM
⮚ Region between shoulder and elbow
it contains the Humerus
❑ The proximal end: a smooth rounded
head which attaches humerus to the
scapula
❑ Proximal end of the humerus is
divided into 2 tubercle
⮚ GREATER TUBERCLE
⮚ LESSER TUBERCLE
❑ DELTOID TUBEROSITY
⮚ Deltoid muscles are attached
❑ EPICONDYLES
⮚ Provides attachments sites for
forearm muscles
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
FORE ARM
❑ elbow to wrist, has two bones
⮚ Ulna – on the medial
⮚ Radius – on the lateral (thumb)
❑ Proximal end of ulna:
❑ TROCHLEAR NOTCH – fits tightly over
the end of the humerus forming most of the
elbow joint
❑ OLECRANON PROCESS – can be felt as
the point of the elbow
❑ CORONOID PROCESS – which helps the
grip of ulna on the distal end of humerus
❑ Distal end of ulna:
❑ STYLOID PROCESS – located on medial
side
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
WRIST
⮚ Relatively short region between the
forearm and the hand, it is composed
of eight carpal bones:
1.) Scaphoid
2.) Lunate
3.) Triquetrum
4.) Pisiform
5.) Hamate
6.) Capitate
7.) Trapezoid
8.) Trapezium
So Long Top Part, Here Comes The
Thumb
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

HAND
❑ Five metacarpal bones are attached to
the carpal bones and form the bony
framework of the hand

❑ Metacarpal bones are aligned with the

five digits, the thumb and fingers.

❑ They are numbered from 1 – 5 from the

thumb to little finger

❑ Phalanges – 3 small bones in the finger

 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

PELVIC GIRDLE
❑ Place where the lower limb
attach to the body
❑ The right and left hip bones
join each other anteriorly
and sacrum posteriorly
❑ Pelvis – basin includes
pelvic girdle and coccyx
❑ Each hip is formed by three
bones fused to one another
to form a single bone
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

PELVIC GIRDLE
❑ another to form a single bone
1.) ilium – most superior
2.) ischium – inferior and posterior
3.) pubis – inferior and anterior
❑ Iliac crest – can be seen along
the superior margin of each
ilium
❑ Anterior superior iliac spine –
important hip landmark
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

❑ PUBIC SYMPHYSIS:
⮚ Where hip bones converge
anteriorly

❑ SACROILIAC JOINTS
⮚ Where bones hip bones articulate
with sacrum posteriorly

❑ OBTURATOR FORAMEN
⮚ Large hole in each hip bone that
is close off by muscles and other
structures
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
LOWER LIMB
Consist of bones of the THIGH, LEG,
ANKLE and FOOT
❑ THIGH – region between the
hip and the knee it contains a
single bone called femur
⮚ The head of femur articulates with
the acetabulum of the hip bone
⮚ CONDYLES – distal end of femur,
articulates with the tibia
⮚ EPICONDYLES – located medial
and lateral to condyles
⮚ PATELLA – knee cap
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

❑ LEG – region between the knee

and the ankle it contains 2 bones:
⮚TIBIA (SHINE BONE) – is larger of
the two and is major weight bearing
bone of the leg
⮚FIBULA – does not articulate with
the femur, but its head is attached
to the proximal end of tibia
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON

FOOT
❑ There are 7 tarsal bones
(soles of the foot)
❑ Talus (ankle bone)
❑ Calcaneus (heel)
❑ Cuboid
❑ Navicular
❑ Medial cuneiform
❑ Intermediate cuneiform
❑ Lateral cuneiform
 JOINTS
❑ Articulations, are commonly named
according to the bones or portions of
bones that join together
3 TYPES:
1. FIBROUS JOINTS
❑ Articulating surface of two bones
united by fibrous connective tissue,
they have no joint cavity, exhibit little
or no movement,
Divided into 3:
A. SUTURES – are fibrous joint between
bones of the skull
 JOINTS
2. CARTILAGINOUS
JOINTS
❑ Unite 2 bones by fibrocartilage or
hyaline cartilage
❑ More movement than fibrous joints but
less than that of synovial joint

1. Primary (synchondroses)
⮚ Epiphyseal (growth) plates are

2. Secondary (symphyses)
⮚ Manubriosternal joint
⮚ Intervertebral discs
⮚ Pubic symphysis.
 JOINTS

3. SYNOVIAL JOINTS
❑ Freely movable joints that
contain fluid in the cavity
surrounding the ends of
articulating bones
❑ Connects bones with a fibrous
joint capsule that is continuous
with the bones’ periosteum
QUESTIONS…