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Chitin- and Chitosan-
Based Biocomposites
for Food Packaging
Applications
Chitin- and Chitosan-
Based Biocomposites
for Food Packaging
Applications

Edited by
Jissy Jacob
Sravanthi Loganathan
Sabu Thomas
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-367-28090-1 (Hardback)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the
author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if
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Contents

List of Abbreviations, xi
List of Symbols, xv
Preface, xvii
Editors, xix
Contributors, xxi

CHAPTER 1 ■ An Overview of Biopolymers from

Natural Resources 1
MARCIA R. DE MOURA AND FAUZE A. AOUADA
1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 PETROLEUM-BASED POLYMERS—
CHALLENGES 2
1.3 BIOPOLYMERS 3
1.4 CLASSIFICATION 3
1.4.1 Agro Origin 4
1.4.2 Animal Origin 4
1.4.3 Protein Origin 6
1.5 BIONANOCOMPOSITES 6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 7
REFERENCES 7

v
vi ■ Contents

CHAPTER 2 ■ Fabrication of Bionanocomposites

from Chitin 11
SEEMA A. KULKARNI, V. DHARINI, S. PERIYAR SELVAM,
M. MAHESH KUMAR, EMMANUEL ROTIMI SADIKU,
J. JAYARAMUDU, AND UPENDRA NATH GUPTA
2.1 INTRODUCTION 12
2.2 SOURCES OF CHITIN 13
2.3 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION
OF CHITIN 14
2.4 PROPERTIES OF CHITIN 14
2.5 ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION
OF CHITIN 15
2.6 MODIFICATIONS 16
2.7 CHITIN BIOCOMPOSITES 17
2.8 APPLICATIONS IN PACKAGING INDUSTRIES 18
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 18
REFERENCES 19
CHAPTER 3 ■ Fabrication of Biocomposites from
Chitosan: Preparation to Applications 23
ANURADHA BISWAL AND SARAT K. SWAIN
3.1 INTRODUCTION 23
3.2 STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF
CHITOSAN 25
3.3 PRODUCTION OF CHITOSAN FROM
NATURAL SOURCES 25
3.3.1 Chemical Extraction Method 26
3.3.2 Biological Extraction 26
3.4 CHEMICAL MODIFICATIONS OF CHITOSAN 27
3.5 FABRICATION OF CHITOSAN
BIOCOMPOSITES 28
 Contents ■ vii

3.6 APPLICATIONS OF CHITOSAN IN THE

FOOD INDUSTRY 31
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 32
REFERENCES 32
CHAPTER 4 ■ Thermal and Mechanical Studies
for Chitin and Chitosan
Bionanocomposites 37
WEN SHYANG CHOW
4.1 INTRODUCTION 37
4.2 THERMAL PROPERTIES 38
4.3 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 41
REFERENCES 46
CHAPTER 5 ■ Barrier, Degradation, and Cytotoxicity
Studies for Chitin-Chitosan
Bionanocomposites 49
ASEEL T. ISSA AND REZA TAHERGORABI
5.1 INTRODUCTION: BACKGROUND AND
DRIVING FORCES 49
5.2 BARRIER PROPERTIES OF CHITIN-CHITOSAN
BIONANOCOMPOSITES 51
5.3 BIODEGRADATION STUDIES OF
CHITIN-CHITOSAN BIONANOCOMPOSITES 53
5.3.1 In Vitro Studies 54
5.3.2 In Vivo Studies 54
5.4 CYTOTOXICITY STUDIES OF CHITIN-
CHITOSAN BIONANOCOMPOSITES 55
5.4.1 In Vitro Studies 55
5.4.2 In Vivo Studies 56
REFERENCES 56
viii ■ Contents

CHAPTER 6 ■ Chitin- and Chitosan-Based

Bionanocomposites for Active
Packaging 59
MARIA RAPA AND CORNELIA VASILE
6.1 INTRODUCTION 59
6.2 BIOACTIVE AGENTS FOR FOOD CONTACT
COMPOSITES CONTAINING CHITIN/
CHITOSAN 60
6.2.1 Antioxidant Agents 60
6.2.2 Antimicrobial Agents 61
6.2.3 Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Agents 62
6.2.4 Nanoparticles (NPs) 62
6.2.4.1 Chitosan/Chitin NPs 62
6.2.4.2 Inorganic NPs as Nanofillers
and Antimicrobial Agents 63
6.3 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS 65
REFERENCES 65
CHAPTER 7 ■ A Theoretical Approach to Chitin- and
Chitosan-Based Bionanocomposites 69
K. P. SAJESHA
7.1 INTRODUCTION 69
7.2 COMPUTATIONAL STUDIES OF CHITIN-
AND CHITOSAN-BASED BIOPOLYMERS AS
POTENTIAL METAL ION ABSORBERS 71
7.3 COMPUTATIONAL STUDIES OF CHITIN-
AND CHITOSAN-BASED BIOPOLYMERS
IN BIOMEDICAL FIELDS 75
7.4 COMPUTATIONAL STUDIES OF CHITIN AND
CHITOSAN—PAVING A WAY TO FOOD
PACKAGES AND OTHER BIOMATERIALS 78
REFERENCES 84
 Contents ■ ix

CHAPTER 8 ■ Novel Approaches for Chitin/Chitosan

Composites in the Packaging Industry 87
VICTOR GOMES LAURIANO SOUZA, JOÃO RICARDO AFONSO
PIRES, CAROLINA RODRIGUES, ISABEL COELHOSO, AND ANA
LUISA FERNANDO
8.1 INTRODUCTION 88
8.2 CHITIN AND CHITOSAN PRODUCTION:
NOVEL EXTRACTION METHODS AND
BIOLOGICAL PRODUCTION 88
8.3 IMPROVEMENT OF CHITOSAN PROPERTIES 90
8.4 APPLICATION AS COATING 92
8.5 SCALE-UP PRODUCTION 93
REFERENCES 94

INDEX, 97
List of Abbreviations

α-CTN α-chitin
β-CTN β-chitin
β-NAG β-(1-4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine
ε-PL ε-polylysine
A. niger Aspergillus niger
ABTS•+ cationic radical 2,2ʹ-azino-bis
(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid)
AgNPs silver nanoparticles
AMBER assisted model building with energy refinement
BO born–oppenheimer
CFU colony-forming unit
CH4 Methane
CH3COOH acetic acid
CMC carboxymethyl cellulose
CNC cellulose nanocrystals
CNF cellulose nanofiber
CNT carbon nanotubes
CO2 carbon dioxide
COMPASS condensed-phase optimized molecular potentials
for atomistic simulation studies
CS, CSN chitosan
CSNF chitosan-cellulose nanofiber
CSNW chitosan-cellulose nanowhisker
CuSO4 copper sulfate

xi
xii ■ List of Abbreviations

DD degree of deacetylation
DES deep eutectic solvents
DFT density functional theory
DMA dynamic mechanical analyzer
DNAN 2,4-dinitroanisole
DPECS diethoxyphosphorylpolyaminoethyl chitosan
DSC differential scanning calorimetry
E. coli Escherichia coli
EFF-MD empirical force field molecular dynamics
EGCG epigallocatechin gallate
FeCl3 ferric chloride
f-MWCNT functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotube
FOX7 1,1-diamino-2,2-dinitroethene
GGA generalized gradient approximation
GlcN N-glucosamine
GlcNAc N-acetylglucosamine
GO graphene oxide
GROMACS groningen molecular simulation
HCl hydrochloric acid
HCOOH formic acid
HNO3 nitric acid
HPCS hydroxypropyl chitosan
H2SO4 sulfuric acid
KO krill oil
KT kombucha tea
LAMMPS large-scale atomic/molecular massively parallel
simulator
LDPE low-density polyethylene
mg Milligram
MgO magnesium oxide
MLE mango leaf extract
MM molecular mechanics
MMT montmorillonite
MOPAC molecular orbital package
Mpa megapascal
 List of Abbreviations ■ xiii

Mw molecular weight
MWCNT multiwalled carbon nanotubes
NADES natural deep eutectic solvents
NaOH sodium hydroxide
nm nanometer
NTO 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one
NQ nitroguanidine
OL oleic acid
OTR oxygen transfer rate
P. aeruginosa Pseudomonas aeruginosa
PAA polyacrylic acid
PCL polycaprolactone
PE polyethylene
PHT poly (3-hexylthiophene)
PM3 parameterization model version 3
PP polypropylene
RAFT reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer
RDX 1,3,5-hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine
S. aureus Staphylococcus aureus
S. enteritidis Salmonella enteritidis
SC-DFTB self-consistent density functional tight binding
SEM scanning electron microscopy
SiO2 silica
SMD steered molecular dynamics
SPIONPs super-paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles
TEMPO-CNF (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl radical)-
oxidized cellulose nanofibers
TEOS tetraethoxysilane
TiO2 titanium dioxide
TGA thermogravimetric analyzer
TNF turmeric nanofillers
TNT 2,4,6-trinitromethylbenzene
TPP tripolyphosphate
USFDA United States Food and Drug Administration
WVP water vapor permeability
ZnO-NP zinc oxide nanoparticles
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