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In Search of Power African Americans in the Era of
Decolonization 1956 1974 Brenda Gayle Plummer Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Brenda Gayle Plummer
ISBN(s): 9781107022997, 1107022991
Edition: Hardcover
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Year: 2014
Language: english
In Search of Power

In Search of Power is a history of the era of civil rights, decoloniza-

tion, and Black Power. In the critical period from 1956 to 1974, the
emergence of newly independent states worldwide and the struggles
of the civil rights movement in the United States exposed the limits of
racial integration and political freedom. Dissidents, leaders, and elites
alike were linked in a struggle for power in a world where the rules
of the game had changed. Brenda Gayle Plummer traces the detailed
connections between African Americans’ involvement in international
affairs and how they shaped American foreign policy, integrating
African-American history, the history of the African diaspora, and the
history of United States foreign relations. These topics, usually treated
separately, not only offer a unified view of the period but also reassess
controversies and events that punctuated this colorful era of upheaval
and change.

Brenda Gayle Plummer is Merze Tate Professor of History at the

University of Wisconsin at Madison and currently chairs the Department
of Afro-American Studies. She is the author of Rising Wind: Black
Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960 (1996); Haiti and the
United States (1992); and Haiti and the Great Powers, 1902–1915
(1988). She is the editor of Window on Freedom: Race, Civil Rights,
and Foreign Affairs, 1945–1988 (2003).
In Search of Power
African Americans in the Era of
Decolonization, 1956–1974

Brenda Gayle Plummer

University of Wisconsin, Madison
cambridge university press
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City

Cambridge University Press

32 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10013-2473, USA
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107654716

© Brenda Gayle Plummer 2013

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2013

Printed in the United States of America

A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication data

Plummer, Brenda Gayle.
In search of power : African Americans in the era of decolonization,
1956–1974 / Brenda Gayle Plummer.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-107-02299-7 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-107-65471-6 (paperback)
1. African Americans – Civil rights. 2. Decolonization – Africa. 3. United States –
Foreign relations – Africa. 4. Africa – Foreign relations – United States. 5. African
Americans – Relations with Africans – History. 6. African diaspora – History. I. Title.
E185.615.P5435 2012
323.1196′073–dc23    2012024348

ISBN 978-1-107-02299-7 Hardback

ISBN 978-1-107-65471-6 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for
external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee
that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
Contents

List of Figures page vi

Introduction 1
1 A Great Restlessness 24
2 Peace or a Sword? 62
3 “Freedom’s Struggle Crosses Oceans and Mountains” 97
4 Meeting Odinga 130
5 When Race Doesn’t Matter 165
6 Embracing the Globe 200
7 Race, Space, and Displacement 235
8 Africa and Liberation 271
9 Agenda Setting on Two Continents 307
Conclusion 343

Bibliography 351
Index 363

v
Figures

1. Tunisian leader Habib Bourguiba rejects De Gaulle’s gradualist

approach to decolonization. page 35
2. Harlem was a major arena for black nationalist challenges to
integrationist leadership. 47
3. Pat and Richard Nixon, shown with Ghanaian Finance Minister
Komla A. Gbedemah (right) at Ghana’s independence celebration. 55
4. Ghanaians protest French atomic testing in the Sahara,
September 2, 1960. 75
5. Bill Sutherland. 78
6. African-American sailors encounter local children in Cape Town. 126
7. U.S. Army troops patrol the streets of Santo Domingo on May
6, 1965. 169
8. King’s precarious position captured in an editorial cartoon. 190
9. Malcolm X, left, with Abdulrahman Mohamed Babu
(1924–1996), a leader of the Zanzibar revolution. 204
10. Canada’s black population, 1951–1981. 229
11. This Pittsburgh Courier cartoon dramatized the Vietnam era’s
guns or butter dilemma. 244
12. Black Panther Party member Elbert “Big Man” Howard and
Jean Genet at a New Haven, Connecticut, rally, May 1, 1970, in
support of Panther Bobby Seale, then imprisoned. 249
13. Earlier activists’ work paved the way for the renewed
antiapartheid campaigns of the 1980s. 255
14. President Julius Nyerere listens to Roy Innis of the Congress
of Racial Equality, at Government House, Dar es Salaam,
Tanzania, in 1971. 276

vi
List of Figures vii

15. The Polaroid Campaign’s button, with red lettering on a

green and black field, linked the colors of African-American
nationalism to the black South African struggle. 283
16. Protesters at the Department of Agriculture during the Poor
People’s Campaign, 1968. 309
17. George Foreman jousts with a wary Mobutu during the
“Rumble in the Jungle.” 341
Introduction

In late summer 1959 two aging generals and trusted staff members met for a
series of candid conversations at a medieval fortress. The generals were also
presidents, and the venue, the Château de Rambouillet, was the official sum-
mer home of French heads of state. Charles De Gaulle enjoyed receiving his
foreign counterparts at the chateau, whose interior, resplendent with gilt and
tapestries, and exterior, lush with formal gardens, reflected the grandeur of
France. “Our guests,” he noted, “were made to feel the nobility behind the
geniality, the permanence behind the vicissitudes, of the nation which was
their host.”1
De Gaulle’s guest this time was the president of the United States, Dwight D.
Eisenhower, who on arriving in Paris received a hero’s welcome as the liberator
of wartime Europe. While the shared experience of World War II united the two
men, their talks were not limited to the past. The major powers had accepted
the inevitability of decolonization by the end of the decade, but not without
hand wringing. Eisenhower and De Gaulle bemoaned colonial peoples’ lack of
preparation for independence. As an aide recalled the discussion, Ike declared
that “often we were asked for tractors when the level of the economy required
the ability to handle a plow and an ox. Many of these peoples were attempt-
ing to make the leap from savagery to the degree of civilization of a country
like France in perhaps ten years, without realizing that it took thousands of
years to develop the civilization which we know.” De Gaulle concurred. In
spite of disagreement between the two as to how Western Europe might best
be defended, they agreed that it was now vital that the West act in concert
in handling the developing countries.2 De Gaulle ultimately consented to a
French withdrawal from Algeria and Eisenhower was the first American to be

1
De Gaulle quoted in Jean Lacouture, De Gaulle, Ruler, 1945–1970 (New York: HarperCollins,
1991), 333.
2
Memorandum of Conversation, September 3, 1959, Declassified Documents Reference System,
hereafter DDRS. Note that the separate digitized and micofiche DDRS collections do not always
overlap. See also Cyrus Sulzberger, The Last of the Giants (New York: Macmillan, 1970), 75.

1
2 Introduction

so informed. Ike himself had little prior knowledge of Africa, and awkward
mistakes compromised his administration’s efforts to conduct normal relations
with the new states.
Competition between the West and the Soviet bloc underwent transition after
Stalin’s death, becoming less dangerous to Europeans and North Americans
but more lethal to emerging nations. The great powers had difficulty accom-
modating the democratic aspirations of their own ethnic minorities, and while
they supported majority rule in principle, they sought to maintain patterns of
social and political domination in previously colonized areas.
Across the Atlantic, a more modest meeting had taken place earlier in the
season, also at a special site. The former summer home of the late Robert Russa
Moton, who had presided over historically black Tuskegee Institute, was nes-
tled in the Virginia countryside. Holly Knoll in Capahosic, Virginia, possessed
rustic charm and lacked the luxury of Rambouillet but, like the chateau, served
a manifest political purpose. Remodeling made it a conference center “where
white and Negro leadership might convene and deliberate the important and
crucial issues which must be faced in a spirit of understanding and goodwill,”
the Phelps Stokes Fund had argued in the proposal for funding it. The dis-
cussions held at Holly Knoll were not limited to domestic civil rights issues.
“Responsible Negroes” and well-meaning whites worried about the impact of
U.S. race relations on foreign publics and the lack of a coherent national policy
toward African states.3
Earlier in the decade, while the Montgomery bus boycott was making the
news all over the world, a group of prominent African-American figures met
secretly at Capahosic. The clandestine all-male March 1956 conclave, spon-
sored by the Phelps Stokes Fund and paid for by the General Education Board,
addressed the worries of conservatives who felt uncomfortable with the mass
mobilization and popular participation that Montgomery represented. The list
of participants read like a Who’s Who of the black establishment of a decade
before, minus Dorothy Ferebee of the National Council of Negro Women
(NCNW). The contemporary observer notes the marked gender exclusion, but
at midcentury, many Americans participated in mass organizations in which
gender separation was the norm.
Men attending the meeting included UN official Ralph Bunche; President
Rufus Clement of Atlanta University; Representative William L. Dawson of
Chicago; Urban League director Lester B. Granger; federal judge William
Hastie; Charles S. Johnson, president of Fisk University; President Benjamin
Mays of Morehouse College; Frederick D. Patterson, president, respectively,
of the National Negro Business League and the Phelps Stokes Fund; Willard

3
Proposal of the Phelps Stokes Fund to the John Bulow Campbell Foundation, September 1958,
General Education Board Records, Phelps Stokes Fund–Holly Knoll Conference Center, Series
1.2, folder 3029, Rockefeller Archive Center, hereafter RAC; Frederick D. Patterson, Chronicles
of Faith: The Autobiography of Frederick D. Patterson (Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama
Press, 1991), 163–4.
Introduction 3

Townsend, head of the United Transport Workers Union; New York state rent
commissioner Robert Weaver; John H. Wheeler, president of the North Carolina
Mutual Insurance Company; and National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP) secretary Roy Wilkins.4
Conveners timed the conference to occur one day before a mass meeting
on civil rights in Washington, D.C., organized by fifty-two organizations. The
Capahosic gathering in contrast was “hush-hush,” speculated an Associated
Negro Press correspondent, because participants wanted a gradualist entente
with southern moderates and sensed that the deal-making, top-down leader-
ship that characterized their modus operandi was becoming obsolete. Roy
Wilkins recalled the meeting as unproductive, but it reflected fault lines in the
black freedom movement that had already become visible by the late 1950s.5
One of these traversed gender. The NCNW and the National Association
of Colored Women’s Clubs had vigorously supported civil rights mobilization
beginning with the Truman years (1945–52) and beyond. They were joined in
activism by sororities and such local groups as the Women’s Political Council,
which played a formative role in mobilizing the Montgomery, Alabama, bus
boycott of 1954–5.6 The impressive credentials of these black women’s orga-
nizations did not entitle them, however, to an equal seat at the table where
the shape of the coming freedom struggle was debated and where prestigious
African-American men contemplated their positions vis-à-vis the newly emerg-
ing states of Africa and the Caribbean.
Capahosic gatherings were as select in their way as De Gaulle and
Eisenhower’s meeting. During these years, the core group consisted of African-
American college presidents and, as the specific topic would dictate, various
experts. Vernon Jordan, a young Howard University law student who subse-
quently led the National Urban League and later advised President Bill Clinton,
fondly recalled Capahosic as “the equivalent of a black Bohemian Grove, a
unique gathering of members of the talented tenth.” In his account,
The atmosphere was very male, with conversations over poker games or while sitting on
the porch drinking. We played tennis, went on long walks, and ate great Southern cui-
sine. I loved every minute of it. Most of these men had been at their business for many

4
F. D. Patterson, “Report on the Capahosic Conference, March 3–4, 1956”; Associated Negro
Press [ANP] dispatch, [unpublished] March 12, 1956, Claude Barnett Papers, series G, reel 3
(Frederick, Md.: University Publications of America, 1985). Hereafter CBP.
5
ANP Press dispatch, March 23, 1956, in ibid.; General Education Board, Annual Report, 1956,
p. 8, General Education Board, Phelps Stokes Fund–Holly Knoll Conference Center, Series 1.2,
folder 3029, RAC; Barnett to F. D. Patterson, March 12, 1956 and June 7, 1958, and ANP dis-
patch, March 12, 1956, CBP, series G, reel 3; “Leaders Ask NAACP ‘Go Slow,’” Roy Wilkins to
Percival Prattis, March 31, 1959, Box 144–10, Percival L. Prattis Papers, Moorland Spingarn
Collection, Howard University, hereafter MSC.
6
V. P. Franklin and Bettye Collier-Thomas, “For the Race in General and Black Women in
Particular: The Civil Rights Activities of African American Women’s Organizations, 1915–1950,”
in Sisters in the Struggle: African American Women in the Civil Rights–Black Power Movement
(New York: New York University Press, 2001), 38.
4 Introduction

years. Wisdom, experience, and just solid information about the way the world worked
was on almost constant display. I took in as much as I could.7

All these savants, whether commanding great powers or modest institutions,

faced a world changing in ways that they could not always direct and often
could not predict. Their common desire was the power to manage and modify
the transitions. The heads of state wanted to inoculate themselves against the
challenges to global order they believed decolonization would bring. All had a
stake in the status quo. They believed in the maintenance of a world founded on
core values whose unshakable stability would admit only incremental change.
The black college presidents had learned to thrive in the restricted world of
American segregation. In the mid-1950s, they had held anxious meetings with
others from the world of black business, education, and the professions to
worry about a civil rights movement that had spun beyond their control, boast-
ing leaders they did not know and espousing goals they found threatening.8
In addressing the issue of decolonization, the educators, unlike Eisenhower
and De Gaulle, did not think Africans were primitives who were unready for civ-
ilization. But they did want to project their own influence into the new relation-
ship that Africans would have with the United States. They consequently signed
on to the United Negro College Fund’s (UNCF’s) African Scholarship Program
and a plan to fly African students to the United States to receive American
educations at historically black colleges and universities. UNCF collaborated
with the African Scholarship Program and Ithaca College’s Cooperative African
Scholarship Program of American Universities to solicit aid from private back-
ers and the African-American Institute, which channeled funds to the project
from the International Cooperation Administration (ICA).9
A September 1960 airlift from Nairobi, Kenya, carried some 250 students
to New York, where they received red carpet treatment on their arrival. One of
them was Barack Obama Sr., father-to-be of the future U.S. president Barack
Obama. UN undersecretary Ralph Bunche, Nelson Rockefeller, New York
governor Averell Harriman, Roy Wilkins, and the Reverend James Robinson,
founder of the volunteer organization Crossroads Africa, scheduled meetings
with the newcomers. “Everyone wanted to get in on the act,” journalist Percival
Prattis complained.10

7
Tina McCloud, “‘Great People’ Came to Moton” (Newport News, Va.) Daily Press, February
16, 1997, online, accessed September 2011; Vernon E. Jordan and Annette Gordon-Reed,
Vernon Can Read! A Memoir (New York: Public Affairs, 2001), 212.
8
Patterson, “Report on the Capahosic Conference”; and ANP release March 12, 1956; Claude
Barnett to F. D. Patterson, March 12, 1956; minutes of the June 1958 Capahosic conference,
Box 4, Phelps Stokes Fund Records, Schomburg Center for Research on Black Culture, New
York Public Library, hereafter SC; Roy Wilkins to Percival Prattis, 3, March 31, 1959, MSC;
“NAACP Asked to Go Slow at Capahosic,” Amsterdam News, March 10, 1957, p. 24.
9
William J. Trent Jr., “The United Negro College Fund’s African Scholarship Program,” Journal
of Negro Education 31 (Spring, 1962): 205–9; Percival Prattis to Senator Hugh Scott, August
28, 1960, Prattis Papers, Box 144–12.
10
Ibid.; James H. Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black America and Africa, 1935–1961
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 146–8; Herbert L. Wright to Ralph
Introduction 5

Why were these anonymous undergraduates significant to U.S. elites? To

retain their places of influence and power, the leadership had to respond to
colonial unrest and to the aspirations of minority peoples by supporting mod-
els of democratic process in the likeness of the West. For France, this meant
sovereignty for Algeria. For the United States, it meant disseminating American
political values to African and Asian elites-in-training.
Race is fundamentally embedded in every aspect of U.S. history and culture.
For most of the republic’s history, devices such as segregation permitted a direct
recognition of its power and provided for a system of management that only
partially contained its violence. As formal segregation became steadily unten-
able, so did a foreign policy that hampered U.S. objectives outside Europe.
Socially and culturally the United States found itself on the threshold of a
new era in which its formerly – and formally – isolated subcultures began to
seep into the mainstream. Racial proscription and exclusion were under attack
everywhere in the world as the 1960s began. “There had never been,” one
scholar notes, “a decade rung in with such heady self-consciousness of high
purpose.”11
By the end of that decade, the mood had changed. Insurgents came to see the
state as a barrier, rather than the guarantor of true emancipation. The rebel-
lions of the 1960s represented the return of radical energies dormant since
the early cold war era. Knowledge about race incubated in the marketplace
as well as in the academy, where the prospect of economic opportunity could
quicken cultural and intellectual leadership. Corporate and government inter-
est in developing human capital in the United States and natural resources in
Africa provided a fresh impetus for philanthropic support of black education
and race relations projects.
Historically, framing U.S. race relations as first a southern problem, and
later a domestic issue only, had blocked both global debate and external media-
tion. This changed when civil rights, anticolonialist, and human rights activists
helped open spaces for nongovernmental actors to influence decision making;
promoted contacts with foreign governments and other external agents; and,
above all, explicitly linked racial reform and the United States’ desired world
order. Scholars have subsequently begun reconfiguring race in conventional
histories.
Reconfiguration must address several key questions. As historians such as
Carol Anderson, Thomas Borstelmann, and Mary Dudziak have demonstrated,
national leaders in the cold war era unlinked the association commonly made
between civil rights struggle and radicalism and attached civil rights to liberal-
ism instead. Long after cold war purges neutralized the conventional Left, the
desire to manage and contain insurgency continued. One must ask why. If race

Bunche, September 14, 1960, Ralph J. Bunche Papers, University of California Los Angeles
(UCLA), Box 113, NAACP board. This study cites two separate collections of Bunche’s papers,
one at UCLA and the other at SC. Prattis to Scott, August 28, 1960.
11
Rick Perlstein, Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus
(New York: Hill & Wang, 2001), 50.
6 Introduction

was defused as a national security issue by legislative reform, why did a mili-
tant international racial discourse emerge before the ink on the signing of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 was dry? Why did it continue long after formal civil
equality had been achieved?
Independence for colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean also raises
questions. The stark polarities of white versus black, colonialism versus
freedom, and racism versus tolerance resonated during the late colonial era.
They grew ambiguous, however, in the era of self-rule. For historian James
Meriwether, the friction between the African National Congress and the Pan
African Congress in South Africa, and the civil war in the Congo, were the
first indications that these questions could fracture African-American opinion
on African issues. Blacks in the States “were faced now with the challenge of
unraveling the meanings of a fragmented, complex Africa,” he wrote, without
the benefit of a “ready-made cast of heroes and villains.” Rather than deal with
these thorny issues, they focused instead on the remaining pockets of white
resistance in southern Africa that could be more readily understood in binary
terms. Pinpointing racial conflict helped keep the faltering domestic civil rights
coalition together and allowed African Americans to “skirt the realities and
intricacies of independent Africa.”12
The requirements of African nation-statehood meant that Americans were
not the only ones who wanted either to suppress or to put a positive spin on
events occurring in the United States. New governments needed U.S. aid and
friendship but condemned Jim Crow to avoid censure from their constituents.
They thus greeted with relief the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which at least put
racial equality on the books. The law provided a way for Washington to dis-
tance itself from the racial violence that continued to wrack U.S. society and,
most importantly, promised to relieve weak nations of a responsibility to con-
front the United States over the issue. That the national consensus on civil
rights and race disseminated by federal information agencies was partly fic-
tive did not matter, nor that ambivalence continued in policy circles. The most
important consideration was that racism, while as real and destructive as ever,
had been deprived of legitimacy.13 Whatever its staying power, Washington’s
declared disavowal sufficed to let African leaders off the hook. Most relaxed
their militant stand against U.S. domestic policies.
An assault on the notion that U.S. race relations were unique and could
not be understood with reference to international experience played an impor-
tant role in delegitimating racism. Comparisons to other countries resulted in
an analogy that likened inner-city minority communities to colonies engaged
in wars of liberation against racially different oppressors. Michael Omi and
Howard Winant, in Racial Formation in the United States, have documented
the colonial model’s influence among 1960s activists who wanted to explain

12
Meriwether, Proudly We Can Be Africans, 209, 229, 239–40.
13
John David Skrentny, “The Effect of the Cold War on African-American Civil Rights: America
and the World Audience, 1964–1968,” Theory and Society 27 (1998): 272–3.
Introduction 7

and then correct the abuses of segregation and discrimination.14 As anticolo-

nial struggles also had a vital cultural dimension, the recognition of the enor-
mous power of culture to create and enforce hegemonies, and to forge national
political communities out of regional ones, formed a major part of the national
liberation experience. This liberationist model abetted the restoration, and
in some cases, the fabrication of a national culture and constituted a critical
weapon in the search for power.
The inability of African states to break through the barriers to develop-
ment and stability kicked the props from under the liberationist model and
the scholarship and policies predicated upon it. Even under the best of circum-
stances, once national liberation movements made the transition to ruling par-
ties and state bureaucracies, the contrast between those who were majorities
in their home countries and those who remained racial-ethnic minorities was
plainly evident. Critics of the African states often scorned the petty bourgeois
leadership, which they held responsible for many of these countries’ failings.
Yet once victorious, the liberation organizations hardly fared better. African
peoples’ quest for genuine freedom and power continued.
In spite of diaspora hopes, many African countries could not provide even
rhetorical protection to overseas communities of African descent. Those hop-
ing to effect practical Pan-African linkages, moreover, continue to face the
resistance of nation-states to perceived infringements of their sovereignty.
Although most countries have ratified United Nations instruments regarding
human rights, many have rejected the principle that signatory status obliged
them to implement these human rights provisions internally. Few are without
disadvantaged minorities whose issues they wish to keep buried and off inter-
national dockets.15
No less important than the political changes marking the transition from
colonialism to independence are the ways in which these experiences were
understood. Desegregation in the United States and decolonization in Africa
were both preceded by and accompanied by fundamental changes in knowl-
edge structures that helped to normalize them. In an evolution traceable at least
to the Universal Races Congress of 1911, sociobiological racism was gradually
discredited, along with the political frameworks it had helped construct. A vig-
orous tradition of diaspora scholarship also challenged conventional racism.
This learning was rooted in two branches: textual knowledge originally derived
from moral suasionist antislavery literature and apologetics; and traditions
preserved and communicated through the oratory of nationalist street speak-
ers and preachers.16 The creation of a professional, scientific African-American

14
Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States (New York: Routledge,
1994).
15
Henry J. Richardson III, “Black People, Technocracy, and Legal Process: Thoughts, Fears, and
Goals,” in Public Policy for the Black Community, eds. Marguerite Ross Barnett and James A.
Hefner (Port Washington, N.Y.: Alfred, 1976): 179.
16
Brenda Gayle Plummer, Rising Wind: African Americans and U.S. Foreign Affairs, 1935–1960
(Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 230.
8 Introduction

history, pioneered at black colleges and universities and by lay historical soci-
eties, began to filter into the white ivy tower only when black students did, in
the mid-1960s. Conflicts over the merits and legitimacy of African-American
historiographic interpretation went to school with these students.
African and African-American studies, originally wedded, became divorced
and developed distinct paths. African studies was taken up during and after
World War II by foundations and historically white universities eager for the
United States to supplant Britain as the hub of knowledge and resources on
Africa for the Anglophone world. The field of African-American studies, in
contrast, was never wholly detachable from specific domestic political agendas.
The goals of both the U.S. civil rights movement and the wars for national lib-
eration in sub-Saharan Africa promised a reunion of this pair in the 1960s and
early 1970s that did not wholly succeed.
The disjuncture between Third World polities and ethnic politics in the
United States proved even deeper. U.S.-based intellectuals failed to achieve clar-
ity regarding the comparative affluence and cultural transparency of African
Americans. On the latter point, it is important to remember that no geographic
or impenetrable linguistic frontiers separated blacks from other Americans.
The boundary marked by the inner city, once touted as the borders of a col-
ony, proved both fragile and transient as the next forty years of urban res-
toration, renovation, and gentrification would suggest. Just as legislative and
court-ordered integration provided blacks with some means to penetrate the
mainstream, the same reforms opened the inner life of African-American com-
munities to the ethnographic – and entrepreneurial – gaze of others.
In spite of the unanticipated difficulties that both failures and successes
caused, the era was one of astounding creativity and imagination. Those who
had been at ease in an earlier period struggled to keep their gains and interpret
inevitable changes in ways that favored their position. Those who confronted
elites developed an arsenal of weapons to challenge their political, economic,
and cultural domination. Scholars have already addressed the competing his-
toriographies of sixties declension and achievement. This reading leans toward
the latter interpretation but suggests that the era cannot be understood simply
as a matter of insurgents against the state who managed to have parts of their
agenda incorporated into the status quo. Instead, political actors from a range
of nations, classes, and ethnicities joined in the search to define, extend, defend,
and legitimate their respective claims to power and authority.
Philosopher Cornel West has described the sixties “not [as] a chronologi-
cal category which encompasses a decade, but rather a historical construct
or heuristic rubric that renders noteworthy historical processes and events
intelligible.”17 Those interested in the period have choices to make about its
intelligibility and the relation of those choices to current political and cultural

17
Cornel West, “The Paradox of the African American Rebellion,” in Is It Nation Time?
Contemporary Essays on Black Power and Black Nationalism, ed. Eddie S. Glaude Jr. (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 2002), 22.
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 Meteorology - Lab Manual
Second 2025 - Division

Prepared by: Prof. Garcia

Date: August 12, 2025

Background 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics

Learning Objective 1: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 2: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 6: Ethical considerations and implications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 2: Historical development and evolution
Example 10: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 13: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Practical applications and examples
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 3: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 21: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 24: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 25: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
References 4: Case studies and real-world applications
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 36: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 37: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 38: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 40: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Results 5: Practical applications and examples
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 43: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 44: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 6: Study tips and learning strategies
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 57: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 58: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 59: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Module 7: Key terms and definitions
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 62: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 63: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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