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The Future Role of Dwarf
Honeybees in Natural and
Agricultural Systems
The Future Role of Dwarf
Honeybees in Natural and
Agricultural Systems

Edited by
Dharam P. Abrol
Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir University
of Agricultural Sciences and Technology
Jammu, India
First edition published 2020
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume
responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to
trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to
publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Abrol, D. P., editor.

Title: The future role of dwarf honeybees in natural and agricultural
systems / Dharam P. Abrol.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020009463 | ISBN 9781138335820 (hardback) | ISBN
9781003033936 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Honeybee--South Asia. | Honeybee--Variation--South Asia. |
Pollination by bees--South Asia.
Classification: LCC QL568.A6 F888 2020 | DDC 595.79/90954--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020009463

ISBN: 9781138335820 (hbk)

ISBN: 9781003033936 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by Lumina Datamatics Limited
Contents

Foreword................................................................................................................................................... vii
Preface....................................................................................................................................................... ix
Editor......................................................................................................................................................... xi
Contributors.............................................................................................................................................xiii

1. Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 1
Dharam P. Abrol

2. Biology of Dwarf Honeybee, Apis florea Fabricius (Hymenoptera: Apidae)............................. 13

N. Nagaraja

3. Reproductive Biology of Apis florea.............................................................................................. 25

N. Nagaraja and Dharam P. Abrol

4. The Genetics and Genomics of the Dwarf Honeybee Apis florea Fabricius.............................. 37
S. Mohankumar, T. Sonai Rajan, M. Praghadeesh, P. A. Saravanan and M. R. Srinivasan

5. Foraging in Apis florea.................................................................................................................... 47

Dharam P. Abrol

6. Diseases and Enemies of Dwarf Honeybees Apis florea and Apis andreniformis..................... 77
Dharam P. Abrol

7. Nesting Behaviour, Structure and Architecture of Apis florea................................................... 95

B. V. Shwetha, N. S. Bhat and T. Neethu

8. Utilization of Apis florea in Crop Pollination............................................................................. 107

B. V. Shwetha, N. S. Bhat and T. Neethu

9. Safety of Dwarf Honeybee, Apis florea in Relation with Agricultural Pest Management..... 125
Chuleui Jung, Muhammad Noor-ul-Ane and Saeed Mohamadzade Namin

10. Nutritional Aspects of the Dwarf Honeybee (Apis florea F.) for Human Consumption......... 137
Sampat Ghosh, Chuleui Jung, Bajaree Chuttong and Michael Burgett

11. The Antibacterial Activity of Honey with Special Reference to Apis florea.............................147
Dharam P. Abrol

12. Genetic Diversity of Apis florea in India......................................................................................163

B. Fakrudin, K. Omkar, Jameel Khan and K. Nandini

v
vi Contents

13. Morphometric Variation and Floral Resources of the Dwarf Honeybee, Apis florea F.
in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, India...................................................................................169
A. J. Solomon Raju

14. Distribution and Diversity of Apis florea in Kerala and Its Role in Agriculture
Production................................................................................................................................... 185
S. Devanesan

15. Management and Conservation of Apis florea............................................................................211

M. R. Srinivasan, P. A. Saravanan and R. Aruna

16. Diversity and Distribution of Dwarf Honeybees in Nepal and Their Role in Natural
and Agricultural Systems............................................................................................................. 221
Ratna Thapa

17. Potential of Apis florea as a Relevant Insect for Providing Pollination and Ecological
Services in Thailand...................................................................................................................... 229
Preecha Rod-im and Orawan Duangphakdee

18. The Dance Language of Apis florea............................................................................................. 243

Orawan Duangphakdee, Preecha Rod-im and Christian Pirk

19. Diversity and Distribution of Dwarf Honeybees in Iran and Their Role
in Natural and Agricultural Systems.......................................................................................... 259
Ayça Özkan Koca and İrfan Kandemir

20. Apis florea Invasion in Sudan: Present Status and Future Implication.................................. 273
Mohammed M. Ibrahim

21. Distribution, Nesting Trees and Genetic Diversity of Apis andreniformis

in West Sumatra......................................................................................................................... 279
Rika Raffiudin, Siti Salmah and Jasmi Jambak

22. Distribution, Nesting Biology and Floral Resources of Red Dwarf Honeybee
(Apis florea Fabricius) in Nagaland, India.................................................................................. 295
Avinash Chauhan and H. K. Singh

23. Distribution, Nesting Biology and Floral Resources of Red Dwarf Honey Bee
(Apis florea Fabricius) in West Bengal, India............................................................................. 301
Ujjwal Layek and Prakash Karmakar

Index........................................................................................................................................................311
Foreword

The major challenge before agricultural scientists in the twenty-first century is to sustain higher
­productivity in agriculture without compromising the future in terms of resource degradation and deple-
tion. The world is facing food deficit coupled with instability of climatic cycles. The growing population
pressure has hastened the environmental degradation, ultimately posing a threat to natural resources
and fast approaching famine. In the next 50 years, the global population is expected to reach 9 billion,
doubling the food, feed and crop demand. The situation has further been aggravated due to pollinator
decline worldwide resulting in a pollination crisis adversely affecting crop productivity and due to lack
of prophylactic progress in the conservation of biodiversity.
Insect pollinators play an important role in producing crops in global agriculture. Pollinator-dependent
crops contribute to maintaining a healthy variety in the human diet and often have a high market value,
beneficial for local or regional economies.
We dwell in the midst of yet another world food shortage that is exacerbated by escalating the prices
world over. Coupled with the apparent instability of climate cycles in recent years, one-fourth of our
growing human population is fast approaching famine. Concomitantly, this situation includes rampant
declines in honeybee populations across three continents, for as yet incompletely resolved reasons, and
with no remedy or end in sight. These problems have been further aided and abetted by a lack of prophy-
lactic progress in the conservation of biodiversity and increased agricultural production. Pollinators and
pollination are crucial in the functioning of almost all terrestrial ecosystems including those dominated
by agriculture because they are in the front line of sustainable productivity through plant reproduction.
A growing and increasingly human population is expected to double the demands for food production
by 2050. Food production is also a central driver of global environmental change, contributing with neg-
ative effects on the climate, water resources, soils and the rich biodiversity the world harbours. Humanity
stands in front of a great challenge to tackle these issues and needs to develop the food production system
as a part of the solution for a sustainable world.
Insect pollination is important for global food nutrition. One often-highlighted ecosystem service is
insect pollination. The loss of biodiversity among pollinators has raised questions about whether the
pollination services they provide are at risk. Pollination and food production that pollinators provide
are threatened by land-use change, agricultural intensification, climate change, pesticide use, pathogens,
genetically modified organisms and invasive species. The economic market value of pollination in crop
production globally is estimated to be $235 billion to $577 billion annually. Among the various pollinat-
ing agents, honeybees play a very important role in pollinating various crops. The honeybee pollination
not only results in higher yields, it also gives a better quality of produce, and the efficient pollination of
flowers also serves to protect the crops against pests.
Of the nine species of Apis, the dwarf honeybee Apis florea — generally confined to warm climates –
is one of the most important pollinators of agricultural, horticultural and thousands of plants growing in
natural landscapes. One of the most outstanding traits of this honeybee species is its ability to survive in
a very hot and dry climate.
The greatest advantage of the dwarf honeybee A. florea is its capability to work under extremely hot,
arid weather conditions, which is highly beneficial for crops blooming at higher temperatures. The dwarf
bee is able to survive in climates with ambient temperatures reaching 50°C or more. Another interest-
ing feature of Apis florea is its small foraging range, which makes it a suitable pollinator of small crops
providing less amounts of nectar mostly abandoned by large-sized bees. Apis florea foragers have a small
foraging range and visit a vast array of plants compared to larger ones. The small foraging range helps
in the production of unifloral honey, which is normally difficult to obtain from bees with wider foraging
ranges.

vii
viii Foreword

The role of dwarf honeybee Apis florea assumes utmost importance in the context of pollinator decline
throughout the world, threatening stability of ecosystems and global food security. Apis florea is a low-
land species of South Asia, extending more to the west than other Asiatic Apis species. It is distributed
in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Indochina Malaysia and parts of Indonesia in altitudes up to
500 m but extends up to 1300 m in Yunnan, China, Iran, Oman, India and Thailand. It lives sympatri-
cally with other native honeybee species A. dorsata, A. cerana and introduced A. mellifera. It nests in
the open on slender branches of trees, shrubs under dense foliage, sheltered buildings and rock cliffs. It is
well known for its swarming and absconding behaviour. Absconding is used to defend against predators,
and the bees abandon their nest even at the slightest disturbance. The increase in the number of colonies
occurs through swarming. The dwarf bee is an important pollinator of crops in hot and dry agricultural
plains of India.
This book, The Future Role of Dwarf Honeybees in Natural and Agricultural Systems by Dharam P. Abrol
is the first of its kind that deals in details on varied aspects of Apis florea biology, management, conserva-
tion strategies for protecting biodiversity and enhancing crop productivity. It provides a multidisciplinary
perspective about the different facets of dwarf honeybees. The book aims to promote a large, diverse,
sustainable and dependable bee pollinator workforce that can meet the challenge for optimizing food
production well into the twenty-first century.
I congratulate the author for his efforts to provide this timely contribution.

M.S. Swaminathan
Founder Chairman
M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation
Ex-Member of Parliament (Rajya Sabha)
Preface

Of the nine species of Apis, the dwarf honeybee Apis florea Fabricius is one of two small wild honeybee
species confined to warm climates where it does very well. It is known to have a wider distribution in
many tropical and subtropical parts of Asia, especially in Southeast China, India, Burma, Laos, Vietnam,
Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines, and it is rarely found at altitudes above 1500 m above sea level.
The dwarf bee is able to survive in very hot and dry climates with ambient temperatures reaching 50°C
or more. The greatest advantage of the dwarf honeybee A. florea is its capability to work under extremely
hot, arid weather conditions, which is highly beneficial for crops blooming at higher temperatures.
Another interesting feature of Apis florea is its small foraging range, which makes it a suitable pollinator
of small crops that provide less amounts of nectar such as ber, coriander, cumin, fennel, carrot, phalsa,
jamun, neem, grape etc. The small foraging range helps in the production of unifloral honey, which is
normally difficult to obtain from bees with wider foraging ranges.
The research on Apis florea has often been ignored by beekeepers and scientists because of the species’
small size and very low honey production capacity. In view of the above, Apis florea is considered a vital
component of the natural ecosystem and needs conservation as a sustainable option for rural develop-
ment, crop production and bio-diversity conservation. Keeping the above facts in mind, there is an urgent
need to generate information on this important species. The aim of this book is to fill the gap by provid-
ing detailed information on different aspects of Apis florea leading to food security sustainability and
environmental protection.
Agricultural scientists and graduate students working in the field pollination research, development
and teaching will be the primary audience as well as principal purchasers of the book. The book will be
used in the pollination-related courses at the graduate and post-graduate levels as supplemental reading
at all the agricultural colleges/universities in the developed and developing countries. It is an excel-
lent source of advanced study material for academics, researchers, students and programme planners.
The information provided in this book will be useful for pollination biologists, honeybee biologists in
entomology departments, students, teachers, scientists of agriculture, animal behaviour, botany, conser-
vation, biology, ecology, entomology, environmental biology, forestry, genetics, plant breeding, horticul-
ture, toxicology, zoology, seed growers and seed agencies.
This book provides a multidisciplinary perspective about the different facets of dwarf honeybees.
The book aims to promote a large, diverse, sustainable, and dependable bee pollinator workforce that
can meet the challenge for optimizing food production well into the twenty-first century and shall serve
as a reference book for students, teachers, researchers, extension functionaries and policy planners.
This book is the outcome of my personal experiences and the contributions of several workers, which
have been incorporated. All the contributors deserve special appreciation for writing chapters in their
respective fields in great depth with dedication. I thank university authorities for the excellent working
atmosphere and needed encouragement for compiling such a voluminous book. I thank all our contribut-
ing authors who have worked tirelessly to provide their timely contributions.
I express my special thanks and appreciation for the editorial guidance of Renu Upadhyay
(Commissioning Editor, CRC Press) and Jyotsna Jangra (Editorial Assistant, CRC Press) and Preethi
Sekar (Project Management Executive, Lumina Datamatics) Ms Shikha Garg (Editorial Assistant, CRC
Press) whose efforts have helped in shaping the text to bring out the best to the readers.
A final word of gratitude to all those who did not find mention above but have helped in the publication
of this book.

Dharam P. Abrol
Jammu, India

ix
Editor

Dr Dharam P. Abrol, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, Sher-e-Kashmir

University of Agricultural Sciences, has served university in various
capacities. He has served as Head of the Division of Entomology from
August 2008 to February 2015 and Controller of Examinations dur-
ing 2012. He has specialized in pest management, honeybee manage-
ment and pollination biology. He has authored 18 books, 12 manuals
and published over 250 original research papers in various national
and international journals. He has completed several externally funded
collaborative research projects with international organizations in
Poland and Switzerland. Prof Abrol has visited South Korea, Malaysia,
Saudi Arabia and several other countries as a special invitee to these
­countries. In addition, he has received letters of appreciation from dif-
ferent organizations. Prof Abrol is a Fellow of the National Academy
of Agricultural Sciences, India, and a Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society London, UK. He is a
recipient of the Young Scientist Award (1992) — conferred by the Jammu and Kashmir State Council for
Science and Technology — a prestigious state award for his outstanding contributions in the field of agri-
cultural sciences. He is also the recipient of Pran Vohra Award — 1993 — a prestigious Young Scientist
Award conferred by the Indian Science Congress Association, Calcutta, for his outstanding and innova-
tive research in the field of agricultural sciences. He was also conferred the Prof T. N. Ananthakrishnan
Award 1997–1998 — a prestigious national award for his outstanding contributions in the field of ento-
mology by the T. N. Ananthakrishnan Foundation, G.S. Gill Research Institute, Chennai. Prof Abrol
won the Dr Rajendra Prasad Puruskar 1999–2000 award — a prestigious national award from the Indian
Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi, for his Hindi book on beekeeping entitled ‘Madhmakhi
Palan-Sidhant Evam Vidhian’. He received the 11th Apicultural Association Award (2010) for outstand-
ing contributions in apiculture. King Saud University conferred on him a gold medal for development of
apiculture in Asia.

xi
Contributors

Dharam P. Abrol B. Fakrudin

Faculty of Agriculture Department of Biotechnology and Crop
Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Improvement
Sciences and Technology Post-Graduate Centre
Jammu, India University of Horticultural Sciences
Bengaluru, India
R. Aruna
Department of Agricultural Entomology Sampat Ghosh
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Department of Biological Sciences
Coimbatore, India Sardar Patel University
Balaghat, India
N. S. Bhat
Department of Apiculture Mohammed M. Ibrahim
College of Agriculture Department of Plant Protection
University of Agricultural Sciences Faculty of Natural Resources and Environmental
Bengaluru, India Studies
University of Kordofan
Michael Burgett El Obeid, Sudan
Department of Horticulture
Oregon State University Jasmi Jambak
Corvallis, Oregon Program of Biological Education
College of Teacher Training and Education PGRI
Avinash Chauhan West Sumatra
Department of Entomology Padang, Indonesia
School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural
Development Chuleui Jung
Nagaland University Department of Plant Medicals
Dimapur, India Agriculture Science and Technology Research
Institute
Bajaree Chuttong Andong National University
Science and Technology Research Institute Andong, South Korea
Chiang Mai University
Chiang Mai, Thailand İrfan Kandemir
Department of Biology
S. Devanesan Faculty of Science
College of Agriculture Ankara University
Kerala Agricultural University Ankara, Turkey
Thiruvananthapuram, India
Prakash Karmakar
Orawan Duangphakdee Department of Botany and Forestry
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Vidyasagar University
Thonburi Midnapore, India
Bangkok, Thailand

xiii
xiv Contributors

Jameel Khan Ayça Özkan Koca

Department of Biotechnology and Crop Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts
Improvement Faculty of Fine Arts
Post-Graduate Centre Maltepe University
University of Horticultural Sciences Istanbul, Turkey
Bengaluru, India
Christian Pirk
Ujjwal Layek Social Insect Research Group
Department of Botany and Forestry Department of Zoology and Entomology
Vidyasagar University University of Pretoria
Midnapore, India Pretoria, South Africa

S. Mohankumar M. Praghadeesh
Department of Plant Biotechnology Department of Plant Biotechnology
Tamil Nadu Agricultural University Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Coimbatore, India Coimbatore, India

N. Nagaraja Rika Raffiudin

UGC-Human Resource Development Centre Department of Biology
Bangalore University Bogor Agricultural University
Bengaluru, India Bogor, Indonesia

Saeed Mohamadzade Namin T. Sonai Rajan

Department of Plant Protection Department of Agricultural Entomology
Faculty of Agriculture Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Islamic Azad University Coimbatore, India
Varamin, Iran
A. J. Solomon Raju
K. Nandini Department of Environmental Sciences
Department of Biotechnology and Crop Andhra University
Improvement Visakhapatnam, India
Post-Graduate Centre
University of Horticultural Sciences Preecha Rod-im
Bengaluru, India King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi
T. Neethu Bangkok, Thailand
Department of Apiculture
College of Agriculture Siti Salmah
University of Agricultural Sciences Department of Biology
Bengaluru, India Andalas University
Padang, Indonesia
Muhammad Noor-ul-Ane
Department of Entomology P. A. Saravanan
Faculty of Agricultural Sciences Department of Agricultural Entomology
Bahauddin Zakariya University Tamil Nadu Agricultural University
Multan, Pakistan Coimbatore, India

K. Omkar B. V. Shwetha
Department of Biotechnology and Crop Department of Apiculture
Improvement College of Agriculture
Post-Graduate Centre University of Agricultural Sciences
University of Horticultural Sciences Bengaluru, India
Bengaluru, India
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