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The Mathematical Principles
of Scale Relativity Physics
The Concept of Interpretation

Nicolae Mazilu
Maricel Agop
Ioan Mercheş
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

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”My powers are ordinary.
Only my application brings me success”.

Isaac Newton
Table of Contents

Chapter 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Chapter 2. Madelung Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

The Madelung Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Classical and Quantum Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Hydrodynamics of Free Point Particles: Universality
of the Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
A Definition of the Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Chapter 3. De Broglie’s Interpretation of Wave Function . 44

The Appropriate Geometry of de Broglie’s Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Lessons and Mandatory Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Chapter 4. The Planetary Model as a Dynamical

Kepler Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
A Newtonian Brief on Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
The Concept of Confinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
A Clasic Example of Affine Reference Frame: Maxwell
Stress Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

Chapter 5. The Light in a Schrödinger Apprenticeship . . . . 76

A Special Contribution of Helmholtz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Enters Erwin Schrödinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 6. The Wave Theory of Geometric Phase . . . . . . . . . 86

Enters Sir Michael Berry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
A Kepler Motion Analysis: the Geometrical Condition
of Yang-Mills Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The Berry Moment of Human Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

1
 A Classical Implementation of the Idea of Interpretation . . . . 101
A Characterization of the Hertz’s Material Point . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
The General Meaning of Berry’s Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Chapter 7. The Physical Point of View in the

Theory of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
A Few Mathematical Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
The Differential Theory of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Rainich’s Description of Surrounding Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
A Physical Parametrization of Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
The Three-Dimensional Space of Accelerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Force at an Outward Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Chapter 8. Nonconstant Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

The Infinitesimal Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Summing up the Differential Geometry of Curvature
Parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .138
A Definition of Surface Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
The Statistics of Fluxes on a Material Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
The Stress by a Statistic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
The Tensions: Conclusions and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Chapter 9. The Nonstationary Description of Matter . . . . 150

The Louis de Broglie Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Airy Moment of Berry and Balazs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Cosmological Moment of Berry and Klein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Chapter 10. The Idea of Continuity in Fluid Dynamics . . 166

The Mass Transport in a Volume Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
The Transport Theorem in Finite Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Some Classic Physical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
The Hamiltonian Transport in Finite Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Transcendence between Volume Element and a Control
Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

Chapter 11. A Hertz-type Labelling in a Madelung Fluid184

Torsion Induced by Space Variations of Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
The Reference Frame and the Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
The Torsion and the Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Chapter 12. Theory of Nikolai Alexandrovich Chernikov 208

Enters Chernikov . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Chernikov’s Theory in the Three-Dimensional Case . . . . . . . . . 216

2
Conclusions: Concept of Interpretation and Necessary Fur-
ther Elaborations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

3
Chapter 1. Introduction

Among the newest theories of physics, the Laurent Nottale’s scale the-
ory of relativity deserves, in our opinion, a special attention. The scale
relativity theory (SRT in what follows) really means business, and big
business at that, and we are set here on demonstrating this fact: SRT
targets in fact the very foundations of our positive knowledge. The
proof will be effectively done by showing that SRT follows a line of
essential achievements of the physical knowledge of the world, and fol-
lows it properly. As a matter of fact the bottom line of our conclusion
here is that, once the principle of scale invariance is adopted, there is
no other way to follow but the right way, which is the line of thought
marked by those essential achievements of knowledge. All of the works
to date of Laurent Nottale, regarding the problems raised by scale rel-
ativity testify of a well guided thinking, and such a guidance cannot
come but from an inherent fundamental principle of knowledge. If
there is an ambition from our part here, that would therefore be none
other than to make this principle as obvious as possible, maybe even by
giving it an explicit verbalization. In doing this, we make use both of
common and own results upon the fractal theory of space, expounded
though along a special line indicated by Laurent Nottale himself, in
an evaluation of thirty years of development of the theory. We quote
the final words from a relatively recent book of Nottale:
Giving up the differentiability hypothesis, i.e. general-
izing the geometric description to general continuous mani-
folds, differentiable or not, involves an extremely large num-
ber of new possible structures to be investigated and de-
scribed. In view of the immensity of the task, we have chosen
to proceed by steps, using presently-known physics as a guide.
Such an approach is rendered possible by the result accord-
ing to which the small scale structures, which manifest the
nondifferentiability, are smoothed out beyond some relative
transitions toward the large scales. One therefore recovers

4
 the standard classical differentiable theory as a large scale
approximation of this generalized approach. But one also
obtains a new geometric theory, which allows one to under-
stand quantum mechanics as a manifestation of an underlying
nondifferentiable and fractal geometry and finally to suggest
generalizations of it and new domains of application for these
generalizations.
Now the difficulty that also makes their interest with the-
ories of relativity is that they are meta-theories rather than
theories of some particular systems. Hence, after the con-
struction of special relativity of motion at the beginning of
the 20 th century, the whole of physics needed to be rendered
relativistic (from the viewpoint of motion), a task that is not
yet fully achieved.
The same is true regarding the program of construct-
ing a fully scale- relativistic science. Whatever the already-
obtained successes, the task remains huge, in particular when
one realizes that it is no longer only physics that is concerned,
but also many other sciences. Its ability to go beyond the
frontiers between sciences may be one of the main interests
of the scale relativity theory, opening the hope of a refounda-
tion on mathematical principles and on predictive differential
equations of a philosophy of nature in which physics would
no longer be separated from other sciences. [(Nottale, 2011),
p. 712; our Italics]
The Italics in this excerpt roughly mark our points of intervention with the
present work, ‘using presently-known... SRT as a guide’. In broad strokes, we
aim here to clarify the idea of “general continuous manifolds” and of the general
“transition between scales”. We also construct a “new geometric theory”, with
the task of “understanding the quantum mechanics”, with a slight change in
emphasis: the quantum mechanics in its wave mechanical form.
One of the ideas that occurred to us, regarding the fact that theories of
relativity are indeed meta-theories rather than theories of some particular sys-
tems, is that these theories should in fact not be axiomatically forced upon such
systems. It is sufficient that the description of a particular one truly significant
for the whole our knowledge be accomplished properly in order to reveal the
theory of relativity in it, in all its fundamental features. This shows that the
relativity is indeed a meta-theory, by the manner in which it acts as such a
meta-theory. Following the usual concept of meta-theory is perhaps the reason
why that task of rendering the physics relativistic mentioned by Nottale “is
not yet fully achieved”. The physical system we have in mind as significant,
is significant for the whole modern knowledge indeed: the classical planetary

5
hydrogen atom. Its analysis led to the modern quantum theory, and to a great
extent it contributed in the construction of the modern wave mechanics. Nottale
has also the great merit of realizing that “no longer only physics” is concerned
here. Thus, from the “many other sciences” involved, we shall positively mark
in this work the intervention of statistics, theory of color continuum, differential
geometry, insofar as it concerns the theory of random surfaces, with a “refoun-
dation on mathematical principles” leading to a sound view of the category of
matter, whose sole physical feature is best rendered today by the modern idea
of confinement. Perhaps this last observation should be elaborated even from
this Introduction a little further.
The critical point of the modern physical knowledge is the one originating
in the classical natural philosophy, and due to the essential property of the
matter of being presented to our senses through physical structures. Specifically
we are talking here of the idea of density, which represents the mathematical
characterization of the manner in which matter fills the space at its disposal.
There is indeed such a manner, insofar as in the physical structures presented
to our senses the matter does not fill the space suggested to our intellect by their
manifestation. In fact, the very concept of a physical structure involves both
the theoretical and experimental physics in describing a specific arrangement of
matter in space, so that the most appropriate definition of a physical structure
would be matter penetrated by space. The matter per se shall therefore be
defined negatively: the place where the space does not have access. This way,
the density in its Newtonian connotation can make mathematical sense as it
was first defined i.e. by continuity, even by a differential continuity at that
only in the matter thus defined.
The continuity of matter was always an issue in physics. However, it be-
came a critical issue within the framework of ideas of general relativity, for which
the very concept of density is vital, and because of that, in the development
of theory one would have to overcome the problems related to the definition
of matter as a physical structure. The essential point here is Einstein’s idea
of describing the world by its mean density. It could not work properly in
the background of his general relativity, simply because it is unsecured from a
mathematical point of view. Indeed, the theory of general relativity, as a field
theory, works mathematically based on exactly the same classical principles of
continuity as the classical mechanics. Therefore, as far as the general relativity
is concerned, the Newtonian connotation of density cannot be removed. And
from this point of view there is not such a precise notion as the mean density,
any way we look at it. Quoting Richard Feynman:
... What is the situation as regards estimates of the
average density? If we count galaxies and assume they are
more or less like ours, the total density of this kind of visible
matter amounts to some 10−31 g/cm3 . This represents some

6
 kind of lower limit on the matter density, since the visible
matter must be a fraction of the total. ... The critical value,
ρ = 1 × 10−29 g/cm3 is always within the range of any esti-
mate; yet the data has enough slop so that if a theory were
to require a density as high as 10−27 g/cm3 , the observations
could not rule it out, the theory could not be disproved on
the basis that the density predicted is much too high.
At this point I would like to make a remark on the
present state of observations relevant to cosmology. When
a physicist reads a paper by a typical astronomer, he finds
an unfamiliar style in the treatment of uncertainties and er-
rors. Although the papers reporting the calculations and
measurements are very often very careful in listing and dis-
cussing the sources of error, and even in estimating the degree
of confidence with which one can make certain key assump-
tions, when the time comes for quoting a number, such as
Hubble time T, one does not find an estimate of the over-all
uncertainty, for example in the form of the familiar DT used
by physicists. The authors are apparently unwilling to state
precisely the odds that their number is correct, although they
have pointed out very carefully the many sources of error, and
although it is quite clear that the error is a considerable frac-
tion of the number. The evil is that often other cosmologists
and astrophysicists take this number without regard to the
possible error, treating it as an astronomical observation as
accurate as the period of a planet [(Feynman, 1995), Chapter
13, our Italics].
Notice first, that the actual concept of mean density used in general relativity
involves the continuity as just a moment of its definition, i.e. through those
final figures quoted by Feynman in this excerpt. In its capacity as cosmology,
which, as we see it, is actually its essential trait, the general relativity introduces
nevertheless another moment of the definition, related explicitly to the manner
in which the matter is presented to our senses (“the visible matter” in the
excerpt above). That moment is the moment of counting of the fundamental
matter formations, i.e. of the simplest material points presented to our senses.
Here, these material points are the galaxies, and in counting they are reduced to
classical material points, for which the physical structure is totally suppressed.
The reason for this situation is way too complicate to be described in a sentence,
but we think it comes down to the fact that the universe appears as isotropic
only at the level of galaxies. There are then many other levels of reasoning in
evaluating the mean density of the matter in universe, where the accuracy is
lost but, according to Feynman, not assessed in any way, so that it remains in

7
fact completely lost, and the theory based on such evaluation remains a pure
speculation. As Feynman articulates it, the “cosmologists and astrophysicists
take this number without regard to the possible error”, viz. as an exactly
defined number, as far as its measure is concerned.
Well, this situation is quite general, it is a human characteristic, we should
say: at another level, whatever scientists say, is taken as accurate by the layman,
with absolute certainty, because it is... well, scientific! Anyway, Laurent Nottale
is an astrophysicist, so that he may have felt ‘close range’, so to speak, the
situation so aptly exposed by Richard Feynman, and perhaps he has decided
to clean it up of that ‘slop’. Fact is that to Nottale the density can be both
the usual physical density and the probability density, and one of the points we
shall substantiate here is that this is not a contradiction in terms, provided the
matter is properly defined by a general concept of continuity. This idea goes
far beyond the critique of Feynman who, in chorus with all the physicists and
astrophysicists alike, fails to take heed of the fact that the ‘average density’
itself is only a fictitious concept, improper for the use of general relativity in its
classical form, on the very ground that the matter as presented to our senses
does not fill the space of universe. That failure has an objective reason though,
that needs to be uttered from the very beginning: as long as SRT was not
properly developed as a theory, one cannot assess in any way the concept of
“average density”.
Now, before anything else should be said by the way of announcement
of intentions and ambitions here, an introductory review of their very origin
seems at least appropriate, if not even necessary. This review follows the line of
presentation of some specific results of Laurent Nottale himself (Nottale, 1992,
2011). The basis of these results is the SRT’s request for a specific fractal
structure of the physical theory, which can be recognized first of all in the
character of motion at the transition between scales: space scales as well as time
scales. Along this way it is found necessary to describe the physical structure of
the matter by a fluid, to wit a complex fluid, complex from quite a few points
of view. First, assuming that the curves (fractal, i.e. continuous and non-
differentiable) describing the space motions of some fluid particles, are immersed
within a three-dimensional space, and that the vector X having components X i
(i = 1,2,3) is the position vector of a point on the fractal curve at the time ‘t’,
the total differential expansion up to the third order of a fractal field F (X, t, dt),
with ‘dt’ the time resolution scale, is
1
d± F = dt · ∂t F + d± X · ∇F + d± X i d± X j · ∂ij 2
F
2 (1.1)
1
+ d± X i d± X j d± X k · ∂ijk
3
F.
6
The sign ‘+’ corresponds to the forward process, while the sign ‘-’ corresponds

8
to the backward one, and we used the abbreviations

2 ∂ 2 F (X) 3 ∂ 3 F (X)
∂ij F ≡ ; ∂ijk F ≡ .
∂X i ∂X j ∂X i ∂X j ∂X k

In equation (1.1) only the terms indicated are finite; any other combinations
containing differentials, like dt2 , dX i dt, dt3 , dtdX i dX j , dt2 dX i are null when
taking an asymptotic limit dt → ∞. We notice that only the first three terms
have been used, both in SRT as well as in its nonstandard version (i.e. SRT
approach with arbitrary constant fractal dimension).
Take now the forward and backward average values of (1.1). In averag-
ing the fluctuations it is natural to assume that the value of function F and
its derivatives are constants at the events location and, moreover, we further
assume that the differentials d± X i and dt are independent. Thus, the average
of their products coincides with the product of averages, so that (1.1) becomes

1
d± F = dt · ∂t F + hd± Xi · ∇F + hd± X i d± X j i · ∂ij2
F
2 (1.2)
1
+ hd± X i d± X j d± X k i · ∂ijk
3
F.
6

Using by now the standard relations

d± X ≡ d± x + d± ξ , (1.3)

where d± x is differentiable and resolution scale independent spatial coordinate

variation, and d± ξ is non-differentiable (fractal) and resolution scale dependent
spatial coordinate variation, we get:

d± F = dt · ∂t F + hd± xi · ∇F
1
+ (d± xi d± xj + hd± ξ i d± ξ j i) · ∂ij
2
F (1.4)
2
1
+ (d± xi d± xj d± xk + hd± ξ i d± ξ j d± ξ k i · ∂ijk
3
F.
6

One can recognize here that even if the average value of the fractal coordi-
nate differential is null, the situation can still be different for a higher order of
fractal coordinate average. Indeed, let us first focus on the averages of second
order terms. If i 6= j, these averages are zero due to the independence of the
increments involved in them. Thus, using the fractal equations we have:
 1/Df
i dt
hd± ξ i = λi± 
   , (1.5)
τ

9
where λi± are constant coefficients having statistical meanings, dt/τ is the nor-
malized resolution scale, with τ the time scale and Df is fractal dimension of
the motion curve. Thus, we can write:
 2/Df
dt
i
hd± ξ d± ξ i = j
λi± λj±  
  . (1.6)
τ

Then, let us consider the averages of third degree. If i 6= j 6= k 6= i, these

averages are zero due to the independence of the variations of the first order.
Now, using (1.5) we get:
 3/Df
dt
i j
hd± ξ d± ξ d± ξ i = k
λi± λj± λk±  
  . (1.7)
τ

For the fractal dimension Df any definition can be used (the Hausdorff-Besiko-
vich fractal dimension, the Kolmogorov fractal dimension etc.), but once a
definition accepted, it has to be maintained the same over the entire analysis of
the complex fluid dynamics. Thus, (1.4) may be simplified by inserting (1.5),
(1.6) and (1.7), dividing by ‘dt’ and neglecting the straight differentials of higher
orders. The net result is:
j  (2/Df )−1
d± F 1 λi± λ± 2 dt
= ∂t F + V± · ∇F + · (∂ij F) · 
  
dt 2 τ τ
j  (3/Df )−1 (1.8)
1 λi± λ± λk± 3 dt
+ · (∂ijk F ) · 
   .
6 τ τ

Now, recalling that the fractal operator of time differentiation has the form:

d 1 d+ + d− i d+ − d−
= − , (1.9)
dt 2 dt 2 dt
the velocity of the process becomes a complex vector

dX 1 V+ + V− i V+ − V−
V≡ = − = Vd − iVf . (1.10)
dt 2 dt 2 dt
The real part Vd of the complex velocity V represents the standard classical
velocity, which does not depend on the resolution scale, while the imaginary part
Vf is a new quantity coming from non-differentiability (fractal velocity), and
is dependent on the resolution scale. Moreover, applying the fractal operator
(1.9) to the fractal field F (X, t, dt) by means of relations (1.8) we have:

10
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