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Arno Tausch · Stanislaw Obirek

Global
Catholicism,
Tolerance and
the Open Society
An Empirical Study of the Value Systems
of Roman Catholics
Global Catholicism, Tolerance and the Open Society
Arno Tausch • Stanislaw Obirek

Global Catholicism,
Tolerance and the Open
Society
An Empirical Study of the Value Systems
of Roman Catholics
Arno Tausch Stanislaw Obirek
University of Innsbruck American Studies Center
Innsbruck, Tyrol, Austria University of Warsaw
Warsaw, Poland

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Show proper respect to everyone
1 Peter 2:17
(The Holy Bible, New International Version
(NIV))
Only the person who cries out for the Jews
may sing Gregorian chants
Dietrich Bonhoeffer, after the German
November Pogrom of 1938
Testimonials Catholicism Tausch Obirek
“This is a very comprehensive work on a problem which does not get
the attention it deserves. Although the empirical analysis is based only
on one indicator (acceptance of a Jewish neighbour) it shows that
antisemitic attitudes may be widespread among Catholics, differing
significantly by nations over the world.”
—Prof. emeritus Dr. Max Haller, Department of Sociology,
University of Graz; Member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences,
Vienna
“Arno Tausch and Stalislaw Obirek by using up-to-date World Value
Survey data and advanced quantitative methods shed light on the
Catholic Church’s reforming stance on its core values and
development of the widening gaps to its followers’ attitudes. This
concerns issues valued highly by the open society and necessary to
co-existence of main religions but resisted by the Catholic Church’s
believers. The tension has both internal and external Church
dimensions. This book focuses on the external dimension and provides
deep insights into possible ways to breach the gaps and attain a
desirable convergence.”
—Professor Almas Heshmati, Sogang University (South Korea) and
Jönköping University (Sweden)
“While Islam became important for social studies in the last two
decades, the religion of the majority of many European and Latin
American states and its influence on the values of these societies is still
not the focus of empirical research. Thus, this book by Arno Tausch
and Stanislaw Obirek really fills a gap for future discussions on
religion and values in societies.”
—Thomas Schmidinger, Political Scientist and Lecturer at the
University of Vienna and the University of Applied Sciences, Upper
Austria, and author of several books about Kurdistan, political Islam,
and Jihadism
“In this outstanding volume on Global Catholicism, Arno Tausch and
Stanislaw Obirek provide cutting-edge insights into Catholics’ stance
on Antisemitism, the Open Society, migration and tolerance. Tausch
and Obirek explore the inherent tension between the Catholic
Church’s liberal position since the Second Vatican Council (1962–
1965) which was further reinforced by Pope Francis’ liberal and
conciliatory views and the attitudes of believing Catholics. For
instance, despite the Church having denounced Antisemitism, one in
five Catholics do not desire to have a Jewish neighbor. In explaining
this dichotomy, Tausch and Obirek provide incisive insights which
would be of use to both the policy maker and the scholar”.
—Professor Hussein Solomon, University of the Free State
(South Africa) and Osaka University (Japan)
Contents

1 The Failure of the Catholic Church in Postsecular Context? . . . . . . . 1

Bringing the Church into the Twentieth Century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Between Jerusalem and Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
From Enemy to Brother . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Foundations of Anti-Judaic Thought Were Laid in the New
Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Jules Isaac: A New Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Seelisberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Beyond the Anti-Jewish Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
The Framework of the Present Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Faith Lies Beyond Theology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Bauman’s Retrotopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Developing the Research Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Fukuyama: Beyond the Western Consensus of the 1990s . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
The Role of the World Values Survey in Mapping the Global Value
Landscapes of Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Some Leading World Values Survey Studies on Global Catholicism . . . . 23
Current World Affairs Reasons for an Analysis on the
Opinions of Active Global Catholics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Bergson, Maritain, Postwar Christian Democracy, and the Open
Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Outlining the Research Direction of the Empirics of the Present Study . . . . 27
Christianity Is the Most Persecuted Religion, Worldwide . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3 The Second Vatican Council in the Hearts and Minds of Global
Catholics: The Open Society, Catholic Antisemitism, and the Effects
of Nostra Aetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Background: Studying (Catholic) Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
ix
x Contents

Data and Methods in Studying Catholic Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Results: Toward a Nostra Aetate Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Antisemitism Among the Dominicantes (1): 19.60% Are Openly
Antisemitic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
The Antisemitism Among the Dominicantes (2): The Spirit
of Nostra Aetate Has Only Partially Become a Reality in the
“Real Existing” Catholicism Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
The Antisemitism Among the Dominicantes (3): “Antizionism”
Is Becoming Increasingly a Problem for Catholic–Jewish Relations . . . 64
The Antisemitism Among the Dominicantes (4): Mixed Attitudes
on Jewish Immigration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
The Antisemitism Among the Dominicantes (5): The Drivers of the
Antisemitism of the Dominicantes by International Ecumenical
Comparison (for Specialists Only) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Conclusions and Prospects from This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4 Global Catholicism, Civil Society, Democracy, and Mass
Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Background: Studying Catholicism in the Age of Populism . . . . . . . . . . 100
Data and Methods in Studying Catholicism and the Open Society . . . . . 105
Results: Catholicism and the Open Society: What We Really Know
from Global and European Surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Result 1: Roman Catholic Dominicantes and the Open Society . . . . . . 108
Result 2: European Catholics Are Not the Forefront of European
Tolerance: Evidence, Based on the European Social Survey . . . . . . . . 109
Result 3: The Global Evidence Based on the World Values Survey
also Indicate that Only in a Limited Number of Countries, Catholic
Dominicantes Are at the Forefront of a Democratic, Open Society . . . 110
Conclusion and Policy Perspectives from This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5 The Open Society and Catholic Religious Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Background: Studying Catholic Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Data and Methods in Studying Global Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Results: The Global Tolerance Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Conclusion and Prospects from This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6 Catholics, the Open Society, and Tolerance of Homosexuals . . . . . . . 143
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Background: Studying Homosexuality and Catholicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Data and Methods in Studying Catholicism and Homosexuality . . . . . . . 146
Results: Estimating Catholic (In)Tolerance of Homosexuality . . . . . . . . 147
Contents xi

Conclusion and Policy Perspectives from This Chapter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
7 Global Catholicism and the Open Society: A Final Statistical
Synopsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Final Global Rankings of Open Society Catholicism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
From a Culture Inspired by a Theology of Liberation to a Culture
Inspired by a Theology of Global Tolerance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
A Concluding Factor Analysis Including Catholic Antisemitism . . . . . . . 169
The Country Results for the Biggest Catholic Communities with
Complete Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
A Final Glance at Catholic Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
The Correlates of the Tolerance of Homosexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
The Multivariate Relationship Between Our Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Catholic Best Practice and Catholic Worst Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
The Open Society and the Dominicantes: The Country Evidence . . . . . . 184
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
8 Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
“Good Catholics” and Yet Antisemitic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Practicing “Good Catholics” and Yet Against Jewish Immigration to
Europe? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Beyond the Zenith of Ecumenism and Goodwill Toward Judaism? . . . . . 193
How Many Practicing Catholics Really Support the Pro-immigration
Policies of the Vatican? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Global Catholics and Support for the “Open Society” in the West . . . . . 194
Measuring Catholic Global Tolerance by International Comparison:
Germany Is a Problematic Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Tolerance of Homosexuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
The Final, Multivariate Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

About the Authors

Arno Tausch is Honorary Associate Professor of Economics, Corvinus University,

Budapest, Hungary (since Fall Semester 2010), and Adjunct Professor
(Universitaetsdozent) of Political Science at Innsbruck University, Department of
Political Science, Innsbruck University, Austria (since 1988). He authored or
coauthored books and articles for major international publishers and journals,
among them 21 books in English, 2 books in French, 8 books in German, and
over 100 articles in peer-reviewed journals, and also numerous articles in the media
of several countries. He wrote several analyses for leading strategy think tanks in
several countries, most recently for the Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs in Israel.
For the Springer publishing group, he published three books (with coauthors):
Towards a Socio-Liberal Theory of World Development, 1993; Economic Cycles,
Crises, and the Global Periphery, 2016; and Islamism, Arab Spring, and the Future
of Democracy, 2018, and an essay for the collective Palgrave volume European
Studies in Development, 1980 (Chaps. 2–8).

Stanislaw Obirek a culture anthropologist, is Professor at the American Studies

Center at Warsaw University, Poland. He was a visiting professor at Holy Cross
College in Worcester, MA (2000), and a fellow at St. Louis University (2004). His
books include Catholicism as a Cultural Phenomenon in the time of Globalization:
A Polish Perspective (2009); Winged Mind. Walter Ong’s Anthropology of Word
(2010); Liberated Mind. In Search of a Mature Catholicism (2011); Pole Catholic?
(2015); with Zygmunt Bauman, Of God and Man (2015); and On the World and
Ourselves (2015) (both published with Polity Press). He is interested in the place of
religion in modern cultures, interreligious dialogue, and strategies for overcoming
conflicts between different civilizations and cultures. He also published articles with
journals such as Shofar. An Interdisciplinary Journal of Jewish Studies. For the
Springer book publishing company group, he contributed the essay “The Many
Faces of John Paul II” in Religion, Politics and Values in Poland (Ed. Ramet
S. Borowik), pp. 41–59 (Palgrave Series “Studies in Religion, Politics and Policy”)
(Chap. 1).

xiii
List of Figure

Fig. 3.1 The denominational landscape of the acceptancy of Jewish

immigration in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

xv
List of Tables

Table 2.1 Fukuyama’s categories of the waning Western consensus and

our investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Table 3.1 Where the Dominicantes live . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Table 3.2 Catholic Antisemitism according to World Values Survey
data—a first overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 3.3 The drivers of global Antisemitism (ADL 2014)—the
population share of Roman Catholics is among them . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Table 3.4 On a global country to country level, Catholic “practice”
even slightly increases societal Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Table 3.5 The Antisemitism of the Catholic Dominicantes compared
to all baptized Roman Catholics (World Values Survey) . . . . . . . . 55
Table 3.6 Antisemitism among the Dominicantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Table 3.7 Is there a Nostra Aetate effect over time?—Average
rejection rate of Jewish neighbors (0 no Antisemitism, 1
Antisemitism) .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . 60
Table 3.8 The rate of change of Antisemitism among practicing Roman
Catholics per decade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Table 3.9 Nostra Aetate Index .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . 63
Table 3.10 Country support rates for Israel, PEW 2013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Table 3.11 Support for Israel according to political parties
(calculated from PEW data) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Table 3.12 Our evaluation of the PEW data on the support for Israel
according to religious denomination and religious practice . . . . . 72
Table 3.13 The denominational and immigration political landscape
of the rejection of Jewish immigration in Europe
(4—high rejection; 1—full acceptancy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Table 3.14 How do different publics in Europe reject different immigrant
groups (rejection of Jewish immigration ¼ 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

xvii
xviii List of Tables

Table 3.15 The ranking of the European rejection of Jewish Immigration

(1—very positive to 4—very negative) according to religious
denomination and religious service attendance
(Mensuantes ¼ religious service) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Table 3.16 The Dominicantes’ performance in overcoming
Antisemitism—a global comparison, based on World Values
Survey data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Table 4.1 Voter liberalism in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Table 4.2 Liberal Catholicism in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Table 4.3 European general publics . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 111
Table 4.4 European Catholic Dominicantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Table 4.5 The successful and less Open Society-oriented Catholic civil
societies on a global scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Table 4.6 Values in the United States by denomination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Table 5.1 Index of Religious Tolerance—total populations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Table 5.2 Index of Religious Tolerance—Dominicantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Table 6.1 Tolerance of homosexuals and of homosexuality: overall
population .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. . .. . 149
Table 6.2 Tolerance of homosexuality among the Dominicantes . . . . . . . . . . 153
Table 6.3 The tolerance of homosexual neighbors and of homosexuality as
such by Catholic communities around the globe by international
comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Table 6.4 Acceptability of homosexuality among the different global
major denominations (ranked by the justifiability of
homosexuality) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Table 7.1 A synoptic glance at the different types of Global
Catholicism—rankings of this study at one glance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Table 7.2 The variables of our summarizing factor analytical model
of global Catholicism including Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Table 7.3 Correlations between the factors of the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Table 7.4 The factor scores for the Catholicism of Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Table 7.5 The factor scores for the Catholicism of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Table 7.6 The factor scores for the Catholicism of India . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. 172
Table 7.7 The factor scores for the Catholicism of Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Table 7.8 The factor scores for the Catholicism of Spain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Table 7.9 The factor scores for the Catholicism of the United States . . . . . . 173
Table 7.10 The factor loadings for Catholic Antisemitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Table 7.11 The main correlation between the indicators from this work
on a country to country level . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . 176
Table 7.12 The correlates of the rejection of homosexuality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Table 7.13 Selected correlates of opinions of Dominicantes on
homosexuality with other World Values Survey-related
indicators of value development (R2 > 10%) . . . . .. . . .. . . . .. . . . .. . 179
List of Tables xix

Table 7.14 The predictors of global Antisemitism (ADL 100 rates of

Antisemitism) .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. .. . .. . 180
Table 7.15 The predictors of religious tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Table 7.16 Drivers and bottlenecks of the Nostra Aetate Index among
global Dominicantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
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