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SEVENTH EDITION

Database System Concepts

Abraham Silberschatz
Henry F. Korth
S. Sudarshan
DATABASE
SYSTEM CONCEPTS
S ES V
IXET
NHT HE D
E IDTI ITOI N
ON

Abraham Silberschatz
Yale University

Henry F. Korth
Lehigh University

S. Sudarshan
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

TM
DATABASE SYSTEM CONCEPTS, SEVENTH EDITION
Published by McGraw-Hill Education, 2 Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121. Copyright © 2020 by
McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Previous
editions © 2011, 2006, and 2002. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written
consent of McGraw-Hill Education, including, but not limited to, in any network or other
electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers
outside the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 21 20 19
ISBN 978-0-07-802215-9 (bound edition)
MHID 0-07-802215-0 (bound edition)
ISBN 978-1-260-51504-6 (loose-leaf edition)
MHID 1-260-51504-4 (loose-leaf edition)
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of the copyright page.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Silberschatz, Abraham, author. | Korth, Henry F., author. | Sudarshan, S., author.
Title: Database system concepts/Abraham Silberschatz, Yale University, Henry F. Korth,
Lehigh University, S. Sudarshan, Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay.
Description: Seventh edition. | New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, [2020] | Includes bibliographical
references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018060474 | ISBN 9780078022159 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0078022150 (alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Database management.
Classification: LCC QA76.9.D3 S5637 2020 | DDC 005.74—dc23 LC record available at
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To meine schatzi, Valerie
her parents and my dear friends, Steve and Mary Anne
and in memory of my parents, Joseph and Vera

Avi Silberschatz

To my wife, Joan
my children, Abigail and Joseph
my mother, Frances
and in memory of my father, Henry

Hank Korth

To my wife, Sita
my children, Madhur and Advaith
and my mother, Indira

S. Sudarshan
About the Authors
Abraham (Avi) Silberschatz is the Sidney J. Weinberg Professor of Computer Science
at Yale University. Prior to coming to Yale in 2003, he was the vice president of the
Information Sciences Research Center at Bell Labs. He previously held an endowed
professorship at the University of Texas at Austin, where he taught until 1993. Silber-
schatz is a fellow of the ACM, a fellow of the IEEE, and a member of the Connecticut
Academy of Science and Engineering. He received the 2002 IEEE Taylor L. Booth Ed-
ucation Award, the 1998 ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award, and
the 1997 ACM SIGMOD Contribution Award. Silberschatz was awarded the Bell Lab-
oratories President’s Award three times, in 1998, 1999 and 2004. His writings have
appeared in numerous journals, conferences, workshops, and book chapters. He has
obtained over 48 patents and over 24 grants. He is an author of the textbook Operating
System Concepts.

Henry F. (Hank) Korth is a Professor of Computer Science and Engineering and co-
director of the Computer Science and Business program at Lehigh University. Prior to
joining Lehigh, he was director of Database Principles Research at Bell Labs, a vice
president of Panasonic Technologies, an associate professor at the University of Texas
at Austin, and a research staff member at IBM Research. Korth is a fellow of the ACM
and of the IEEE and a winner of the 10-Year Award at the VLDB Conference. His numer-
ous research publications span a wide range of aspects of database systems, including
transaction management in parallel and distributed systems, real-time systems, query
processing, and the influence on these areas from modern computing architectures.
Most recently, his research has addressed issues in the application of blockchains in
enterprise databases.

S. Sudarshan is currently the Subrao M. Nilekani Chair Professor at the Indian Insti-
tute of Technology, Bombay. He received his Ph.D. at the University of Wisconsin in
1992, and he was a member of the technical staff at Bell Labs before joining IIT Bom-
bay. Sudarshan is a fellow of the ACM. His research spans several areas of database
systems, with a focus on query processing and query optimization. His paper on key-
word search in databases published in 2002 won the IEEE ICDE Most Influential Paper
Award in 2012, and his work on main-memory databases received the Bell Laborato-
ries President’s Award in 1999. His current research areas include testing and grading
of SQL queries, optimization of database applications by rewriting of imperative code,
and query optimization for parallel databases. He has published over 100 papers and
obtained 15 patents.
Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Database-System Applications 1 1.7 Database and Application Architecture 21
1.2 Purpose of Database Systems 5 1.8 Database Users and Administrators 24
1.3 View of Data 8 1.9 History of Database Systems 25
1.4 Database Languages 13 1.10 Summary 29
1.5 Database Design 17 Exercises 31
1.6 Database Engine 18 Further Reading 33

PART ONE RELATIONAL LANGUAGES

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Relational Model

2.1 Structure of Relational Databases 37 2.6 The Relational Algebra 48
2.2 Database Schema 41 2.7 Summary 58
2.3 Keys 43 Exercises 60
2.4 Schema Diagrams 46 Further Reading 63
2.5 Relational Query Languages 47

Chapter 3 Introduction to SQL

3.1 Overview of the SQL Query Language 65 3.7 Aggregate Functions 91
3.2 SQL Data Definition 66 3.8 Nested Subqueries 98
3.3 Basic Structure of SQL Queries 71 3.9 Modification of the Database 108
3.4 Additional Basic Operations 79 3.10 Summary 114
3.5 Set Operations 85 Exercises 115
3.6 Null Values 89 Further Reading 124

vii
viii Contents

Chapter 4 Intermediate SQL

4.1 Join Expressions 125 4.6 Index Definition in SQL 164
4.2 Views 137 4.7 Authorization 165
4.3 Transactions 143 4.8 Summary 173
4.4 Integrity Constraints 145 Exercises 176
4.5 SQL Data Types and Schemas 153 Further Reading 180

Chapter 5 Advanced SQL

5.1 Accessing SQL from a Programming 5.5 Advanced Aggregation Features 219
Language 183 5.6 Summary 231
5.2 Functions and Procedures 198 Exercises 232
5.3 Triggers 206 Further Reading 238
5.4 Recursive Queries 213

PART TWO DATABASE DESIGN

Chapter 6 Database Design Using the E-R Model

6.1 Overview of the Design Process 241 6.8 Extended E-R Features 271
6.2 The Entity-Relationship Model 244 6.9 Entity-Relationship Design Issues 279
6.3 Complex Attributes 249 6.10 Alternative Notations for Modeling
6.4 Mapping Cardinalities 252 Data 285
6.5 Primary Key 256 6.11 Other Aspects of Database Design 291
6.6 Removing Redundant Attributes in Entity 6.12 Summary 292
Sets 261 Exercises 294
6.7 Reducing E-R Diagrams to Relational Further Reading 300
Schemas 264

Chapter 7 Relational Database Design

7.1 Features of Good Relational Designs 303 7.7 More Normal Forms 341
7.2 Decomposition Using Functional 7.8 Atomic Domains and First Normal
Dependencies 308 Form 342
7.3 Normal Forms 313 7.9 Database-Design Process 343
7.4 Functional-Dependency Theory 320 7.10 Modeling Temporal Data 347
7.5 Algorithms for Decomposition Using 7.11 Summary 351
Functional Dependencies 330 Exercises 353
7.6 Decomposition Using Multivalued Further Reading 360
Dependencies 336
 Contents ix

PART THREE APPLICATION DESIGN AND

DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 8 Complex Data Types

8.1 Semi-structured Data 365 8.5 Summary 394
8.2 Object Orientation 376 Exercises 397
8.3 Textual Data 382 Further Reading 401
8.4 Spatial Data 387

Chapter 9 Application Development

9.1 Application Programs and User 9.7 Application Performance 434
Interfaces 403 9.8 Application Security 437
9.2 Web Fundamentals 405 9.9 Encryption and Its Applications 447
9.3 Servlets 411 9.10 Summary 453
9.4 Alternative Server-Side Frameworks 416 Exercises 455
9.5 Client-Side Code and Web Services 421 Further Reading 462
9.6 Application Architectures 429

PART FOUR BIG DATA ANALYTICS

Chapter 10 Big Data

10.1 Motivation 467 10.5 Streaming Data 500
10.2 Big Data Storage Systems 472 10.6 Graph Databases 508
10.3 The MapReduce Paradigm 483 10.7 Summary 511
10.4 Beyond MapReduce: Algebraic Exercises 513
Operations 494 Further Reading 516

Chapter 11 Data Analytics

11.1 Overview of Analytics 519 11.5 Summary 550
11.2 Data Warehousing 521 Exercises 552
11.3 Online Analytical Processing 527 Further Reading 555
11.4 Data Mining 540
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x Contents

PART FIVE STORAGE MANAGEMENT AND

INDEXING

Chapter 12 Physical Storage Systems

12.1 Overview of Physical Storage Media 559 12.6 Disk-Block Access 577
12.2 Storage Interfaces 562 12.7 Summary 580
12.3 Magnetic Disks 563 Exercises 582
12.4 Flash Memory 567 Further Reading 584
12.5 RAID 570

Chapter 13 Data Storage Structures

13.1 Database Storage Architecture 587 13.7 Storage Organization in Main-Memory
13.2 File Organization 588 Databases 615
13.3 Organization of Records in Files 595 13.8 Summary 617
13.4 Data-Dictionary Storage 602 Exercises 619
13.5 Database Buffer 604 Further Reading 621
13.6 Column-Oriented Storage 611

Chapter 14 Indexing
14.1 Basic Concepts 623 14.8 Write-Optimized Index Structures 665
14.2 Ordered Indices 625 14.9 Bitmap Indices 670
14.3 B+ -Tree Index Files 634 14.10 Indexing of Spatial and Temporal Data 672
14.4 B+ -Tree Extensions 650 14.11 Summary 677
14.5 Hash Indices 658 Exercises 679
14.6 Multiple-Key Access 661 Further Reading 683
14.7 Creation of Indices 664

PART SIX QUERY PROCESSING AND

OPTIMIZATION

Chapter 15 Query Processing

15.1 Overview 689 15.7 Evaluation of Expressions 724
15.2 Measures of Query Cost 692 15.8 Query Processing in Memory 731
15.3 Selection Operation 695 15.9 Summary 734
15.4 Sorting 701 Exercises 736
15.5 Join Operation 704 Further Reading 740
15.6 Other Operations 719
 Contents xi

Chapter 16 Query Optimization

16.1 Overview 743 16.5 Materialized Views 778
16.2 Transformation of Relational 16.6 Advanced Topics in Query
Expressions 747 Optimization 783
16.3 Estimating Statistics of Expression 16.7 Summary 787
Results 757 Exercises 789
16.4 Choice of Evaluation Plans 766 Further Reading 794

PART SEVEN TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT

Chapter 17 Transactions
17.1 Transaction Concept 799 17.8 Transaction Isolation Levels 821
17.2 A Simple Transaction Model 801 17.9 Implementation of Isolation Levels 823
17.3 Storage Structure 804 17.10 Transactions as SQL Statements 826
17.4 Transaction Atomicity and Durability 805 17.11 Summary 828
17.5 Transaction Isolation 807 Exercises 831
17.6 Serializability 812 Further Reading 834
17.7 Transaction Isolation and Atomicity 819

Chapter 18 Concurrency Control

18.1 Lock-Based Protocols 835 18.8 Snapshot Isolation 872
18.2 Deadlock Handling 849 18.9 Weak Levels of Consistency in
18.3 Multiple Granularity 853 Practice 880
18.4 Insert Operations, Delete Operations, and 18.10 Advanced Topics in Concurrency
Predicate Reads 857 Control 883
18.5 Timestamp-Based Protocols 861 18.11 Summary 894
18.6 Validation-Based Protocols 866 Exercises 899
18.7 Multiversion Schemes 869 Further Reading 904

Chapter 19 Recovery System

19.1 Failure Classification 907 19.8 Early Lock Release and Logical Undo
19.2 Storage 908 Operations 935
19.3 Recovery and Atomicity 912 19.9 ARIES 941
19.4 Recovery Algorithm 922 19.10 Recovery in Main-Memory Databases 947
19.5 Buffer Management 926 19.11 Summary 948
19.6 Failure with Loss of Non-Volatile Exercises 952
Storage 930 Further Reading 956
19.7 High Availability Using Remote Backup
Systems 931
xii Contents

PART EIGHT PARALLEL AND DISTRIBUTED

DATABASES

Chapter 20 Database-System Architectures

20.1 Overview 961 20.6 Transaction Processing in Parallel and
20.2 Centralized Database Systems 962 Distributed Systems 989
20.3 Server System Architectures 963 20.7 Cloud-Based Services 990
20.4 Parallel Systems 970 20.8 Summary 995
20.5 Distributed Systems 986 Exercises 998
Further Reading 1001

Chapter 21 Parallel and Distributed Storage

21.1 Overview 1003 21.6 Distributed File Systems 1019
21.2 Data Partitioning 1004 21.7 Parallel Key-Value Stores 1023
21.3 Dealing with Skew in Partitioning 1007 21.8 Summary 1032
21.4 Replication 1013 Exercises 1033
21.5 Parallel Indexing 1017 Further Reading 1036

Chapter 22 Parallel and Distributed Query Processing

22.1 Overview 1039 22.7 Query Optimization for Parallel
22.2 Parallel Sort 1041 Execution 1064
22.3 Parallel Join 1043 22.8 Parallel Processing of Streaming Data 1070
22.4 Other Operations 1048 22.9 Distributed Query Processing 1076
22.5 Parallel Evaluation of Query Plans 1052 22.10 Summary 1086
22.6 Query Processing on Shared-Memory Exercises 1089
Architectures 1061 Further Reading 1093

Chapter 23 Parallel and Distributed Transaction Processing

23.1 Distributed Transactions 1098 23.6 Replication with Weak Degrees of
23.2 Commit Protocols 1100 Consistency 1133
23.3 Concurrency Control in Distributed 23.7 Coordinator Selection 1146
Databases 1111 23.8 Consensus in Distributed Systems 1150
23.4 Replication 1121 23.9 Summary 1162
23.5 Extended Concurrency Control Exercises 1165
Protocols 1129 Further Reading 1168
 Contents xiii

PART NINE ADVANCED TOPICS

Chapter 24 Advanced Indexing Techniques
24.1 Bloom Filter 1175 24.5 Hash Indices 1190
24.2 Log-Structured Merge Tree and 24.6 Summary 1203
Variants 1176 Exercises 1205
24.3 Bitmap Indices 1182 Further Reading 1206
24.4 Indexing of Spatial Data 1186

Chapter 25 Advanced Application Development

25.1 Performance Tuning 1210 25.5 Distributed Directory Systems 1240
25.2 Performance Benchmarks 1230 25.6 Summary 1243
25.3 Other Issues in Application Exercises 1245
Development 1234 Further Reading 1248
25.4 Standardization 1237

Chapter 26 Blockchain Databases

26.1 Overview 1252 26.6 Smart Contracts 1269
26.2 Blockchain Properties 1254 26.7 Performance Enhancement 1274
26.3 Achieving Blockchain Properties via 26.8 Emerging Applications 1276
Cryptographic Hash Functions 1259 26.9 Summary 1279
26.4 Consensus 1263 Exercises 1280
26.5 Data Management in a Blockchain 1267 Further Reading 1282

PART TEN APPENDIX A

Appendix A Detailed University Schema 1287
Index 1299

PART ELEVEN ONLINE CHAPTERS

Chapter 27 Formal Relational Query Languages
Chapter 28 Advanced Relational Database Design
Chapter 29 Object-Based Databases
Chapter 30 XML
Chapter 31 Information Retrieval
Chapter 32 PostgreSQL
Preface
Database management has evolved from a specialized computer application to a cen-
tral component of virtually all enterprises, and, as a result, knowledge about database
systems has become an essential part of an education in computer science. In this text,
we present the fundamental concepts of database management. These concepts include
aspects of database design, database languages, and database-system implementation.
This text is intended for a first course in databases at the junior or senior under-
graduate, or first-year graduate, level. In addition to basic material for a first course,
the text contains advanced material that can be used for course supplements, or as
introductory material for an advanced course.
We assume only a familiarity with basic data structures, computer organization,
and a high-level programming language such as Java, C, C++, or Python. We present
concepts as intuitive descriptions, many of which are based on our running example of
a university. Important theoretical results are covered, but formal proofs are omitted.
In place of proofs, figures and examples are used to suggest why a result is true. Formal
descriptions and proofs of theoretical results may be found in research papers and
advanced texts that are referenced in the bibliographical notes.
The fundamental concepts and algorithms covered in the book are often based
on those used in existing commercial or experimental database systems. Our aim is
to present these concepts and algorithms in a general setting that is not tied to one
particular database system, though we do provide references to specific systems where
appropriate.
In this, the seventh edition of Database System Concepts, we have retained the over-
all style of the prior editions while evolving the content and organization to reflect the
changes that are occurring in the way databases are designed, managed, and used. One
such major change is the extensive use of “Big Data” systems. We have also taken into
account trends in the teaching of database concepts and made adaptations to facilitate
these trends where appropriate.

xv
xvi Preface

Among the notable changes in this edition are:

• Extensive coverage of Big Data systems, from the user perspective (Chapter 10),
as well as from an internal perspective (Chapter 20 through Chapter 23), with
extensive additions and modifications compared to the sixth edition.
• A new chapter entitled “Blockchain Databases” (Chapter 26) that introduces
blockchain technology and its growing role in enterprise applications. An im-
portant focus in this chapter is the interaction between blockchain systems and
database systems.
• Updates to all chapters covering database internals (Chapter 12 through Chap-
ter 19) to reflect current-generation technology, such as solid-state disks, main-
memory databases, multi-core systems, and column-stores.
• Enhanced coverage of semi-structured data management using JSON, RDF, and
SPARQL (Section 8.1).
• Updated coverage of temporal data (in Section 7.10), data analytics (Chapter 11),
and advanced indexing techniques such as write-optimized indices (Section 14.8
and Section 24.2).
• Reorganization and update of chapters to better support courses with a significant
hands-on component (which we strongly recommend for any database course),
including use of current-generation application development tools and Big Data
systems such as Apache Hadoop and Spark.

These and other updates have arisen from the many comments and suggestions we
have received from readers of the sixth edition, our students at Yale University, Lehigh
University, and IIT Bombay, and our own observations and analyses of developments
in database technology.

Content of This Book

The text is organized in eleven major parts.

• Overview (Chapter 1). Chapter 1 provides a general overview of the nature and pur-
pose of database systems. We explain how the concept of a database system has
developed, what the common features of database systems are, what a database
system does for the user, and how a database system interfaces with operating
systems. We also introduce an example database application: a university organi-
zation consisting of multiple departments, instructors, students, and courses. This
application is used as a running example throughout the book. This chapter is
motivational, historical, and explanatory in nature.
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Background 1: Critical analysis and evaluation

Learning Objective 1: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 3: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 8: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 9: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 2: Research findings and conclusions
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 15: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 3: Fundamental concepts and principles
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 24: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 26: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 30: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 4: Research findings and conclusions
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 31: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 31: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 34: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Topic 5: Practical applications and examples
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 42: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 45: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 46: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Review 6: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 54: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 55: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 56: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 59: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 7: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 60: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 61: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 62: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 65: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 8: Interdisciplinary approaches
Practice Problem 70: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 79: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 79: Best practices and recommendations
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 9: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Example 80: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 83: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 84: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 88: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 89: Key terms and definitions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 92: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 93: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 94: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 96: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Conclusion 11: Experimental procedures and results
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 105: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 107: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
References 12: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 116: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Results 13: Theoretical framework and methodology
Practice Problem 120: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 121: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 122: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 126: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 129: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 129: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Review 14: Research findings and conclusions
Practice Problem 130: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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