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Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance 1st Edition
Shannon Sullivan Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Shannon Sullivan, Nancy Tuana
ISBN(s): 9780791471012, 0791471012
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 1.00 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
 Race and
Epistemologies
of Ignorance

Edited by
Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana
Race and Epistemologies
of Ignorance
 SUNY series, Philosophy and Race

Ronald Bernasconi and T. Denean Sharpley-Whiting, editors

Race and Epistemologies
of Ignorance

EDITED BY

Shannon Sullivan
and
Nancy Tuana

State University of New York Press

Published by
State University of New York Press, Albany

© 2007 State University of New York

All rights reserved

Printed in the United States of America

No part of this book may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever

without written permission. No part of this book may be stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means including electronic, electrostatic,
magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without the prior permission in writing of the publisher.

For information, address State University of New York Press,

194 Washington Avenue, Suite 305, Albany, NY 12210-2384

Production by Diane Ganeles

Marketing by Anne M. Valentine

Cover art: Remedios Varo (Spain 1908–Mexico 1963) “Spiral Transit” 1962 Oil on Masonite

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Race and epistemologies of ignorance / edited by Shannon Sullivan, Nancy Tuana.

p. cm — (SUNY series, philosophy and race)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7914-7101-2 (hardcover : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7914-7102-9 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Race relations. 2. Social epistemology. I. Sullivan, Shannon, 1967– II. Tuana,
Nancy.

HT1521.R234 2007
305.8—dc22
2006021972

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 CONTENTS

Introduction 1
Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

PART I: THEORIZING IGNORANCE

Chapter 1. White Ignorance 11

Charles W. Mills
Chapter 2. Epistemologies of Ignorance: Three Types 39
Linda Martín Alcoff
Chapter 3. Ever Not Quite: Unfinished Theories,
Unfinished Societies, and Pragmatism 59
Harvey Cormier
Chapter 4. Strategic Ignorance 77
Alison Bailey
Chapter 5. Denying Relationality: Epistemology and
Ethics and Ignorance 95
Sarah Lucia Hoagland
Chapter 6. Managing Ignorance 119
Elizabeth V. Spelman

PART II: SITUATING IGNORANCE

Chapter 7. Race Problems, Unknown Publics, Paralysis,

and Faith 135
Paul C. Taylor
Chapter 8. White Ignorance and Colonial Oppression:
Or, Why I Know So Little about Puerto Rico 153
Shannon Sullivan

v
vi Contents

Chapter 9. John Dewey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Alain Locke:

A Case Study in White Ignorance and Intellectual
Segregation 173
Frank Margonis
Chapter 10. Social Ordering and the Systematic Production
of Ignorance 197
Lucius T. Outlaw ( Jr.)
Chapter 11. The Power of Ignorance 213
Lorraine Code
Chapter 12. On Needing Not to Know and Forgetting
What One Never Knew: The Epistemology of
Ignorance in Fanon’s Critique of Sartre 231
Robert Bernasconi
Chapter 13. On the Absence of Biology in Philosophical
Considerations of Race 241
Stephanie Malia Fullerton
List of Contributors 259
Index 263
 Introduction

Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

Epistemology and ignorance—how could two such different things go to-

gether? Given that epistemology is the study of how one knows and ig-
norance is a condition of not knowing, epistemology would seem to have
nothing to do with ignorance. At best, it might appear that the two con-
cepts are related in that epistemology studies the operations of knowl-
edge with the goal of eliminating ignorance. But in either case,
epistemology and ignorance seem diametrically opposed. What, then,
might be an epistemology of ignorance, and what possible connections
might it have to issues of race?
The epistemology of ignorance is an examination of the complex
phenomena of ignorance, which has as its aim identifying different
forms of ignorance, examining how they are produced and sustained,
and what role they play in knowledge practices. The authors in this vol-
ume examine the value of applying an epistemology of ignorance to is-
sues of race, racism, and white privilege. Ignorance often is thought of as
a gap in knowledge, as an epistemic oversight that easily could be reme-
died once it has been noticed. It can seem to be an accidental by-product
of the limited time and resources that human beings have to investigate
and understand their world. While this type of ignorance does exist, it is
not the only kind. Sometimes what we do not know is not a mere gap in
knowledge, the accidental result of an epistemological oversight. Espe-
cially in the case of racial oppression, a lack of knowledge or an unlearn-
ing of something previously known often is actively produced for
purposes of domination and exploitation. At times this takes the form of
those in the center refusing to allow the marginalized to know: witness
the nineteenth-century prohibition against black slaves’ literacy. Other
times it can take the form of the center’s own ignorance of injustice, cru-
elty, and suffering, such as contemporary white people’s obliviousness to
racism and white domination. Sometimes these “unknowledges” are con-
sciously produced, while at other times they are unconsciously generated

1
2 Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

and supported. In both cases, our authors examine instances where they
work to support white privilege and supremacy.
But ignorance is not only a tool of oppression wielded by the power-
ful. It also can be a strategy for the survival of the victimized and op-
pressed, as in the case of black slaves’ feigned ignorance of many details
of their white masters’ lives. This survival strategy also can take the form
of the oppressed combating their oppression by unlearning the oppres-
sor’s knowledge, which has been both passively absorbed and actively
forced upon them. Ignorance can be used against itself. It can be an im-
portant tool for the oppressed to wield against their oppressors, includ-
ing their production of ignorance to dominate and exploit.
As this volume attests, tracing what is not known and the politics of
such ignorance should be a key element of epistemological and social and
political analyses, for it has the potential to reveal the role of power in the
construction of what is known and provide a lens for the political values at
work in our knowledge practices. Although racial oppression has been in-
vestigated as an unjust practice, few have fully examined the ways in which
such practices of oppression are linked to our conceptions and produc-
tions of knowledge. Even less attention has been paid to the epistemically
complex processes of the production and maintenance of ignorance. As
the underside of knowledge, ignorance warrants careful examination,
and nowhere is this truer than in the case of race and racism.
An exception to the neglect of racialized ignorance can be found in
the work of Charles Mills who, in his book The Racial Contract (1997), ar-
gues that “[o]n matters related to race, the Racial Contract prescribes for
its signatories an inverted epistemology, an epistemology of ignorance,
a particular pattern of localized and global cognitive dysfunctions (which
are psychologically and socially functional), producing the ironic out-
come that whites will in general be unable to understand the world they
themselves have made” (1997, 18). For Mills, the epistemology of igno-
rance is part of a white supremacist state in which the human race is
racially divided into full persons and subpersons. Even though—or,
more accurately, precisely because—they tend not to understand the
racist world in which they live, white people are able to fully benefit from
its racial hierarchies, ontologies, and economies.
Another exception to the neglect of racialized ignorance can be
found in the work of Marilyn Frye. In The Politics of Reality (1983), Frye
similarly explains that “ignorance is not something simple: it is not a sim-
ple lack, absence or emptiness, and it is not a passive state. Ignorance of
this sort—the determined ignorance most white Americans have of
American Indian tribes and clans, the ostrichlike ignorance most white
Americans have of the histories of Asian peoples in this country, the im-
poverishing ignorance most white Americans have of Black language—
 Introduction 3

ignorance of these sorts is a complex result of many acts and many neg-
ligences” (1983, 118). Frye demonstrates how white ignorance often is an
active force in the lives of those, such as feminists, who think of them-
selves as anti-racist. Far from accidental, the ignorance of the racially
privileged often is deliberately cultivated by them, an act made easier by
a vast array of institutional systems supporting white people’s oblivious-
ness of the worlds of people of color.
Although they do not focus on race, other exceptions to the neglect
of manufactured ignorance can be found in the fields of history and sci-
ence studies. Robert Proctor’s (1996) examination of the “cancer wars”
in the United States argued that political factors have negatively im-
pacted cancer research, deliberately creating confusion and uncertainty
about the carcinogenic risk of products such as tobacco, meat, and as-
bestos. Influenced by the work of Proctor, Mills, and Frye, Nancy Tuana
(2004) examined the value of an epistemology of ignorance for a better
understanding of the ways in which sexism informs the science of female
sexuality. Invoking the idea of “agnotology,” or the study of what is un-
known, Londa Schiebinger (2004) examined the sexual politics behind
the creation of ignorance of abortifacients in Europe. Given Proctor’s,
Tuana’s, and Schiebinger’s focus on ignorance as a culturally and politi-
cally induced product, their work on the role of ignorance in science
complements the application of epistemologies of ignorance to racial-
ized ignorance introduced by Frye and Mills and developed here.1
Building on previous work on the epistemologies of ignorance and
working out of continental, analytic, and pragmatist traditions, the thir-
teen authors in this volume critically examine practices of not knowing
that are linked to and often support racism. Part I, “Theorizing Igno-
rance,” explores some of the theoretical complexities of racialized igno-
rance. Charles W. Mills begins with “White Ignorance,” in which he
elaborates on one of the key themes of his book The Racial Contract. Linked
with white supremacy, white ignorance includes both false belief and the
absence of true belief about people of color, supporting a delusion of
white racial superiority that can afflict white and nonwhite people alike.
White ignorance operates with a particular kind of social cognition that
distorts reality. For example, the lens with which white people (and others
suffering from white ignorance) perceive the world is shaped by white su-
premacy, causing them to mis-see whites as civilized superiors and non-
whites as inferior “savages.” White ignorance also impacts social and
individual memory, erasing both the achievements of people of color and
the atrocities of white people. A collective amnesia about the past is the re-
sult, which supports hostility toward the testimony and credibility of non-
white people. By mapping white ignorance in these ways, Mills seeks both
to minimize it and to make possible genuine knowledge about the world.
4 Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

Mills’s work in The Racial Contract plays an important role in Linda

Martín Alcoff’s chapter “Epistemologies of Ignorance: Three Types,”
which develops a typology of recent arguments for an epistemology of
ignorance. Beginning with the feminist philosophy of Lorraine Code,
Alcoff explains that the first argument is that ignorance results from hu-
mans’ situatedness as knowers. Because we are located, partial beings, we
cannot know everything. Based on the standpoint theory of Sandra Hard-
ing, the second argument further develops the first by connecting igno-
rance to aspects of group identities. Situatedness is not merely a general
feature of human existence. It is shaped by things such as race, which
means that the ignorance that results from it also is racially inflected. The
third argument is drawn from Mills’s work and provides a structural analy-
sis of how oppressive systems generate ignorance. Elaborating on that ar-
gument, Alcoff turns to Jurgen Horkheimer and the Frankfurt School,
using their critique of rationality under capitalism to show how systemic
ignorance is generated. With Horkheimer and Mills, Alcoff concludes
that successful analyses of racial and other forms of systemic ignorance
must be able to demonstrate alternatives to them and thus cannot afford
postmodern refusals of concepts of truth, reason, and reality.
Harvey Cormier implicitly challenges Mills and Alcoff by arguing that
an epistemology of ignorance will not help combat white privilege and
racial injustice. In “Ever Not Quite: Unfinished Theories, Unfinished So-
cieties, and Pragmatism,” Cormier alleges that a dichotomy between ap-
pearance and reality lies at the heart of the epistemologies of ignorance.
This dichotomy leads to the problem of ideology: if a structure of decep-
tively egalitarian appearances has been erected on top of a racist reality,
then how can a person be sure that her vision of the world is untainted
by the reigning ideology? Drawing on the pragmatist philosophies of
Richard Rorty, Cornell West, and William James, Cormier urges that we
jettison talk of appearance and reality and accept that all truths are a cre-
ation of human beings seeking to satisfy their desires and mold the world
in particular ways. For Cormier, critical race theorists would be better off
asking if certain beliefs help eliminate racism than if they match reality.
The problem of white privilege and domination is not one of pervasive
ignorance of reality but of the need for political struggle to build an
antiracist society.
In her contribution titled “Strategic Ignorance,” Alison Bailey
shares Cormier’s concern that dichotomous thinking limits Mills’s epis-
temology of ignorance. If the Racial Contract operates with an inverted
epistemology that uses ignorance to present a falsehood as a truth, then
the solution would seem to be a kind of cognitive therapy that allows the
truth about white and nonwhite people to be recognized. Bailey argues
that while this sort of therapy has a limited role to play in antiracist
 Introduction 5

struggle, it utilizes the same logic of purity that plagues the problem it
attempts to solve. A more radical and long-lasting solution to racism and
white supremacy can be developed, according to Bailey, with the cur-
dled logic found in the work of María Lugones. Curdled logic draws on
the resistance of people of color to highlight agency under oppression.
Rather than simply oppose ignorance to knowledge, curdled logic
demonstrates how a strategic use of ignorance is made possible through
ambiguity, multiplicity, and dissembling. Reading Mills’s work through
a curdled lens, Bailey proposes an epistemology of ignorance in which
oppressed people are not merely victims but also what she refers to as
“oppressed<->resisting subjects.”
Sarah Lucia Hoagland also draws on Lugones to argue that relational-
ity is crucial to antiracist and feminist struggle. In “Denying Relationality:
Epistemology and Ethics and Ignorance,” she examines the denial of
relationality that is at the heart of practitioners of dominant culture who
are ignorant about those whom they oppress. Epistemologies that presup-
pose autonomy render invisible the relationality that structures subjec-
tivites at both the individual and cultural levels. Recognizing relationality
means acknowledging ontological interdependence, which transforms
how we think of communicating across and through differences. Rather
than exist as distinct categories—woman, man, lesbian, white, Latina, and
so on—across which common ground needs to be found, those struggling
against oppression are located in concrete geographies that support dif-
ferent worlds of meaning. Engaging in dialogue with Lugones and others
having different geographies from her own, Hoagland enacts the complex
communication that relationality demands.
Part I concludes with Elizabeth V. Spelman’s analysis of some of the
strategies deployed in the management of white ignorance. In “Manag-
ing Ignorance,” Spelman draws on the work of James Baldwin to show
how white America avoided inquiry into and knowledge of the horrors of
white racism in the decades following the Civil War. White people tend
to have a complicated relationship to the reality of black grievances, si-
multaneously believing that they are false and wanting to believe that
they are false (which implies a recognition that they are true), a messy
cognitive state that often is avoided by ignoring black grievances alto-
gether. The management of this ignorance can be seen in the reunions
of white Confederate and Union soldiers that were meant to repair rela-
tionships damaged by the war. The reconciliation of North and South
carefully avoided any mention of slavery or race, as if the war were a
squabble between two brothers that had nothing to do with the status of
black people in the United States. Spelman demonstrates how the culti-
vated ignorance of the plight of black people and the neglect of racial
justice were requirements for white healing to occur.
6 Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

Part II, “Situating Ignorance,” explores some of the geographical, his-

torical, and disciplinary sites in which racial ignorance has operated and
often continues to operate. In “Race Problems, Unknown Publics, Paraly-
sis, and Faith,” Paul C. Taylor draws on John Dewey and W. E. B. Du Bois
to examine the social production of ignorance about race. Taylor de-
scribes racial groups as Deweyan publics: populations that collectively ex-
perience similar social situations and need to become self-aware to abolish
ignorance of their common plight. Applying this radical constructionist
view of race to the case of the 2004 coup in Haiti, Taylor confronts both
the widespread ignorance about the history of U.S. intervention in Latin
America and the Caribbean and his own crisis in faith in public moral de-
liberation. Personally invested in the welfare of Haiti and thus shaken by
the U.S. government’s obscurantism about its foreign policy, Taylor chal-
lenges the utopian optimism that, he discovers, lies behind his radical con-
structionism. Urging that belief in the complete elimination of racial and
colonialist injustice be replaced by permanent struggle against it, Taylor
confronts the existential obstacles that millenarian faith can lay across the
path of liberatory activity.
Shannon Sullivan also examines the role that ignorance plays in the
relationship between the United States and the Caribbean. In “White Ig-
norance and Colonial Oppression: Or, Why I Know So Little about
Puerto Rico,” she explores her relationship as a white person with Puerto
Rico. Providing a historical overview of the United States’ acquisition of
Puerto Rico as a colony and then focusing on the educational system sub-
sequently installed, Sullivan charts how knowledge and ignorance inter-
twined to transform Puerto Ricans into “Porto Ricans” in the eyes of
non-Puerto Rican U.S. citizens. Unlike the allegedly dark and savage Fili-
pinos, “Porto Ricans” were seen as docile colonial subjects capable of
Americanization. While the image of “Porto Ricans” thus contributes to
the oppression of Puerto Ricans, it also can be a site for resistance when
Puerto Ricans strategically use colonialist ignorance/knowledge to re-
distribute wealth from the mainland to the island. Challenging white ig-
norance of Puerto Rico, Sullivan demonstrates how the solution cannot
be a simple increase in knowledge, because certain forms of knowledge
can support rather than undermine racism and (neo)colonialism.
In “John Dewey, W. E. B. Du Bois, and Alain Locke: A Case Study in
White Ignorance and Intellectual Segregation,” Frank Margonis continues
the discussion begun by Taylor and Cormier about the possible contribu-
tions of pragmatism to epistemologies of ignorance. Margonis examines
Dewey’s neglect of issues of race, which created an absence in his pub-
lished work that is more than an insignificant gap. Erasing racial violence
from the story of the United States’ development, Dewey prepared the way
for “color-blind” understandings of the nation’s international affairs as
 Introduction 7

exercises in democracy. Du Bois and Locke, in contrast, confronted the

racial violence of U.S. history and as a result saw World War I as an impe-
rialist war in which white nations were fighting over access to the riches of
predominantly nonwhite nations. As Margonis argues, Dewey’s erasure of
race offers a negative lesson to contemporary pragmatists and other an-
tiracist theorists. Like Dewey, white philosophers today cannot afford to in-
tellectually segregate themselves from philosophers of color. Speaking
across and through racial divisions is the most potent weapon against epis-
temologies of ignorance that support white domination.
Lucius T. Outlaw ( Jr.) also voices his concern about the current state
of American philosophy in “Social Ordering and the Systematic Produc-
tion of Ignorance.” Focusing on practices of education, Outlaw explains
how schools have been a primary site for the production and distribution
of white ignorance of other races. From the nineteenth century onward,
schools have been institutions of “Americanization,” a process of teaching
a hierarchical racial ontology in which white people dominate all others.
According to Outlaw, the academic field of philosophy participates in this
process just as much as other fields and levels of schooling. Philosophers in
the United States can be—and often are—completely ignorant of figures
and issues that fall outside of a white, male canon. This is particularly prob-
lematic given that today’s Ph.D. candidates in philosophy will be teaching
an increasing number of nonwhite undergraduate students. In response,
Outlaw calls for a transformation of knowledge production in academic
philosophy that will eliminate its present (mis)education into ignorance.
Lorraine Code further explores the relationship between ignorance
and racialized colonialism in “The Power of Ignorance.” Juxtaposing
George Eliot’s 1876 novel Daniel Deronda and James Mill’s 1817 The His-
tory of British India, Code diagnoses some of the modes of ignorance that
shaped the English-speaking white Western world in the nineteenth cen-
tury. Although one work is fiction and the other history, together they
expose patterns of privilege and ignorance at both the personal and
global level. The female protagonist of the novel, Gwendolen Harlech, is
ignorant of her ignorance of the lives of the poor and lower classes, while
Mill celebrates his ignorance of colonized India. Both texts show how ig-
norance helps reify sexual, racial, and colonial hierarchies. The class and
colonial-racial forms of ignorance in these works are coconstitutive with
gender-based ignorance: Harlech’s cosseted privilege is in part a result of
the patriarchal world in which she lives, and the country of India is fem-
inized by Mill as a compliant subject to a paternalistic colonizer. Con-
necting these modalities of ignorance to Michele Le Doueff’s work on
the maintenance of epistemic hierarchies in European history, Code de-
velops an ecology of ignorance that focuses on the human subjects that
embody and live not-knowing.
8 Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

In “On Needing Not to Know and Forgetting What One Never

Knew: The Epistemology of Ignorance in Fanon’s Critique of Sartre,”
Robert Bernasconi explores the significance of Franz Fanon’s claim that
“the European knows and does not know” in the context of Jean-Paul
Sartre’s essay on negritude, “Black Orpheus.” When Sartre depicts negri-
tude as a temporary moment in the dialectical movement to a raceless so-
ciety, he undermines Fanon’s attempts to affirm his blackness. From
Fanon’s perspective, Sartre’s criticism of negritude is not necessarily
wrong, but it is a piece of knowledge of which Fanon needed to remain
ignorant in his fight against white supremacy. By claiming to know more
than black people about their own situation of racial struggle, Sartre
failed to acknowledge both his own racial location and the ignorance
that accompanied it. As Bernasconi argues, Sartre’s efforts to support
antiracist work were undermined by his blind spots. Although well in-
tentioned, they serve as a warning to white people who think their knowl-
edge is sufficient to eliminate racism.
Stephanie Malia Fullerton closes the volume by challenging the be-
lief commonly held by philosophers that science has disproved the exis-
tence of distinct races and that ignorance of this fact is what impedes the
fight against racism. In “On the Absence of Biology in Philosophical Con-
siderations of Race,” Fullerton explains that while physical anthropology
and population genetics have shown that no fixed, innate biological dif-
ferences separate people into different races, they also have demon-
strated that genetic differences correlate with geography and map onto
racial categories. Focusing on Kwame Anthony Appiah’s eliminitivist phi-
losophy, Fullerton explains how biology wrongly has been written out of
many philosophical accounts of race, creating a problematic ignorance
of both race’s biological dimensions and the current state of the biologi-
cal sciences. Cautioning that biology should not be left at the door of
critical race theory, Fullerton encourages philosophers to acknowledge
the complex bio-social relation between genetic inheritance and pheno-
type, culture, and history that gives rise to racial identity and meaning.
Many more topics and issues are related to racialized ignorance that
deserve investigation, and we hope these thirteen chapters will inspire fur-
ther work on them. Some of the discipline-based topics include problems
of ignorance in Western philosophy as found in the work of Nietzsche
(truth as necessary error), Heidegger (truth as simultaneous disclosure
and concealment), Plato (epistemology as anamnesis), Descartes (igno-
rance and the evil deceiver), Rawls (the veil of ignorance), and many
others; and the epistemology of ignorance vis-à-vis the long-standing philo-
sophical tradition of skepticism. The operation of racialized ignorance in
recent geopolitical events warrants exploration, especially in the case of
genocide in the Sudan, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, the slaughter in
 Introduction 9

Rwanda and Burundi, and the September 11, 2001, attacks. The role that
race- and class-based ignorance has played in recent natural disasters, such
as Hurricane Katrina, also deserves attention. Finally, some of the broad
questions that might guide future work on race and epistemology of igno-
rance include the following: To what extent are we obliged to know all that
there is to know, or is allegedly knowable? Are there degrees of culpability
for incurred ignorance? Are all epistemic subjects under the same obliga-
tions to know the same things? Are there term limits on certain forms of ig-
norance, and are some forms of ignorance more grievous than others, and
if so, what are the criteria for differentiation? While these topics and ques-
tions are not comprehensive, we present them as a “wish list” for additional
research in the blossoming field of the epistemology of ignorance.2

* * *
This book grew out of the 2004 Penn State Rock Ethics Institute Confer-
ence, “Ethics and Epistemologies of Ignorance.” This conference was
cosponsored by the Penn State Africana Research Center, the Department
of Philosophy, and the Women’s Studies Program. The conference, in
turn, had its roots in a National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH)
Summer Seminar on Feminist Epistemologies that we codirected in 2003.
Fifteen gifted scholars, Rita Alfonso, Lisa Diedrich, Carla Fehr, Mary Mar-
garet Fonow, Heidi Grasswick, Catherine Hundleby, Debra Jackson, Mari-
anne Janack, Nancy McHugh, Patricia Moore, L. Ryan Musgrave, Mariana
Ortega, Mary Solberg, Alice Sowaal, and Penny Weiss, participated in the
intense five-week seminar, exploring connections between ethics, politics,
and epistemology and culminating in a focus on ignorance. Their work,
and our work as directors of the seminar, was augmented by four visiting
scholars: Linda Martín Alcoff, Lorraine Code, Lynn Hankinson Nelson,
and Charlene Haddock Seigfried. The NEH scholars and visiting scholars
contributed to the enormous success of the multidisciplinary conference,
which explored the ethical, political, and epistemological implications of
the conscious and unconscious production of ignorance as it impacts prac-
tices of domination, exploitation, and oppression. Many scholars who par-
ticipated in the first NEH Summer Seminar on Feminist Epistemologies
directed by Nancy Tuana in 1996 came to the conference, as well as over
sixty participants. The topic sparked a great deal of interest, dialogue, and
exciting new work, more of which can be found in a guest-edited issue of
the feminist philosophy journal Hypatia on Feminist Epistemologies of Ig-
norance (Tuana and Sullivan, 2006). The second NEH Summer Seminar
and the “Ethics and Epistemologies of Ignorance” conference gave birth
to a new scholarly organization called FEMMSS—Feminist Epistemologies,
Metaphysics, Methodologies, and Science Studies—which had its inau-
gural meeting at the University of Washington in 2004. We would like to
10 Shannon Sullivan and Nancy Tuana

thank all of the feminist and race theory scholars who supported the con-
ference and the development of FEMMSS, including Linda Martín Alcoff,
Susan Babbitt, Robert Bernasconi, Peg Brand, Tina Chanter, Lorraine
Code, Harvey Cormier, Penelope Deutscher, Carla Fehr, Mary Margaret
Fonow, Marilyn Frye, Heidi Grasswick, Sandra Harding, Lisa Heldke,
Sarah Lucia Hoagland, Catherine Hundleby, Debra Jackson, Marianne
Janack, María Lugones, Nancy McHugh, Charles Mills, Patricia Moore,
L. Ryan Musgrave, Lynn Hankinson Nelson, Mariana Ortega, Lucius T.
Outlaw Jr., Naomi Scheman, Alice Sowaal, Elizabeth V. Spelman, Gail
Weiss, and Penny Weiss. We also would like to thank the National Endow-
ment for the Humanities; Penn State University’s Rock Ethics Institute, the
Africana Research Center, the Philosophy Department, and the Women’s
Studies Program, as well as the NEH Summer Seminar participants and
the conference speakers and attendees for their support of and excited
involvement in the blossoming field of epistemologies of ignorance. Fi-
nally, we cannot thank enough Kathy Rumbaugh and Barb Edwards for all
of the hard work they both put into the conference and the preparation of
this anthology. Without the support of all of these people and institutions,
this volume would not have been possible.

Notes
1. For additional work related to the epistemologies of ignorance, especially
in connection to race, see Sullivan (2006).
2. Thanks to two anonymous reviewers for help with these lists of topics and
questions.

References
Frye, Marilyn. 1983. The Politics of Reality: Essays in Feminist Theory. Freedom, CA:
Crossing Press.
Mills, Charles. 1997. The Racial Contract. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
Proctor, Robert N. 1996. Cancer Wars: How Politics Shapes What We Know and Don’t
Know about Cancer. New York: HarperCollins.
Schiebinger, Londa. 2004. “Feminist History of Colonial Science.” Hypatia 19 (1):
233–54.
Sullivan, Shannon. 2006. Revealing Whiteness: The Unconscious Habits of Racial Priv-
ilege. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Tuana, Nancy. 2004. “Coming to Understand: Orgasm and the Epistemology of
Ignorance.” Hypatia 19 (1): 194–232.
Tuana, Nancy, and Shannon Sullivan, eds. 2006. Special Issue on Feminist Epis-
temologies of Ignorance. Hypatia 21 (3).
 PART I
Theorizing Ignorance
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 Astronomy - Study Materials
Summer 2025 - Academy

Prepared by: Teacher Miller

Date: July 28, 2025

Test 1: Experimental procedures and results

Learning Objective 1: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 2: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Current trends and future directions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 6: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 7: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 2: Experimental procedures and results
Example 10: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 12: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 17: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 18: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 18: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 3: Study tips and learning strategies
Practice Problem 20: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 21: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 23: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Methodology 4: Current trends and future directions
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 32: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 33: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 34: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 35: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 38: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Part 5: Study tips and learning strategies
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 48: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 6: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Example 50: Key terms and definitions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Appendix 7: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 63: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 64: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Module 8: Learning outcomes and objectives
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 72: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 73: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 75: Ethical considerations and implications
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 76: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 9: Literature review and discussion
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 83: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 83: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Unit 10: Fundamental concepts and principles
Practice Problem 90: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 91: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 93: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 94: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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