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the productIOn super'(is,Qr~~?:~l'~il Galea
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ANTENNAS AND RADlOWAVE PROPAGATION

Copynght © 1985 by McGraw-Hill, Inc AU nghts reserved Pnnted m the UOlted

States of America. Except as permItted under the United States Copynght Act of 1976,
no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior wri.tten
permission of the publisher

234567890 HALHAL 898765

ISBN 0-07-011808-6

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Colhn, Robert E
Antennas and radlowave propagahon
(McGraw-Hill senes m electncal engmeenng)
BIbliography; p,
Includes indexes
1, Antennas (ElectroOlcs) 2 RadIO wave propagation
I Title U Senes,
TK7871.6.C62 1985 6213841'1 84-17108
ISBN 0-07-011808-6
 CHAPTER

SIX
RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION

In the previous chapter a number of examples involvIng the determinatIOn of

the received signal power in a commun.ication link were given. These all
involved systems for which the propagation of the electromagnellc energy
between the transmlttmg and receiving antennas took place under free-space
conditions, Free-space propagation does essentIally occur for some com-
munication links under ideal conditions-a satellite-to-ground-statlOn link is a
typical example, However, for most communicatIOn links the signal pro-
pagation is modified by the presence of the earth, the atmosphere, the
ionosphere, and atmospheric hydtometeors such as raindrops, snow, and hail.
The influence that the natural environment has on the propagation of radio
waves is highly dependent on the frequency used, the directionality of the
antennas mvolved, and the proximity of the antennas to the ground. The
physical nature of the mtervenmg path also may have a SIgnificant effect, since
propagation over water is different from propagation over land, over heavIly
vegetated areas, or over urbanized areas where tall bUildings produce a vanety
of scattering and diffracllon effects.
The evaluation of a proposed commUnICatIOn link must be earned out with
due attention paid to propagation effects. In many cases where propagation is
strongly affected by the refractive index variations of the atmosphere or
ionosphere, or by prevailIng rain rates, the evaluation should be carried out in
a statistical sense . The goal would be to ensure that sufficient signal-to-nolSe
margin is available so that under adverse propagation conditions outages will
occur for only small intervals of time, The type of communicatIOn service
involved generally dictates the tolerable probability of an outage occurring.

339
340 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 341

We can generally predIct the performance of a commUnICatIOn lmk on the extremely low frequency propagatIon, propagatIon Into seawater, and the
basIs of assumed typIcal characteristics for the propagation path It IS con- phenomena of ducting
venient to break the discussion of propagation effects into those categories that
r~ent'tliemostsignificantphen-omena--iliatTmru-enc-e raruo-wa-vepropaga_-
tion-ill-{cHlf -bl'b-ad frequency Intervals, The- 'first is e-xtfe-mel'y ToW:- or ve'rylOw 6.1 ANTENNAS LOCATED OVER A FLAT EARTH
frequencTpropigaiTon-invojv;;;i frequencies· below i· fewkiToherlz. In lIils
frequency iangeTfiewav~r~ngtll~Dis greater than IUs m. Tlie antennas used -a~'e The general features of the Interference phenomena assocIated WIth antennas
verj'"Targ'e -incrar,,-or-necessity close'to ·i:h" ground, or lmried in the graun;r placed over the earth can be determined by studying the effects assocrated with
The ;."&,, -wave-'is'-r~l1eITei[-Imm~Ihe ionosphere, and -aI6rrri'oCear:th" antennas located above a flat earth Figure 6,1 shows a transmitting antenna at
lonosph'eie waveguide exists that may be thought of as provIding a guiding path height hI and a receIving antenna at height h" with separation d. The figure
f;;;' the waves as th·ey propagate around the earth. This waveguide model 'i's also shows the direct ray and indirect or reflected ray that reach the receiving
particularly useful for frequencies below 1 kHz Extremely low frequencies are antenna Whcn the two path lengths RI and R, dIffer by an appropnate
useful 'in communIcatmg with submerged submarines The higher frequencies· amount there may be either constructive or destructive mterference at the
are attenuated very rapidly by the high conductivIty of seawat.er . receiving antenna.
The second range of frequencIes is from 1 ~tI..z."llp_to Q f~,w megabertb' In With reference to FIg 6 I, the field that reaches the receIvIng antenna
thIS frequency range the propagahon is strongly inftul".n~"d.hy the.pres.e~f directly will produce a voltage proportional to
th~_ ground Local commqnication over distances of a few hundred miles is by e- jkOR \
means of thefiLrfaCew~)' Sfan'datd ~l\1 ~I'()"clcastillg Q\;'lJr~ in this frequency / 11(01)1,(0;) 41TRI
range, ---~ -_. ---"
The third frequency range is from a Ie", megahertz up to 30 to 40 MHz. In where II and I, are the radiation field strength patterns of the two antennas. The
thIS band, whIch includes international shortwavebroatlcastmg, the radio wave voltage produced by the indirect wave IS proportional to
is reflected from the iono~phere--- to--p~~-vide -co~;;-{lnlCatiolJ over long skip
e-jk oR2
dIstances that may be thousands of mIles In length. Over the propagation path, fr( 02)f,(0;)P eN>-~
fre~-sl'''c~ l'rQIJa.l@ti()n ~()I1c1iti()ns ,,,r.".-'!QJJ~~, but th"."aj'~ty,QLthe 41TR,
electr~!,! £Q-'J.~~I1~.ratjQn with time- -of -flay" yearly variatIOns,- -etc.;- -f:1rO~_h-!f~S a
where pel. IS tire reflectIon coefficrent at the ground. In the usual sltualIon h,
con-irderable amount of fading as well as periods ()f tilJl.~ when only certam
and h2 are very smalI compared with the separation d, so the angles 0 1, O2, 0;,
frequencies are usable ..
8~ are very small, and the antenna radiahon patterns can be assumed constant
The fou'rlh category involves frequencIes above 50 MHz In thIS case the
over the range of angles involved. An exceplIon would be the case when highly
antennas are relatively small and may be pla'ced ·il heights of many
wavelengths above the ground. The main propagation e!l"cts are those asso-
ciated with interference. between 'the signafs'''p,iip~z~ted~JQrrg ~t.h.egire;:t I, (8)
line-~f-s;ght path an~ those reflecJed from· the groun~. At very high frequen- ReceiVing anlenna

des~-sever-al gigahertz and up, attenuation and scatte~ by rain and atmosphenc
gases, predominantly water vapor, must also be considered, Scattering and ;~~~~~~r,-__~~~----~e~~~::;?;;~~
Transmitting antenna
iI (0)
8
1
Duect ray
Rl e'~
diffraction of radio waves by hllIs, buildlOgS, trees, etc, IS also much more
pronounced at the higher frequencies '\ "l-tl-\ "
The propagation phenomena of importance '!! fre9!!eQ\:res above 50 rYIJI];..
are predominantly those associated with iot<ortete.I]£e "ffects frQr!!'ground
to
r.~fl~~c~loh~";:~Tnese- inierfe'ren-c-e -effe-cts a~e- refaiivefy easy - analyze and are
~---r/~--d------------~·I
/

thera~re discussed first. After high-frequency interference effects have been I //

discussed, surface-wave propagation of radio waves in the frequency range of a
few kilohertz up to a few megahertz will be described. The sectIons that follow
WIll treat shQItw~ve propagation Involvmg ionospheric reflection, attenuatIOn
V
hi! /~f.'
R,flection coeffid,nt p oj,

and scattering hf microwaves by rain and other atmospheric constituents, Image point

tropospheric sc~tter propagation, the earth-ionosphere waveguide model for Figure 6.1 IllustratIOn of direct and reflected rays
I. ..

'}' '." ,- ,t'A.rf;C'>"

,.,\' 0..-'
342 PROPAGATION RADIO ..WAVE PROPAGATION 343

directive antennas are used and h2 IS large, such as occurs 1£ the transntitting
antenna IS located on the ground and the receiving antenna IS located aboard a
high-flying aircraft. In thIs case very httle power might be radiated toward the
ground; that is fl (OJ ~ fl (0 1) The total received voltage will be proportIonal to
(we use R, =RI in the denominator) Figure 6.2 Elevation angle 0/0,

e-ikOR'[ f(O\f(O') 1 1 e-ikOR'1 and is a minImum when

f(O)f(O')-- l+pe# I 2J, , e-ikO(R,-R,)] = f(O)f(O')-- F
1 I I Z I 41TRI ft(e,)f,(Oi) I I , I 41TRI

(61) n = 0,1,2, .. (65b)

The factor F, called the path-gain factor, shows how the field at the
receiving antenna differs from the value it would have under free-space A coverage dIagram IS a plot of the relattve field strength as a function of
propagatIOn conditIOns. When it can be assumed that fl(e,) = ft(0l) and f,(e;) = direction in space from the transmitting antenna. It is analogous to the
f,( ei), then F can be expressed as field-strength radiahon pattern of an antenna In any coverage diagram the
fixed parameters are the height hI of the transmitting antenna and the
wavelength AD. The distance d to the location of ihe receiving antenna and the
The path-gain factor IS the array factor assocIated with the antenna at height hI height h, of the receiving antenna are variable parameters, and each pair of
and its image below the surface, wIth the relative excitatIOn of the image values hz, d determines a POlOt in space. The coverage diagram is a plot of the
antenna being p ej.p curves F/r = constant in the h,d plane. In most situations the direct hne-of-
With reference to Fig.. 6.1, It can be seen that R, = [d' + (h2 - h ,)']I!2 and sight distance r between antennas is very' nearly equal to the horizontal
R,= [d'+ (hI + h,)']II' When hI and h, are very small compared WIth d, a distance d. The various curves of F/r that are plotted are usually chosen to
binomial expansion gives represent the same signal level that would be obtamed at a distance of a
multiple or a fractional multiple of a conven'ient free-space reference range IL,
R = d + I (h, - hI)' for example, F/r= m/rf or F= mr/rf=md/rf , WIth m = I, \12,2, or 1/\12,
I'd 1/2, The difference 10 signal level between successIve curves IS then 3 dB
By usmg Eq. (6.3) we find that the constant signal level curves are gIven by
from whIch we obtam
(we assume that r = d)
R _ _ 2h ,h,
2 R,- d F = 21 sm ko:'h'l = m : (66a)
f
If p eN' were equal to -1 then
when the reflection coeffiCIent equals -1. For the fiat-earth case it is more
F = 11- e-iko2h ,h"dl = 21 sin ko:'h'l (6.3) convenient to use Eq. (6.4) or (65) whIch gIVes

ThIS shows that mterference effects can lead to a doublmg of the field strength 21sin kohl tan %1 = 21 sm koh,%1 = m : (6.6b)
relatIve to its value under free-space conditions With reference to Fig, 6.2 we f

let % be the elevation angle given by tan % = h,/d so that Eq. (6.3) can be In thIS equatIon d can be treated as the radIal coordinate and % as the angle
written as coordinate in a polar-coordinate reference frame However, note that since the
vertIcal scale representing h, IS usually expanded relative to that for d, the
F = 2Isin(koh, tan %)1 (6.4) angle % appears much larger than It actually is .
The relationshIp expressed by Eq . (6.4) IS usually plotted m the form of a Whenever hI:'> Ao and n IS small, tan % = % and the above relatIons show
coverage diagram showmg the varfation of F with h, and d, that is, with %, for that the lobe structure is very fine; i.e., the angular separation between lobes is
given values of hI and AD expressed as a ratio h,/Ao' Note that F IS a maximum very small. For example, if hI = lOOAo, then the lobes are separated by
~w . Ao/2h l = 1/200 rad, Or by approximately 0.3' Figure 6.3 shows a lyplcal
coverage diagram. If rf IS the free-space range for a given received signai
n = 0, 1,2, .. (6.5a) strength, then With interference taken mto a~count the maximum range is 2",
which corresponds to a honzontal distance d = 2rf cos % For small values of %
344 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 345

h1=iOOAO
can be approximated by 2k oh l l/lo, so
50 r = 2 X 10 3 m 2kohlh2
f
F ~ 2k oh l l/lo ~ --d- (6,7)
40
6
-<'
30

20 --- which makes the received Signal voltage vary as the mverse square of the
distance, thus reducing the maximum useful range quite severely.
The coverage diagrams shown in Fig, 6.3 are based on taking p ~ 1, </> ~ 7T

-- -- In practice this is a good approximation for the reflection coefficient for both
horizontal and vertical polarization when the grazing angle 1/1 is small, say, 1° or
less, When'" is larger than 1°, peN, may depart apprecIably from -1 for
10 3 2 X 103 4 X 10 3
dm verttcal polanzation but may sttll be approximated by -1 for horizontal
polanzation for values of '" up to 10° or more,
The reflectIOn coeffiCient p e# is given by the Fresnel expressions for the
reflection coefficients for a plane TEM wave polarized with the electric field in
the plane of incidence (vertical polanzation) and for a wave polarized with the
electric field perpendicular to the plane of incidence (horizontal polarization)
The Fresnel~fj""!!QI1,"()~flici~I1g;.<!~~I1.<! ()11. th" ~r()\In~ ~()[1dugivil¥-rp"'rntit~
i;Vity~-freCJl!~I19'2 ",n~ "nJ,I~ of incidence, If th" !lr()~~~ conductivity is <T, the

-- permitti';ity E is KEo, and IjJ isthegraZln!i" angle of incidence, then

vertical polarizatIOn
«(;i,8a)
~
10 3 2X 10 3 3X 10 3 4 X 10 3
d,m honzontal polanzatlOn (6,8b)
(b)

Figure 6.3 Coverage diagrams for a fiat earth wlth refiectJOn coefficlent equal to -1
where X ~ <T/WEo' TYPical values for the dielectric constant K are around 15;
2
while the conducttvity <T may range from 10. 3 to 3 X 10. 2 S/m, With 10. S/m
we have d = 2rt The curves correspondmg to d ~ 2rt cos 1/10 appear as vertical being a typical value for flat pr~lrie land, The conductIVIty of mountainous
lines in Fig, 6,3 because of the greatly expanded vertical scale, The coverage regions is much lower. In general, K is smaller, around 6 or 7, for soil with poor
diagrams shown in Fig, 6,3 are plotted for a free-space propagatton distance of conductiVity and Will increase up to about 30 for soil With a high, conductivity,
2 km, Any pair of values of h2 and d that lies on the curve describing a lobe Figure 6.4 shows the behavior of p and </> as a functIOn of the grazing angle
represents a pomt III space where the received signal strength is the same as it 1/1, Of particular SignIficance is the Brewster angle effect for vertical polariza_
would be at a distance of 2 km under free-space propagation conditions, The tion, which causes p to go through a minimum for values of 1/1 below about 15~.
smaller lobe shown in Fig, 6.3b represents a constant signal level 3 dB greater As p moves through the minimum with decreasing values of 1/1, the phase angle
than thaI of the larger lobe and comes from using m ~ \12 in Eq, (6.6b), </> undergoes a rapid change from near 0° to 180°, This effect makes p e# nearly
When the coverage diagram has been plotted it is a simple matter to equal to -1 for both vertical and horizontal polarizations when the grazing
determine the field strength at the receiving antenna relalive to the free-space angle 1/1 approaches zero, For a perfectly conducting surface p ei' would equal
value, For example, if the receiving antenna height is 10 m, Fig, 6.3b shows that +1 fOr vertical polarization As the frequency W increases, the effect of a finite
the received signal strength at a ,distance of 3.2 km is the same as that at 2'km ground conductivity decreases, since the parameter X = a/wEo decreases. Thus
under free-space conditions, The same figure shows that by raising the antenna for frequencies above 50 MHz, the ground behaves very nearly like a dielectric
height to 25 m at a distance of 4 km a maximum sigmil level will be received, medium, since the displacement current JWEE is then much larger than the
This Signal level will pe the same as that at 2 km with free-space propagation. conduction current lTE If the point of reflection occurs over water, particularly
When the angle 1/10 IS considerably below the first lobe maximum, Eq" (64) seawater, the reflection coefficient can be approximated by -1 for horizontal
346 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 347

1.0 0°
10
.
1 MHz
09
0.8 36°

08

~
0.6 71° }"=3m
P
'" I 07
L-
~\
!-'"
L.--- ~
0.41 108" 'tSm
if

02 )(;/ 144"
8 06
"
B
~ 05
\
~ ,\ ~
V ,..,..... ~ ......- ;;:-
.......-
~

0° 30° 60° 90°

180"
'0° 30° 60° 90°

E
~
o
<!.l 0.4
\~ ~ >( ./
V V
V V
V"
X i.
A ~~
(a)
J&
Iv i
~
V JL
03

1"'- .................V --12

02

o1
" ['-... ..... - - 1 3 om
-1-

tr-~! !l !~I~O~O~ .!\,~. ~:\~ ~\ '\~H~'~~~~

p o I
o 2 4 6 8 9 10
0.6'

0.4
100 MHz
190°
'" 200° r- 180
Grazmg angle, degrees

a 0 0
: 1r- a 1
160 ~ ~
90 0
180"
0° 30
0
60
0
90°
c::::; c--- K 80
"i 1 K 69 1
........
(b)
140
'\ ~ ~ ~ i'-- ............. : 1
".i"l 1
1 a-O
K.'= 42

Figure 6.4 TYPical reflectIOn coefficients for the ground as a functIOn of grazing angle 1/1. K = 15, ~ 1\\~\ '\ ~o om I '3 em
1 1['.,.
1
1
a = 10-2 S/m (a) Vertical polarization and (b) horizontal polarization, ~

.; 120 I\.

~
~ 100
\ 1\\ ,\ \lom~ 1 1
1 1 \ 1
1
polarization but may dIffer SIgnificantly from -1 for vertical polarIZatIOn, as
reference to Fig 65 shows. In the case of a rough sea the reflection coefficient
/
8
"9 80
~\ ~~~ lli 1\:
could be quite small for either polarization.
"e \ ~ ~~ 1,\
Whenever the point of reflection occurs over a rough surface the field IS
scattered in a more diffuse manner, and the specular reflected component, and
hence p, is reduced in value. A measure of the heIght 6f the surfaceirre-
gularities that constitute a "rough surface" may be obtained by considermg the
~
~

~
0
&
.::!
60

40 I~"
,,=
~ ~'~
:::::--
3 m"
'r---"
~:
p:j ~
1['-..,
1

~
'\

effectIve wavelength of the incident wave in the dIrection perpendicular to the 20

surface. If z is the coordinate perpendicular to the surface and x is the 1 1
1 1 1
coordmate along the surface, the incident wave will have a propagatIOn factor o
ejkozsin!Jt-jkoxcos!Jt Thus in the vertical direction the effective wavelength Au is
o 2 4 6 8 9 10
Graztng angle, degrees
gIven by
Figure 6.5 Reflection coefficient for vertical polanzatIOn for seawater The marked angles are the
21T Ao Brewster angles when the conductivity is zero, (From D E. Kerr, Propagation of Short Radio
A =--=-- (6.9)
" ko sin if! sin if! Waves, McGraw··Hill Book Company, New York, 1951)
348 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 349

When the grazIng angle of Incidence IS small, A, will be large compared with A", The effect of ray curvature can be taken mto account m a simple way for
often by a factor of 10 to 100 If the point of reflection is raIsed by an amount propagation over a spherical earth by replacing the earth with an earth having
A,/IO the change in phase of the reflected wave reachmg the receiving antenna a larger radius and considering the rays to propagate along straight lines,
will be (2k" sin if;)A) 10 = 0 41'. ThiS may be regarded as being the boundary provided the index of refraction decreases linearly with height By means of
between what can be considered to be a rough surface and a smooth surface. t this artifice the height of any point on the ray above the surface of the earth
With thiS criterion the surface of generally flat land can be considered remains the same. For propagation studies a standard index-of-refraction
"smooth" whenever the surface irregularitIes have an average height variation profile is commonly chosen such that It is equivalent to increasing the radius of
of Ao/10 SIn if;. For example, with Ao = 1 m and if; = 1°, we find that height the earth by a factor of 4(3 Thus the effective earth's radius a, is chosen to be
variahons of up to 6 m can still be regarded as a smooth surface. At the longer 5280 ml (8497 km) With reference to Fig 6.7, It IS seen that (hi + a,)' =
wavelengths most surfaces appear to be smooth, but at microwave frequencies R'+ a;, so R' = 2h l a, + hi = 2h ,a,. Since the antenna height hi IS small com-
most surfaces would be rough and the reflection coefficient would be smaller pared With the distance to the horizon, the slant distance R is nearly equal to
than that given by the Fresnel formulas. the horizontal distance dT to the horizon Thus the distance to the horizon IS
A complication that has not been mcluded m the flat-earth interference given by dT = (2h ,a,)l!2, and If dT is expressed in miles and hi in feet we have
fotmulas is the effect of the decrease m the index of refraction of the
dT ml = V2h l It (610)
atmosphere with height above the surfacet At greater heights the less dense
atmosphere results in a smaller index of refraction . This has the effect of The maximum hne-of-slght distance in miles between two antennas at heights
causing the ray that leaves the antenna at a fimte angle relative to the ground hi and h, ft above a sphencal earth With standard refraction conditions IS then
to curve or bend in 'adownwara(lii"Eiiori in accordance with Snell's law of readily seen to be given by
refraction. The phenomenon of ray curvature may be readily understood by
dividing the atmosphere Into layers, with discrete values for the index of
refraction in each layer, as shown in Fig. 6.6. For thIS staircase approximation The flat-earth mterference formulas are generally not valid for distances
to the continuous variatIon in the mdex of refractIon, Snell's law gives approaching the ma~um horizontal line-of-sight range. The exact distance
over which the'flat-earth formulas can be used depends on a number of factors,
including wavelength It IS difficult to establish the range of vahdlty without
Thus smce each successive value of no IS smaller than the precedmg value, the direct comparison with the interference effects based on usmg a spherical earth
angles Bn must mcrease and the ray curves in the downward direction. For model. The evaluation of interference effects over a spherical earth is con-
propagation over a spherical earth this ray curvature extends the radio honzon siderably more complex than that for a flat earth and IS discussed in the next
beyond the geometrical horizon s,ection

e, 6_2 ANTENNAS LOCATED OVER A SPHERICAL EARTH

For antennas located over a sphencal earth, WIth an effectIve radIUS ae to

account for standard refraction, it IS quite tedious to derive the appropriate
formulas for the interference effects. The complicatIOns that arise are due to a

R I
Figure 6.6 IlIustratton of ray curvature

t The Rayleigh cntenon allows for an obstructiOn With a height of A,,/8 leadmg to a maximum Earth's surface
phase change of O.51T
:j: The decrease m the refractive mdex With height IS not always monotonic InverSIon layers
leading to a phenomenon known as dueling can occur Such effects are discussed 10 Sec 6.12 Figure 6.7 IllustratIOn of honzontal range
350 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 351

number of factors, includmg the difficulty of expressmg the path-length

difference between the direct ray and reflected ray in terms of the antenna
heights hI and h, and horizontal dIstance d shown in FIg. 6.8. In addition, the
grazing angle </I relative to the tangent plane at the point of reflection must be
determmed in order to evaluate the reflection coefficient. Also for reflection
from a spherical surface the rays in the reflected flux tube have a greater Figure 6.9 IllustratIOn of ray dIvergence upon reflectIon
dIvergence than the rays in the incident flux tube, as pointed out in Sec. 4.5 and from a spherical surface
illustrated m Fig. 6.9. This increase in the dIvergence of the rays in a flux tube
weakens the reflected field at the receiving antenna such that the appropriate
path-length d1fference dR ~ Rl + R, - R and the d1vergence factor D. t
expression for the path-gain factor F becomes
F ~ ]1 + Dp eihko.RI dR ~ 2h~h, l(S, T) (6.13)
~ {[I + Dp cos(</> - ko dR)f+ [Dp sm(</> - ko dR)]'}'12
hI + h,
</> - k dR 1/2 tan </I ~ - d - K(S, T) (6.14)
~ [(1 + Dp)' - 4Dp sm' 2° ] (6.12)
s2T
where D is the ray-amplitude dIvergence factor and dR IS the path-length D~ [1. + S(l-4SSD(l 1 ,
+ T)
]
-1/2
(6.15)
difference. [The dive~ge~ce-f~ctor-~sedhe~eisihe square root of that given by Eq
(459) ] d
An exammatlOn of Fig. 6.8 suggests that the relatlOnshlps between the where SI ~ ---=l

V2a,h l
geometrical parameters describing the propagation paths would be relatively
sImple. This, unfortunately, is not the case. The known parameters are the two d,
S,~ ~
antenna heights hI and h, and the total range d. The point of reflection, wh1ch V2a,h,
determines d l , d2 , the grazing angle </I, and the divergence factor D, 1S governed
by a cubic equation. The evaluatlOn of the path-gain factor governing the d
interference region for a spherical earth has been systematized by the intro- S ~ ---==:---c==
V2a,h l + V2a)t,
ductlOn of aset of parameters K and 1 that are functions of known parameters
Sand T related to the antenna heights and total range d. The relevant T~Vhl/h,<l
equations are given below without derivatlOn and include formulas for the l(S, T) ~ (1- S;)(l- sD
(1 - S2) + T'(l - S2)
K(S T) ~ 2 1
R , 1+ T'

and d l , d" d, and </I are gIven in Fig. 6B Note that T must be chosen less than
unity, so hI is taken as the heIght of the lowest antenna The above formulas
show that dR and D are functions of SI and S, and hence are functions of S
and T only, s!lice SI and S, are determmed by given values of S arid T. The
range d l , whIch determines d, ~ d - d l and SI' S2' may be found by solving the
equatJOns given below:
a,
(6.16a)

Figure 6.8 ReflectIOn from a spherical t D E Kerr, Propagation of Short Radio Waves, McGraw-Hili Book Company, New York,
earth 1951, Sec 2.13. Note that we have interchanged hI, h2 and S1, S2
352 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 353

2 d' )/2 Smce y ~ ae and h2 ~ ae thIS equatIon slmphfies to

where P~ V3 [a,(h j + h,) + -:)] (6.16b)
X'
y~h,-- (6 18a)
_)2a,(h)- h2)d 2a,
<P=COS 3 (6.16c)
P which describes a parabola When we divide by h) we obtam
The phase angle of the reflected wave relative to that of the direct wave
due to the path-length difference IlR only is given by (618b)

ko IlR ~ 2k o;)h, (1- S;)(l- S~) , h, _,

or y~--x (6.18c)
h)
~ 4'lTh;!2 h2/h) (1- SD(l- S;) ~ v?'lT (6.17a) where y ~ y/h) and x ~ X/d T are normahzed vanables. If the scale length aloJ)g
V~",Ao d/d T y is increased relative to that for x oniy the shape of these parabolic CUrves
4h~/2 1r'/2 changes.
where v= =--)- (6.17bj It IS convement to plot curves of constant values for the divergence factor
V 2a,A o 1030Ao D and path-length phase-difference parameter!; on a curvilinear grid, in which
when h) and Ao areil1lneters, and the horizontal coordmate is dld T and the verllcal coordmate is h,lh). Such plots
are given in FIgs. 6.11 and 6.12. Each parabolic curve is a plot of y/h) ~ Y as a
function of x ~ x/dT , with x ~ d, for a given chOIce of h2/h, For example, for
?~ ~;~; (1 - S;)(1 - S~) (6.17c) h,lh) ~ 4 we have y/h) ~ 4- (d/dT)' which gives y/h) ~ 4 at d ~ O. The curves

with d T ~ V2a,h) The parameter? depends only on Sand T. 2.5

20
Coverage Diagrams
17
Coverage diagrams for a sphencal earth are usually plotted on a chart where
D==08
the constant-height contours above the earth's· surface are shown as parabohc 1.5
curves whose derivatIOn is described below With reference to Fig. 6.10 a curve
12
of constant height h2 above the earth's surface is given by
1.0
(y + a,)' + x' ~ (a, + h,)'
D:: D.7
or 0.7

05

y 03
D--
r---
7'",
-- . 01
D=DA

f---=::------ x
"'w 'ay
o 02 04 06 08 10 12 14 16 18 20
d/d T
Figure 6.11 Contours showmg constant values of the divergence factor D and the path-difference
phase variable (; for h2/h, up to 4. [From C R Bu"ows and S. S. Attwood (eds), Radio Wave
Figure 6.10 Illustration for constant-height curves Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.}
354 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 355

Example 6.1 Construction of a coverage diagram In thiS example we will

50FfFFR+UITR=rrf:~~JP 95 illustrate the procedure for constructing a coverage diagram like those
shown in Figs. 6.15 through 6.22 . Consider the case where h, = 45.7 m and
9
85 Ao = 3 m corresponding to a frequency of 100 MHz This situation could
8 represent an FM antenna mstallation. The parameter v as given by Eq
75
7 (6.17b) has the value
6.5

30 cr11IH+U~~
6
D= 095 45.7312
v=--=O.1
3090
For a refleclion coeffic,ent of -1 the lobe maxima occur when v{; =
1,3,5, . ,and the nulls occur when v{; = 2,4,6, . The corresponding
10t-+--+-_ values of {; are 10,30,50, ... and 20,40,60,
The first step is to prepare a blank chart With the constant hzlh,
contours as a function of dlri T These contours are given by Eq (6 18b) or
D=
D=0.20
0.40 (6.18c) and are parabolic curves. Note that in Eq. (6.18b) y and x are not
normahzed with respect to hi and d T , respectively, but in Eq (6 18c) they
o are On this chart the tangent ray startmg at dld T = I and intersecting the
,---
D---
h21hl = 1 contour at dld T = 2 may be drawn as shown in Fig 614. The
equatIOn for the tangent ray, which is a straight line, is y = h,- 2(xldT )h,
o 2 3 4 This line mtersects the h21hl curve at dld T = 1 + Yh,lhl It intersects the
d/dT h,lh, = 4 contour at dld T = 3.
Figure 6.12 Contours showing constant values of the dIvergence factor D and the path-difference The path-gain factor is
phase variable Cfor hz/hi up to 50. [From C R Burrows and S. S. Attwood (eds), Radio Wave 7TV~ 1/2
Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.] F = [(1 + D)2_4D COS
2
2 ]
are labeled by the parameter h21 h,. Since D and {; can be expressed as and IS a funclton of h,lhl and dld T, SInce D and {; depend on these
functions of Sand T, they are functIOns of hz/h, and dld T only and can be parameters. If we choose a lobe corresponding to a free-space range of 2dT ,
plotted as constant-value curves on the h,lh, versus dld T curvilinear gnd. then the maximum value x = dld T can achieve will be 4 when D = 1, and
If the reflection coefficient is assumed to be equal to -1, then the path-gam we are located in a lobe maximum In general, for other values of D and {;
factor becomes we have

x=~=2F
dT
whIle for a free-space range of Y2d T and d T, X = Y2F and x = F,
(6.19) respecltvely. For given values of h,lhl and dld T we find!: and D from Figs
6.11 and 6.12 (for values covered by these charts) and thus compute F as a
For a spherical earth it IS convenIent to use the normalized coordmates hzlh, function of dld T for various values of h,lh, as shown in Fig. 6.13. We must
and dld T, where d T = Y2a,h l The free-space reference range for a given also satisfy the relationship
coverage diagram is usually chosen as a suitable mulltple of the horizontal d dld
range dT' Hence a coverage diagram ,s a plot of F=m-=--T
dT 'fld T
'/2 d
F= [(1+D)2-4Dcos2(~v{;)] = md which is a senes of straight hnes wIlh slope dTl'f = m where 'fld T is the
T chosen free-space range parameter The intersection of these straight hnes
The follOWIng example shows how a coverage diagram may be constructed. with the other curves of F as a function of dl d T gives those values of dl d T
356 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 357

F from Eq (6.21) F from Eq (620), USlng 20~------~~r-~--------~----------,

(flat earth) Fig. 6 12 for D and t
20r---~. .~__~~--~~~~~-----------,

16\---_
4

~ 8~--_4~__~~--~_,~~~~~----~~~
~

3
d/d y
Figure 6.13 Data for constructmg a coverage diagram for v = 0 1 2
djd T

that satIsfy the equatIOn Figure 6.14 Coverage diagram for v = 0 1 based on data In Fig 6,13

~~!LF(~ h,)~ F (6.20)

decreases rapIdly as the tangent ray IS approached and beyond thIS pom!. The
dr dr dr' hI m
field in thIS region is governed by dIffraction effects, whIch are discussed in the
For values of [, greater than those gIVen in Figs 611 and 612 the next section,
fiat-earth formulas apply, so ko f1R ~ 2k oh lhz/d ~ v71"(h2/hl)/(d/dr ) and With reference to Fig 6 13, It IS seen that one of the plotted curves of F
hence [, ~ (hz/h,)/(d/d r ) In thIS range D ~ I and the path-gaIn factor versus d/d r increases for values of d/d r greater than about 2. The reason for
sImplifies to
this is because D in thIS range i~ becommg small, and at the same time V71"[, is

I 71"
F~2 SIn"2v[, I I
(71" v hz/hI)
~2 SIn"2
r
d/d I
(621)
also very small Hence the points of intersection of the straight lines WIth this
curve of F for hz/hI ~ 4 in the region of d/d r greater than 2 QO not give an
accurate expression for the relative field strength and are therefore not
The vanous lobes may now be drawn on the blank chart prepared included m the coverage dIagram shown in Fig 6.14 . It is this same effect that
earlier and showmg the constant h,/hl contours as a function of d/dr- The does not permit the extension of the bottom lobes shown m Figs 612 through
resultant coverage dIagram is shown in FIg. 6.14. • 622 beyond the regions 'shown, smce F would begm to increase because of the
decreasing value of D as the tangent ray is approached
Precaution must be exercised when constructmg coverage dIagrams, for the A number of different coverage diagrams are shown in Figs 6.15 through
Interference formulas giving the path-gain factor F become Inaccurate as the 6.22 for different values of v. The reflection coefficient equals -1, and an
region close to the tangent ray is approached. This region is characterized by a equivalent earth radius equal to 4a/3 is assumed. The path-gain factor F IS
path-length-difference phase factor V71"[, less than 71"/2 and small values for the plotted as a functIOn of h,/hl and d/d r m these figures for vanous values of the
divergence factor D As the tangent ray IS approached, the divergence factor D parameter v These curves are obtamed by usmg the data m Figs. 6.11 and 6.12
approaches zero, and the path-gaIn factor F then begInS to increase and to obtain D and [, for given values of h,/hl and d/d r . The numbers on the
becomes equal to unity, i e., the same as for free space at the pOSItion of the curves give the corresponding free-space range for the same signal level as
tangent ray. This IS not what really occurs, since in actual fact the field strength obtained taking interference into account. For example, a cnrve labeled 4
358 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 359

C-t--r- > K 1---- __

~ ~ ~ ,~ 2::
~
~
1'---/ ><; 50
~
~
50
-t--r-r-r- ~ ~k--JA( ___ ~I><" "
~
I ~

I---- K ;::;: ~ ~
~
I ~

---J:><1>( ,~
~

I'---~ " ~ ~
~
-I-r-I-,./ r--y(f---p<;
R~ ~ '"
40
I 40
~

t-- ~

~I
1 f-JI-V~~Kr--<p.:I'---M/r----" 1'---"
t--~~Vf--p.f:::: Pi< I"r--< P>-F=:
~

t-- ~ ~~ ~~ ~ F<
~ "- " ~ ~
'fI!- ......
~ ~ f:s: f?:: ><:
~
~ "
<0
><1---- P>- Rl><f::: "b I::; ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E:;
30 0 30
I /' k: V'"'" ::>r--___
VI"-: 14
I;;
~ ;;; ~ t>
20
I
I
~/v
//
vVv Vr<-~I-<--t<br1:PI<- p:f<
V ~I-<--
~
~
V~K
~ p~>
r---- I-----b
20 12 ' '
t.;e i ' ,
~ : ,/
!!li' ~
f2 ~ r< b:: '"
t> ><: ..
K
------
------
~

~~ P"
t----- ,4
~~V/~~~~~~~~~-r-- '~ ':oK
j!!!" f< ><
-- ":::: "
------

~~~~~~~ ~b ~r-- "28>

~
10 10

~~ r- p2 -::: I----- t--. I; t>

o
~ r--
r- p.~1'---
o ~ ::p- I--
r--
i--

r---
~
I-----
I-
"'"
t----- I 4 ~
"-
I----I---- ---" "1-- t--r-- I-----
Surface of earth '--- '---
'--'-- ___ Qn' ray ""
1"---1"---
L---
I"- ,
Surface of earth

r--r--~
'-------'--____ '-- '--
t----- t-----
F
~
----'--. i'

t-- ~
v= 0 5
v == 1 '-- 1--"1"-"
o
I I
2
I ,

3
I
4
I'- I"-r---
o
, I , , , I 1'1'
2
, ,L I I
3
jL~~~ t--

d/d T d/d T
Figure 6.15 Coverage diagram for v = 1 [From C R Bu"ows and S. S. Attwood (eds), RadlO Figure 6.17 Coverage dIagram for p = 0 5 [From C R Burrows and S. S. Attwood (eds), Radio
Wave Propagatwn, Academic Press, New York, 1949.] Wave Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949]

180 I--+----L

10 15
d/d T d/d T
Figure 6.16 Coverage diagram for p = 1 [From C R Bu"ows and S. S. Attwood (eds), Radio Figure 6.18 Coverage diagram for p = 0 5, [From C. R Bu"ows and S. S. Attwood (eds.), Radw
Wave Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.] Wave Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.]
360 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 361

y~~~~~~~e~~~~~
0

~ 1/ ~~~ ~k ~~ " ""

"'",
40 iN-t-t-++--I-Ji 40
. ~V~V~~k~~~~~~~" "",
0'~ ~:.....V ~ ~"
~0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~" ~"
I,
0

J~~~vP~~0~~~~kG~~f2 ?<",
~f,<
~~~~~~~~~~~V ~~~~
20 f-+-+--+--Jo 20

., )'
~ ~t--j,< t--b k!<-t:j.»t----t- ~p.
V ~k ~ ~ r
10 Of- ~ V h ~ ~~~ t:~r~t- p,
~V~ V V~~ ~ ~~r ts p,,-
~ t-: ~ "'--'" '"
O~~SJlml
-!==- r- r--
'""h
o r- r--~~~ ~t--~~~t-- r--r--
~ ~~
"'~
I Suer,,, of SUef", of earth '-'- ~
'---'-'-'--'--. ~
'" '"
t ,cay
t----- ~"
1'= 0 25 1'=0.125
'----'--'--~r-- ","
I I I I I I I I I I I I , I I I I I ~ ","
o 4 o 2 4 5
d!d T
Figure 6.19 Coverage dIagram for 1/ = 0.25 [From C. R Burrows and S. S. Attwood (eds), Radio Figure 6.21 Coverage dIagram for 1/ = 0 125 [From C. R Burrows and S. S. Attwood (eds), Radio
Wave Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 19491 Wave Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.]

d!d T d/d r
Figure 6.20 Coverage diagram for 1/ = 0 25 [From C R Burrows and S. S. Attwood (eds ), RadIO Figure 6.22 Coverage diagram for 1/ = 0 125 [From C. R Burrows and S S. Attwood (eds ), Radlo
Wave Propagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.] Wave ~opagation, Academic Press, New York, 1949.]
 RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 363
362 PROPAGATION

r,
corresponds to a free-space range of = 4dT There IS a 3-dB change in signal or equivalently
level between adjacent curves for one-way transmission
When the reflection coefficient differs significantly from -1, then a -v.".9 [1- (1 - - - 1 - - d;)(
d~- =",01.". )] (6.22)
fI 2a,h l 2a,h 2
coverage diagram describmg tbe path gain factor F for that partIcular case
must be constructed, since the generalIzed coverage diagrams shown in Figs where 9 = hz/hi and fI = d/d T , and Eq. (6 17c) is used to replace /:. Since the
6.15 through 6.22 no longer apply. The parameters D and!: may stIll be found above expression marks the boundary at which the flat-earth formulas will be
from Figs 6.11 and 6 12, but now the grazing angle'" must also be found in valid, we will use the flat-earth relationship h,lhl = d 2/d l along with d = d, + d 2
order to determine the reflectIOn coefficient For this purpose Fig 6.23 giving to simplify this expression. We can replace d 2 by 9d, and use d = (1 + 9)d, or
the function K(S, T) can be used to determine", by means of Eq. (6.14). d, = d/(1 + 9) to obtam
The formulas for evaluating mterference effects for a spherical earth are
much more involved than the relatively simple formulas that apply to a
flat-earth model It is therefore of interest to determine the conditions under
d2 d2
(1- 2a,U( 1- 2a,~) = [1-
,2

c: 9) ,2

][1- 9(1: y) ]
which the flat-earth formulas will hold with acceptable accuracy. smce d~ = 2a,h,. In terms of the variables fI and 9 Eq (6.22) becomes
The most critical parameter determining the interference phenomena is the
phase associated with the path-length difference t.R For a flat earth this phase 92f13 - 9(1 + 9)3f1 + 0.1 (1 + 9)' '" 0 (6.23)
angle IS given by 2kohlh2/d [see Eq. (63)], while for a spherical earth it is given v
by Eg. (6.17<:1) In tlte fQ'-II! 1T"{' If",e require that the flat-earth formula be The regIOns m which thiS conditIOn is satisfied are to the left of the v =
accurate to within 0, 17T, tl1en we need constant curves shown m Figs. 6.24 and 625
In addition to keeping the phase error less than 0.1.". we also reqUire that
the divergence factor D for a spherical earth should be close to umty, since this
factor reduces the strength of the reflected field and is not present in the
By mtroducmg the parameter v mto the flat-earth formula thiS expressIOn can flat-earth model. In Figs. 6.24 and 6 25 the curves correspondmg to D = 0 9 and
be written in the form

1.0
0.1 K
02
t-. 0,3
08 I---
04
t--...
t--.... 05
06
06
01

04
----
........ 0,,8

0.9
hi 3/2
02
0.95
,=--
1030 Ao
098
Figure 6.23 Constant K contours
as a function of Sand T (Data I5
I from D E. Kerr, Propagation of d/d y
02 0.4 0,,6 08 1,0 Short Radio Waves, McGraw-Hill
T Book Company, New York, 1951) Figure 6.24 Illustratton of region 10 which the flat-earth Interference formulas are valid
364 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION .365

30nn,-.---,-,------.--TT---------.------~__, FIgures 624 and 6.25 show that the flat-earth formulas apply for dIstances
K>O,9
g;, d that are genera.!!L£onsiderably Jess than the total honzontal line-of-sight
"1 range Y2alh + Y2a)1.2 = dy(1 + '19), that is, for values of i consIderably less
"'I than 1 + '1:9 The requirement that K 2> 0.9 restricts the maximum range to 0.3
25
I 1 of the total horjzontal range. However, when 1/1 is small so that the reflectIOn
v= -
I v= -
8 1 coefficIent can be approximated by -1, then It IS not necessary to know the
4
grazing angle, and somewhat larger distances are allowed, particularly at the
20
1 v= -
I lower frequencies where the parameter v is small However, at the lower
16
I I frequencies Aois large and the antenna termmal heIghts are relatIvely small so
v= 2
I hihl =:9 would normally not be large; as Fig 624 shows, the maxImum
'"
~
IS
I
Flat earth
distance over whIch the flat-earth formulas would apply IS less than i = 1 or d T ,
which is the dIstance to the honzon from the antenna at height hI' that is,
d < d T = Y2a,h l .
10
I
I
I Applications of Coverage Diagrams and Interference Formulas
The follOWIng examples will illustrate the use of the interference formulas and
the coverage diagrams gIven in Figs. 6.15 through 6.22.

Example 6.2 Radar system A radar has ItS antenna at a heIght hI = 15 m

d/d r above the ground. It is tracking an approaching aircraft flying at a height
Figure 6.25 IlJustratlOn of region in whtch the flat-earth mterference formulas are vahd h2 = 300 m. The wavelength Ao = 10 cm. The radar uses honzontal
polarization so that the reflection coefficient will be assumed to be equal to
-1. The objective is to determine at what range the aircraft can be
0.8 are shown For reasonable accuracy we should require D 2> 0.9, and hence detected when the free-space maximum-range capability of the radar IS
the regIOn in whIch the flat-earth formulas can be applied with faIr accuracy is 40km
above the D = 0..9 curve and to the left of a given v = constant curve. For an ThIS problem IS best solved by constructing a plot of relatIVe receIVed
expanded range of applications one could permIt D to become as small as 0.8, SIgnal as a function of d/d T as the aircraft flies towards the radar at a
but the resultant accuracy is then poorer. constant heIght h2 From Eg. (6.17b) the parameter v equals h;12/1030Ao =
The last parameter of interest is the grazmg angle 1/1, smce when 1/1 IS hot o 564 A coverage dIagram for v = 0 564 is not aVaIlable, but the diagram
small it is generally not possible to replace the reflection coefficIent by -1. given 10 Fig. 6.17 for v = 0.5 will be nearly correct and WIll therefore be
According to Eq . (6.14) tan 1/1 = (hI + h,JK(5, T)/d, which would be the same. as used to Illustrate the procedure If we changed hI to 13 85 n: we would get
for a flat earth if K(5, T) is equal to unity. If we require an error not exceedIng JJ = 0.5. The horizontal range dy, assuming standard refractIOn, is d T =
10 percent for tan 1/1, then K 2> 0.9. The parameter K IS relatively independent Y2a,h l = 4122'1 hI = 15.96 km The free-space maximum range is thus
of the height ratio hihl and will be greater than 0.9, provIded 5",; 0.3 t The 40/15.96 = 25dT In a radar the power incident on the target IS modified by
latter condition can be stated in the form the square of the path gain factor, i.e, by p2 relative to its value under
i",; 0 3(1 + :91/2) (6.24) free-space conditions. The power scattered by the target back to the radar
is also modified by thIS same factor. Hence the received power is modified
upon substItuting i and :9 Into the expressIon for 5 given after Eg. (6.15) by the factor p4 from its value under free-space conditions. Thus the signal
These curves are also shown 10 FIgs. 6.24 and 6.25 and place a further level corresponding to adjacent lobes shown in the coverage dIagram in
restnctlon on the range of validity of the flat-earth formulas whenever it is FIg. 6.17 differs by 6 dB for the purpose of evaluating the performance of a
necessary to evaluate the reflechon coefficient from a knowledge of the grazing . -4 '
radar system~ for ex-ample, received power vanes as r ,so an Increase In r
.

angle because 1/1 is too large to allow using -1 for the reflection coefficient by a factor of '12 corresponds to a signal-level change of 6 dB.
We will let the lobe labeled 2 correspond to a receIved reference SIgnal
t ThIS is deduced from the chart of K versus Sand T given In Kerr level 50' With reference to Fig. 6.17, if we move along the constant-height
366 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 367

contour h,/hl = 300/15 = 20 we intersect the lowest lobe labeled 2.8 at a the ground. When thIS occurs the ground mterference effects vanish, and
maximum range d = 4.15d y At thIs pomt the r~celved sIgnal wIll be 6 dB the signal level will increase monotonically and proportional to a-4 , the
smaller than the reference level So At d = 4.35d y we intersect the lobe same as for free-space conditions
labeled 4, which gIves a signal level 12 dB below So. At d = 3 6d y we If we use the flat-earth formula then
almost touch the lobe labeled 2 corresponding to a signal level So As the
hI + h,
target moves in, the lobes labeled 2.8 and 4 are intersected at d = 3.3 and tan.p=-d-
3.2d y , with corresponding signal levels 6 and 12 dB below So. The sIgnal
level then drops rapidly as the target moves through the interference null We WIll assume that the radar antenna is always p,nnted at the target and
At d = 2.85, 2.8, 2.7, and 2.55dy the signal level goes from 12 dB below So that the antenna gam IS reduced by 10 dB at an angle of 6° off axis.
to 6 dB below So, to So, and to 6 dB above So, respectively, as the target Furthermore we will assume that when the ray mCIdent on the ground is
moves through the second mterference lobe. A maxImum sIgnal level reduced by an amplitude factor of V 10 we can consider interference
occurs at 245dT , and by usmg linear interpolation between the 1.4 and 1 effects to be negligible WIth reference to Fig 627 we see that this occurs
lobes this signal level is found to be about 8 dB above So By continuing to when .p + .pI = 6°, thus
move in along the constant-height contour, the signal variation as a
function of d/ dT can be determined as the target passes through the various _t_a_n~.p_+~ta_n_.p~I~ 2h 2d
tan (.p + .p ) =
lobes . In FIg. 6.26 we show the relative sIgnal level as a function of d/dI" I 1- tan .p tan .pI
The maxImum free-space range of the radar is 2.5d y . Since So cor-
upon usmg d tan .pI = h2 - hI and d tan .p = h, + hI The above equallon
responds to the sigrraHevel received with a maximum free-space range of
may be solved for d to give d = 5.72 km = 0..36 dT Thus the target must get
2d y we see that the mmimum detectable signal Sm will be (2/2.5) 4So =
quite close to the radar before the ground mterference effects become
0.415So, or 3.88 dB below So because of the ,-4 dependence In Fig. 6.26 a
negligible. •
horizontal line IS drawn at a signal level corresponding to 3.88 dB below
the chosen reference level So. Whenever the target IS located at a dIstance
Example 6.3 FM communication link An FM transmItter has ItS antenna at
d such that the received signal is above this level it will be detected. Note
a height h, equal to 80 m. The antenna gain is 5, and the transmitter power
that there are many blInd spots and that as the target comes closer to the
is 500 W. The receiving antenna is at a heIght hI equal to 10 m. The
radar the signal level varies more rapidly and reaches higher peak values
frequency of operatIOn IS 100 MHz. For this system v = 0.01 and dT =
When the target reaches a dIstance such that the grazing angle .p is
4122V 10 = 13.03 km, or V 2 x 32.8 - 8 1 mi. We wish to find the field
several degrees, then the timte beam wIdth of the radar antenna (whIch
strength in volts per meter at a distance of 8.1 ml from the transmitter. If
mIght be less than 5°) will prevent any sigmticant radiation from striking
we refer to Fig 6.14 we see that at h,/ hI = 8 and d = dT the field strength is
the same as it would be under free~space condItions at a distance of 4dT
So + 24 The power density is .
,
, 1 2 P,G
So + 12 II 2Zo lEI = 47T(4d y )2
\
a
!\ \ 1' ........
\
So -1 2
\
( \ \

4
djd T d

Figure 6-.26 Relative signal strength as a functIOn of d/d T , Figure 6.27 Illustration of effect of antenna pattern on the field incident on the ground
368 PROPAGATION RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 369

Hence By using Eq (6 16c) we find that

_(ZOPP) 112 ~ (120X500X5)'12 ~7AmV/m 1(- .030 x 50 x 8497)

IEI- 3211"d~ 32 x 1.32 x 108 <P~cos- 42383 ' ~ 1739

At the recelVlng site the value of the path-gam factor IS d T/4d T ~ 0 25. • We now use Eq. (6J6a) to get
1739+ 11"
Example 6.4 Microwave communication link In a mlcrowa~e communi- d , ~ 25+ 42 38 cos ' ~ 22,625 km
cation link the antennas are mounted on towers at a heIght of 35 m 3
above the ground. The wavelength of operatlOn is 10 cm. It is required to Hence d, ~ 50 - d , ~ 27.375 km The parameters SI' S2' and T given after
find the maxImum distance d that can be used so that the sIgnal level IS not Eq. (615) are SI ~ 0.9277, S2 ~ 0.9391, and T ~ 0.8367, while J ~ 0,01646
reduced below its free-space value Thus a path-gain factor F equal to 1 is and K ~ 0.1269. From Eq. (6.14) tan 0/ ~ 2.16 X 10- 4 • In this example 0/ is
required The parameter v IS equal to h;12/1030A o ~ 201 If we use the so small that we can assume the reflectIOn coefficient to be equal to -1.
flat-earth interference formula [Eq (6.3)] we have From Eq. (6.15) we obtain D ~ 0 262, while Eq. (6.17c) gIves ? ~ 001147.
We can now compute F from Eq. (619), thus
. (11""2v h'/h')1
F~2 sm d/dT ~2 Ism 11"d
dTI ~ 1
I F ~ [1.2622- 4x 0.262COS2(~X 2.01 x 001147)]""
and hence d ~ 6d T In mder to'make F ~ 1. But since h, ~ hI the maxImum
~ 0.739.
line-of-sight range is 2dT ; quite clearly the flat-earth interference formula is
not applicable ' The received sIgnal voltage wIll be 0.739 of what It would have been with
A coverage dIagram for v ~ 2 has not been mcluded 10 this text. Thus free-space propagatIOn conditions •
we must use the formulas (6.14) to (6.17). Since h2~ hI' the parameters SI
and S2 are equal and T ~ 1, S ~ d/2d T ~ SI' Hence the divergence factor D 6.3 THE FIELD IN THE DIFFRACTION ZONE
equals
d2 -1/2 (1- d2/4d~)1/'
According to geometrical optIcs the field strength below the Ime of sight or
D ~ [1+ d~(I- d'/4d~)] ~ (1+ 3d2/4d~)1/' tangent ray is zero. However, because of diffraction effects the radiated field
penetrates into the shadow zone below the tangent ray. Although the field
2 strength decreases rapidly as the point of observation moves deeper into the
h2/h, d
?~ (1- 4d~)
'
and shadow zone, the field is stIll fimte and often of sufficient strength to produce a
d/dT useful signal. The field stre'ngth is also influenced by diffraction effects in the
When we equate the path-gam factor given by Eq (6.19) to unity we obtain region above but close to the tangent ray.
There is no simple method of calCulating the field strength. in the near
211"V? D+2 VICinity of the tangent ray.· However, . once the point of observation is
cos --~---

2 4 suffiCIently far into the shadow (diffraction) zone, a simple expression exists for
findmg the path-gam factor F. In 'the intermediate zone the path-gain lactor can
This equatlOll can be solved numencally, and It yields d ~ 1.36dT , D ~ 0.47, be determined with acceptable accuracy by drawing a smooth curve connecting
and ? ~ 0.21. Thlls the maximum range is 4122 x 1.36v'35 ~ 33.16 km" • the values of F in the interference region to those values determined for points
well into the shadow zone Thus one should find the values 01 d/d T that
Example 6.5 Microwave Iinl< with unequal tower heights ThiS example .IS correspond to the first maximum where 11"v(!2 ~ 11"/2 and F ~ 1 + D and the
the same as the previous one, with the exceptIon that h, ~ 50 m. The point where 11"v(!2 ~ 11"/4 and F ~ (1 + D)'12 and join these by a smooth curve to
path-gain factor F at a distance d ~ 50 km is to be determmed. Smc~ several values of F determIned for values of d/dT in the diffraction zone
h I '" h 2 we must find
'
d , using Eq (616). From Eq. (6.16b) we obtam In the diffraction zone F is given byt
2 502 1/2
p~--=[8497(0,085)+-] ~4238km (6.25)
v'3 4 t Ibid
370 PROPAGATION RADIO··WAVE PROPAGATION 371

where the maIO attenuatIOn functIOn V,(X) 's given by I 20

V,(X) = XV 7TX e- 20 2)( (6.26) V I 00

10
and X IS the distance measured in natural umts of length Land ZI and Z2 are I
the antenna heights measured in natural units of height H These natural umts
are given by 0
l-,t' ,/'
80

L = 2(~)
4ko
2 1/3
= 28.4 L\:13 km (6.27 a)
1\
N

~ 10
Z>1 V r- ,/
/'
60
V
N

~~
:5'
1/' ~

H=(~) =47.55A 2/'m (627b) .2 .9

2k~ 0

where Ao IS measured 10 meters. In naWral umts X", d/L and ZI,2 = h",IH. The
" 20 40 ~

attenuation function V, is shown in FIg. 628, whIle the heIght-gam funchon L ::::::
::::
30 20

~ f/
,

U,(Z) is shown in Fig. 6.29

o 40 ~ o
- I, --
""""\ ----
" '"

001 002 0.05 01 02 05 I

I 2 5 10 20 50 100
Z
-20
Figure 6.29 The height··gam function U1(Z)

-40
1\ Example 6.6 Path-gain factor for a microwave link In order to illustrate
\ the use of Eq. (625) we will construct a plot of F versus d/d T for the
microwave link discussed In Example 6.4 in the previous section For this
-60 system h, = h2 = 35 m, Ao = 10 cm, dT = 24.39 km, and v = 2, The path-gam

,80
\ \
factor F has its first maximum when vI: = 21: = 1, or I: = 0 5 From Fig 611
we find that this occurs when d = 1.06dT and the corresponding value of D
IS 0,75, so F = 1 + D = 1. 75, or 486 dB At the point of quadrature
vi: = 0 5, So I: = 0 25 This pomt occurs at d = 1 3dT and D = 058 and
10 0
1\ F = (1 + D)'n = 1 26, or 1. 97 dB For the pomts 10 the diffrachon zone we
will choose d = 2 5, 3, and 35d y The correspondmg values of X are

-120
\ X =
1
25 x 24.39
2841 x (01),13
=462
'
X 2 = 5,55 X,= 6.47

,140
1\ From Fig, 628 we find that the attenuatIOn function V , equals -64, -80,
and -96 dB, respectively The parameters ZI and Z2 are gIven by

\ Z
I
=Z =
2
35
4755 x (0.1)2/3
= 3.42
-16 0
\ and the height-gam functIOn (from F'g. 6.29) U,(ZI) = 17 dB, Hence 10 the
2 4 6 10 12 diffraction zone at the g,ven values of d/d T the values of 20 log Fare -30,
X -46, and -62 dB The path-gain factor is shown in Fig . 6.30
Figure 6.28 The attenuatIOn functIOn V,(X) If P, IS the transmitted power, G is the antenna gain, and d is the
372 PROPAGATION RADIo.WAVE PROPAGATION 373

distance to the receIver, then the incIdent power per umt area at the
receiving termmal will be
P,G 2 P,G p2
Pmc ~ 47/"d 2 P ~ 47/"d~ (d/dy)'

ThIS expressIOn is best evaluated by makmg a plot of P2/(d/dT l" or of

20 log F - 20 log d/d T The latter IS sImply a reductiOn of the value of
20 log P by 6 dB for every do,ubling of d beyond the pomt d/d T ~ 1 and is
shown as the broken curve in Fig. 630
In general, for receiving pomts located below or near the tangent plane
/
, /
-)
the path-gain factor should be plotted as a functiOn of d/ dT The reqUIred
curve is obtamed by joining the curve in the interference region to that h \ /
c ~ Reflected field
whIch applies well mto the diffraction zone. The error made in this :,// mis:~s;:~~:i\'ing
extrapolation from the two regions towards the tangent ray is generally /
/
small . •

(b)

6.4 MIDPATH-OBSTACLE DIFFRACTION LOSS

It IS not always possible to install a communicatIOn link so that there are no

obstructions such as hills or large bUIldings that block part of the field from the Figure 6.31 (a) A hill obstructmg the pro--
transmitting antenna, Impeding its arrival at the receiving termi!1al. Fig 6.31a pagation path (b) I\nife-edge model for an
shows a ridge or hill that partially blocks the propagation path. The effect of obstruction bldCktng a reflect~d ray (c)
the hill can be modeled as a thm plane or knife-edge having the same clearance Knife-edge model fOf an obstruction not
(c) biocking the reflected fay

~
e dIstance he from the hne-ot-sight path, provIded there IS no specular reflectIon
20
""
:\
from the top of the hill, that is, the reflected ray shown in Fig. 6.31a is absent
The knife-edge model IS shown in FIg 631b. We will show that when the
0
r-..... '" clearance heIght he is zero th~re will be a 6-dB diffraction loss relative to

~, l\.
free-space propagatIOn, provIded a specularly reflected field behind the screen
""2 ""2 cannot reach the receiving terminal, as shown m Fig. 631b. If th'~ obstruction is
"- 8 such that a reflected fieJd IS also diffracted by the knife-edge, as shown in FIg
~

-2 0 " "
0

~
..Q

~~~)
o
N
631c, then the compntallon of the diffraction loss IS more complex. In the
"
.5 dTF / ,, is discussion below we assume that there is no significant contrIbutIOn to the
d received field from specular reflection. ThIS is equivalent to saying that the
-40
,,'\ received field IS modified from its free-space value by the dIffraction effect of a
,
~
knife-edge Thus the appropriate diffraction problem to analyze is that shown
in Fig. 632 In terms of the path parameters, the height of point P shown In
-60
I I I "
.'
}.,. Fig. 6.32a is hI +(h z - h,)dl/d ~ (d 2hl + d,h;)/d. Hence It is readily seen that
the clearance height is given by
2 3
d/d T

Figure 6.30 Path·gam factor F m decibels for hi = h2 = 35 m, AO = 1Q cm Note that F = 1 at (6.28)

d = 1.36dT , as in Example 6.4,
374 PROPAGATION RADIO··WAVE PROPAGATION 375

Hence on the surface S, the propagatIon factor that determines the phase of the
incident field is e~ikoR.-ikOP'12R,. The incident field is a beam of finite width in-
x versely proportional to the dIameter of the transmitting antenna We will use a
gaussian function e~p'la' to describe the amplItude decay of the incident field as the
point of observation moves away from the bore-sight dIrection Thus the electric
field on the surface S IS chosen to be
P
B, Ife, Ei
-
- 3y
Eo
e
-jkoRi-j(k0P 2/2Rl)-p2/a 2
(6.29)
h, RI
hll T
" where Eo IS an amplItude constant and we have assumed that the inCIdent field
is polarized along y. The xyz coordinate system is shown in FIg. 6,32a and has
d, .'. d,
its origin at 0. The radial distance p is equal to (x 2 + /)'12.
1: d :1 The field incident on the receiving antenna can be found by considering the
surface S as an aperture surface and using Eq. (4.12) to find the resultant
(a)
radiated field. The radiated field is given by

(6.30)

where f ~ a,fy + a,l, and I, is the Founer transform of E i ; that is,

Iy ~ ff Ei(x, y) eik,,+ik,y dx dy (6.31)

s
At the recelvmg antenna r is very nearly equal to 3 z Z, so only those waves In
Figure 6.32 Kmfe··edge diffractIOn
model showing propagation-path
the plane wave spectrum with k, close to zero will be incident on the antenna.
(b)
parameters Thus in Eq. (6.30) we can approximate k, as follows:

k ~(k2_e)I12=k_5
2ko
where h is the heIght of the obstructIOn. In many practical caSes cos 8, can be z . 0 0 t

replaced by unity, since 8, is very small

Smce the field IS also predominantly a spherical wave I, is very small. Hence
The following procedure will be used to determine the diffractIon loss: The
the mcident field on the receiving antenna can be expressed as .
field mcident on the surface S shown in Fig. 6.32 will be approximated by an
expression corresponding to a gaussian-shaped beam The free-space field at
the receiving site will be expressed as a field radiated from the effectIve
aperture surface S and compared with that in the absence of the kmfe-edge
The rallo of these two fields gives the diffraction loss. Since It is the ratio that is
being determined, the result is not critically dependent on the expression where k; ~ k~ + k; When we substItute for Iy from Eq. (6.31) and use Eq.
chosen to represent the field incident on the surface S. (6.29) we obtain
The incident neld on S is a spherical wave With a propagation factor e -jkoRl
at the point 0. At the pomt Q, a distance p from 0, the corresponding factor IS
h
e ~jk"R, were R 2 = (R21 + P2)"2 . S'mce Rl ~ p we have

(6.32)
376 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 377

where the aperture coordmates have been labeled wIth a subscnpt 1 The
mtegral over YI extends from - h, to mfinity because of the shadowmg effect of
the knife-edge screen, If the screen were not present, the integral would extend
v ~
from mmus to plus infimty. On axis at the receiving antenna x = y = 0
The integrals over kx , k y , and Xl can be carried out, usmg the result

foo e-""'+2b" du = ~ e b2/"

'"
u
","

.£
°
-2
/
~

""- /
/'
'".",-

_00 a 0
N
1/
After domg the mtegrals over kx and ky we obtam (we have put x = Y = 0) -4 /

where
E(r) =
k E
] 0
21TZRI
Oay

a
e-jkO(Z+~l) f

= Jko(~+ ~1~)
ro

-he
f
"

_00
e-a(xi+yi) dX I dYI

+-;
-6
V 04 0,8 12
H,
16 20 24 28

2z 2RI "
Figure 6.33 The path-gam factor Fd caused by kmfe-edge diffraction loss expressed In deCibels as a
The mtegral over XI IS now performed to give function of the normalized clearance parameter He

Err) = J-koEoa y e-lkO(Z+Rl)~~foo e- ayi dYl (6.33) 1/,,2 be very small relatIve ta 2d/A od l d 2 we reqUIre that
21TZRI a -he Add
t 2 ()A>::P~
d 2l,an 2d
The ratio of the mtegrals over YI m the presence of the screen to that when
the screen is absent will give the dIffraction loss Hence the path-gain factor d, AD 2
.or -------:-~tan () (6.36)
due to diffraction is d l 2d A

'Jfa-:;; Ifoo-he e -"y' dYl I

For mast cammumcatlOn lInks the path length d is sa large relative ta the
Fd = 1 (6.34) wavelength that the abave candltian is satISfied and Fd can be determined fram
FIg 633
where the integral from minus to plus mfimty was replaced by (71/a)1I2 When For an abstructIan such as a hill, the clearance heIght h, shauld be ch.osen
h, = 0 the integral equals 05(71/a)1!2, since It IS an even function of Yl Thus ta pravlde same margm .of safety against fadmg introduced by subrefractian,
when the clearance height is zera, .one-half .of the incident radiatian is blacked, Under standard atmaspheric candltians the clearance heIght can be determined
which results in a 6-dB lass by platting the path profile abave an earth with effectIve radIUS equal to 4/3 the
If we let ay; = j1ru'/2, then dYI = (rrr/2a )112 du and actual radius However, under some condit,ions the refractive index can in-
crease with heIght, and the rays will then curve upward and thereby reduce the
(635a) effective clearance. Typically it IS necessary ta ensure that H, is equal ta about
0 ..8 far refractive canditians carrespanding ta an effectIve earth radius equal t.o
0.7 .of the actual radius t The path profile shauld be drawn ab.ove an earth with
where (6.35b) this effective radius t.o ensure that there is adequate path clearance such that
the probabIlity .of fading due t.o diffractIOn lass will be negligible

The mtegral gIVIng the dIffractIOn lass IS a Fresnel integral Far the case .of a
transmitting antenna wIth madest gain such that the effective beam radms IX 6.5 SURFACE-WAVE PROPAGATION
can be assumed ta be very large, H, is real and given by (2d/A od l d,)1!2h". For
this case Fd in decibels, that is, 20 lag Fd, is shawn m FIg 6,33 The dIffractIOn In the previous four s.ectlOos lOterference effects between the dIrect and
lass is negligible whenever the parameter H, is greater than 0,8 reflected field were analyzed. This field IS .often referred t.o as the ground wave
If the antenna beam width between paints where the field strength has t M P M Hall, Effects of the Troposphere on Radw Commumcatwn, Peter Peregnnus, London,
dropped by e- from its an-axis value is eA , then" = d l tan ek In .order that
I
1979, Sec, 4..2
378 PROPAGATION
RADIQ·-WAVE PROPAGATION 379

to distingUIsh It from a wave reflected from the ionosphere and called the sky thus
wave. It is also called the space wave to distinguish it from the surface wave.
When the antennas are located close (0 or on the ground the space wave J = a,8(x)8(y)8(z - h) (638)
vamshes because the reflected field cancels the direct wave. For this situation The air-earth mterface IS located at z = O. The vector potential has a z
the field at the receiving antenna is due to a surface-wave field, Propagation by component only and satisfies the equatIOn
means of the surface wave is the primary mode of propagation in the frequency
range from a few kilohertz up to several megahertz. The attenuation in signal z >0 (639a)
power is nearly proportional to the inverse of the fourth power of the distance
(6.39b)
separating the receiving and transmitting antennas. In this regime the antennas
are usually large. towers, the transmitter power may range from 10 kW upwards where A. = 1/1 m all and A, = 1/13 III the earth The wave number K l/2k o will be
to 1 MW, and useful propagation distances of several hundred miles are denoted by k, We Will construct a formal solullon of Eq . (6.39) by uSlllg Founer
achieved transforms with respect to x and y.
In this sectIOn we will outlme the analytical solutIOn for the radiatIOn from Let the transforms of 1/1 and 1/1, be .fr(f!., f3y, z) and .fr,(f3x> f3y, z) where
an elementary vertical dipole above a flat lossy earth. From this solution the
space-wave and surface-wa"econiributlOns can be identified. The surface-wave
attenuation function wdl be presented in graphical form. Examples of com- (6.40a)
munication link eyal'lations will be given to illustrate typical power levels,
propagation distances, and -~ig;;ai levelsi;;voived,
The fundamental problem of radiation from a short current filament
oriented in the verticaLdirection and located above a flat lossy earth was solved
(6.40 b)
by Sommerfeld in 1909. Later work by Sommerfeld m 1926, plus that of many
other investigators, led eventually to extensive numerical evaluation of the
theoretical formulas by Norton in 1936 and 1937t The Founer transform of Eq (6.39) gives (f3' = f3: -I f3:)
Figure 6.34 shows a z-directed current element of unit strength located at a
height h above the surface of the earth. The earth is characterized by a a2 o-f3
( az,+k 2 ') , p'o
I/I(f3"f3y,z)=- 47T28 (Z-h) 2:::'0
complex dielectric constant Z (6.41a)

II u-
K = K' ~ JK = K' - J- (6.37)
WEo
z-o:O (6Mb)
where u- is the conductivity. The current density can be represented by the
product of three delta functions, since it is viewed as a localized point source; C;0ntinuity of the tangential electric and magnellc fields at z = 0 requires that
I/I(z+) = I/I,(z-) and

~ a.fr'1 = a.frl
K Bz z- Bz z+
We may choose

--------~~~--~~------------x , ,
1/1 - 1/1 -
A(eYO' - r , e- YO')
- 2- e 1'°\1 - r v e 2YOh)
Figure 6.34 A UDtt vertical current
element above a lossy flat earth where y;= (f32 - ki) This solullon IS the sum of a downward and upward
propagating
b . wave, with constants A and r tJ chosen so that .r;
'+'1
=.r;
'1-'2
at z = h • r v
t K A Norton, "The Propagation of Radio Waves over the Surface of the Earth and m the can e Ipterpreted as a refl~ction coefficient. For z -0: 0 we let A, =.fr3 and
Upper Atmosphere," Proc IRE, vol 24, 1936, pp 1367-1387, and voi 25, 1937, pp 1203-1236. choose 1/1, so that It equals 1/12 at z = 0 and is a downward propagating wave,
 RADIO·WAVE PROPAGATION 381
380 PROPAGATION

thus from a current element free space, Therefore we see that

In

, A(1-f,)e" I" jkoR

wJo(wp) e-r·/kij-w'C,-h 1dw = e- ,
o jYk~- w
0/3 eYOh(l- fve-2Yoh) 2
RI

°
where 'l= f32- k'. At z = the boundary condItIon K-Ia,fJ,Iaz = a,fJ,Iaz must where R; = p2 + (z - h)' We are now able to express 1/11 in the form
hold At z = h the step change in the denvative is gIven by fJ-o [e-jkORl
1/11=- - - - - - + 2 K
e-jkoR2 f"" e-Iro(z+h)Jo(wp)
wdw
1 (645)
J,fJ\ h+ fJ-o 477 RJ R2 0 'Y + K)'O
Jz h- - 47T' where R~ = p' + (z + h)' For mfinite conduct!V!ty K becomes mfimte and the
These two condItIons determme A and f ,. It is found that mtegral gives twice the term m R, above to yield
fJ-o (e- jkOR
f = Y - Kyo (6.42) 1/1 =- -~+ ..e-jkOR2)
~~ (6.46)
v y + Kyo I 417 RI R,
whIch IS the expected solutIOn for a current element above a perfectly conduct-
A= fJ-o mg plane
47T'Yo[1 + (1 + f, e 2'Oh)/(1_ f" e 2YO h)] To examme the problem further, note that Jo(wp) = HH~(wp) + Hi(wp)],
where Hi and H~ are the Hankel functions of the first and second kind In the
For z :2: h we now get part of the integral involving Hi we .can put w = - Z to get
- oo
e-'oCHh)H6(-Zp)(-Z)(-dZ)
f o y + KYo
and since y, Yo are even functIOns of Z and Hi(-Zp) = -Hi(Zp), we obtain
ThIs represents the solutIon as a spectrum of plane waves radiated dIrectly o e-,oC,+hlHC(Zp)Z dZ
from the source plus plane waves reflected from the interface and appearing to
come f;om the image point at z = - h. f 0 is the Fresnel reflection coefficient I -::c Y + K)'o
To transform to cylindrical coord mates let f3x = w cos cp', f3 y = w sin 4>', Usmg thIS result enables liS to express 0/1 as
x = p cos <p, and y = p sm <p. We then obtain
fJ-o (e -jkoRl e-jkoR2 )

1/1 = fJ-o,
1
f f - (1-
21T c.o 1
e-",h Y- KYO) e-jwp,mC';·-';hoC,-hlw dw d<p' (644)
1/11=- - - - - - + 2 K l
417 RI R2
(647)

87T 0 0 Yo Y + Kyo where

" wHi(wp) e-YOC,+h)
where now Yo = ]Y k~ - w' and y = ]Y k' - w' Usmg the result I =
I _00 2( y + KYO)
dw (6.48)

f 2.

()
e-jwpw'(.;'-';l d<p' = 27TJO(Wp) Note that there IS a pole when y + Kyo = 0, whIch IS the Zen neck surface-wave
pole . This pole occurs for w = Wo = koY KI(K + 1) There has been consIderable
where 1() IS the zero-order Bessel functIOn, we obtam Sommerfeld's classical controversy in the past regardIng 'whether the Zenneck surface wave IS
excited t In principle' the contour of mtegratlon, which is the real axis tn the w
result:
plane, can be deformed so that it encircles the pole. If ihls is done the residue
1/11 = fJ-o
47T
f- • 1
0 Yo
(1 - foe -2YOh)JO( wp) e -,oc,-h 1w dw at the pole gives the following dIscrete-mode solution,

For f 0 = ° we must obtam the well-known result:

-jkoV p2+(;-h)2
(649)

fJ-o e . t I Kahan and G E. Eckart, "On the EXIstence of a Surface Wave m DIpole RadIatIon over a
1/11 = ,/,'
47T V P + (z - h )'. Plane Earth," Proc IRE, vol 38, July 1950, pp. 807--812
382 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 383

which IS called the Zenneck surface wave. When the honzontal radial distance p where p ~ Illiiscalled the numerrcal distance. In Eq. (6.53) we have replaced R
IS large and z ~ 0, we find, by using the asymptotic expression for the Hankel by the honzontal distance d. Since K is quite large for most soils,
function, that kod kod
p=-~ (6. 54a)
(650)
21KI 2Y K"+ (a/wEo)'
_l K 'WE O
and b=tan - - (654b)
where C IS a suitable constant TIlls field solutIOn decays with distance lIke p-1/2 (1"

instead of the usual p -I for free-space propagation. The surface wave IS guided
The term (1"/ WEo can be expressed as
by the mterface, and its field is confined to the region close to the surface; this
is why it decays like a cylmdrical wave and not a spherical wave (1" 18x 104 (1"
(655)
However, the resIdue term is not the dominant contribution from the WEO IMHz
mtegral 10 Eq. (6.48) When the mtegral IS evaluated asymptotically for large p
it turns out that the surface-wave term is cancelled and what is left over is a For a typical ground (1" has a value of 10-3 to 10-' S/m, so (1"/WE O is of order 18 to
much more rapidly attenuating surface field, which is somellmes called the 180/IM'" where 1M'" IS the frequency in megahertz . The dielectric constant K' IS
Norton surface wave This field is not a true surface wave but nevertheless is usually 10 the range 10 to 15. With K' of order 10 to 15 we see that for
generally referred to as the surface-wave field. broadcast frequencies (f = 1 MHz) and good ground conducllvity
An examination of the. solution. giYen hy Eqs. (6.47) and (6.48) shows that kodw€o
the space wave, which consists of the directly radiated free-space field plus the p=----;;;;-
specularly reflected field, vanishes at the surface z ~ 0, where RI ~ R,. The
remaining field, that is, the vector potential A" is given by 2KfLoI/47l', where the which is proportional to d/It;. Note that p mcreases rapidly with frequency, and
integral I IS that in Eq. (6.48) The approximate expression for the z com- thus for a given value of distance d the numerical distance and hence the
ponent of electric field E, at the surface is (RI ~ R2 ~ R ~ d) attenuatlOn is much greater at higher frequencies In Fig. 6.35 we show the
value of IA,I as a function of the numerical distance p When p equals 500 the
]koZo -"R 2(K -1)
E ~-]wA ~--e J~ A
Z Z 47TR K s

where the surface-wave attenuation factor As is given by

A, ~ 1- {V 7l'fl e- n erfc(jYn) (652a)
R
fl ~ -jk o - , (K -1) (6.52b)
2K
and erfCJyn IS the complement of the error functlOn and
following mtegraL
f"
IS expressed by the
3' 003r---t---r--r---+--~~~~~~-+"Tn~--L,'--4
I ~ IA,I·
OOIITIDJfIIJ1E[J : Vfoc P~
erfc] ,v;-
II ~ 2
-= e -u2 du (6 52c) 100
Yll jYn
The field strength differs from its free-space value by the factor 2(K -1)A,IK = 20 dB
I
2A" since the effective dielectric constant IS typically greater than 10 0003
In general A, decreases rapidly for mcreasing values of II beyond a certam
mInImUm value. As R approaches zero, As approaches a value of UnIty and
remains close to unity untIl R exceeds a few wavelengths
The parameter fl is usually expressed in the form
__
OOOI~~~~-~-~~~~
0.,0.1 0.0.3 0.1 0.3 3
!
I 40;dB

~~_~_~~L--L_~~~LW
5
Numerical distancep
10. 30. 50. 1QG 30.0. LOOG

Figure 6.35 The surface~wave attenuation factor IAsl as a functIOn of the numerical distance for a
(653) flat earth
384 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 385

attenuatIOn IS 60 dB For p ~ 50 the attenuatIOn IS 40 dB. ThIS attenuation is III frequencies the prevailIng nOIse level m urban areas is so high that a field
addition to that contrIbuted by the l/d factor in the expression for the strength of order 1 to 10 mV/m at the receiving antenna is required for
surface-wave field. For b -;; 90° the attenuatIOn factor IA,I can be approximated acceptable reception. In rural areas a sIgnal level an order of magnitude less is
by satisfactory. .
2+03p ~ For an antenna located very near to the ground the surface-wave field near
IA,I ~ 2 + P + 0.6p2 V p/2 e- sin b
06p
(6.56) the ground is essentially 2A, tImes the field that would be radiated by the
antenna in free space. We WIll use thIS result to evaluate the r1tnge from
The surface-wave attenuation gIVen In Fig 6 35 IS based on formulas for a ground-based antennas at low to medIUm frequencies.
flat earth The results are accurat'e for the surface-wave attenuation over a
spherical earth out to a distance of the order of 50 ml/f~. Beyond thIS Example 6.7 AM broadcasting system We WIll consIder a 1-MHz broadcast
distance the surface wave over a spherical earth attenuates much more rapIdly. system. The receiving antenna is a small loop antenna conSIsting of the coil
Figure 6 36 shows the value of IA,I for a spherical earth with good conductivity in the tuned mput clfcuit of the receiver, as shown in Fi"g.6.37a. The
(0" ~ 1O-2 S/m) at four frequencies, namely 0.5, 1,2, and 5MHz Beyond the receiving cross section with matched impedance and polarization con-
distance for which the flat-earth formulas hold, the decrease III the field ditIons f)re A, ~ AiG/41l. Let the coil have art ohmic resistance r, and let
strength IS very rapId. For the case of a spherical earth, IA,I depends on the the radiation resIstance be Ra' The efficiency of the loop antenna is
frequency and conductIvity in a complex way, and a single curve as a function
of p no longer holds A procedure for calculating IA,I over a spherical earth Ra
TJ~~~
(6.57)
may b-efound in Tern11'ul's15ooK.t - .. . Ra +r
In view of the rapid decrease ID signal level for dIstances greater than The radiation resistance is given by
50 mil f~'ru, the practical range at broadcast frequencies IS a few hundred miles,
dropping to 10 mi or so at 100 MHz for surface-wave propagatIOn. At broadcast R ~ kcizoN2 A2 (6.58)
a 6.1T

1.0

05
~r;:: b
6
ol
30"
",6 60"
03
02 6= 90'
.A:::: ~
L
oI " II
003
I
\ 1\
05 MH,'/\
\ 1'\
0.003
1 MHz"--

2 MHz
A\ -\
(a)

0.00 I
5 MH,-
~ \ L c
0,01 003 01 03 10 30 100 300 1000
Numencal dIstance p
Figure 6.36 The surface·wave attenuatton factor over a sphencal earth for four dIfferent frequen··
CIeS. K' = 15 and (f = 10- 2 S/m

Figure 6.37 (a) Receiver mput tuned CircUit

t F E Terman, Rad.io Engmeers· Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York., 1943 (6) (b) Thevenm equivalent circuit
386 PROPAGATION RADIQ.WAVE PROPAGATION 387

where A is the cross-sectIonal area of the coIl and N IS the number of turns. numencal distance p IS given by
The gain is given by G ~ 151/. Hence the received power is given by
kodwEo 1Td
k2ZN2A2 p~

PAD 00 P (659) 20' 180 x 300

, ~ e' m' 4(r + Ra) m, .
so d ~ 17,189p m, or 1O.7p m!. From Fig. 6.36 we find that IA,12 ~ 10-4 at
where Pine is the mCldent power per square meter p ~ 18, so for a range of 193 mi we require
The propertIes of thIs antenna, in particular the nOIse problem, are
41Td2 1T(1 72 x 18 X 104)2 12
dls,ussed m Example 58. Let r be at the ambient temperature To ~ 300 K 10-4 . x 2.55 x 10-
and Ra be at the antenna-noise temperature TA When the rece1ver has a
Ptrans = 21 A sl2 Pme
noise figure F, then the eqUIvalent additional input nOIse is obtained by ~ 7679W
raIsing the temperature of r + Ra by (F - 1) To, the receIver-noise tem-
perature. The total noise power that will be delIvered to the load RL ~ ThIS IS a realIstIC power level. If we reduce the range by a factor of 2 to
r + Ra IS [see Eq (576)] 96.5 mi, the power requirements are reduced by a factor of (.01/.05)2 x
0.25 ~ 0.01 to 76.8 W because of the large increase in IA,lld
K tJ.f[rTo + RaTA + To(F -l)(r + Ra)] Under adv~rse· atmospheric conditions the antenna-noise temperature
P ~
n r+ Ra could be a factor of 10 higher Also, lo,al nOIse in an urban area would
increase the noise power further, so a transmitter power of order 50 k W
(660)
might be reqUIred for satisfactory broadcastmg servIce under adverse
The sIgnal-to-nolse ratIo at the rec:elver Will be conditIOns . Power levels of 10 to 100 kW are quite typical for many
broadcasting stations. As shown by this example a service range up to
P, A~l 57J P inc 200 mi would be expected. For a range of 278 mi IA,I' is smaller by a factor
(6.61)
Pa 41TK tJ.f[(I-1/)FTo+ 1/TA + 1/To(F-l)] of 10- 2 , which would reqUIre more than a 100-fold increase m transmitter
power for only a modest increase in range from 193 to 278 mi. •
For the loop antenna we assume that N ~ 200 and A ~ 50 ,m2 and then
find that Ra ~ 1 54 X 10-5 n. We will also assume that L ~ 200l-'h and
6 Example 6.8 Citizen's-band communication link In thIS example we WIll
Q ~ 100, for which r ~ 41T nand 1/ ~ 1 22 X 10-
evaluate the performance of a citizen's-band system operating at 27 MHz m
For the loop antenna in our example the thermal nOise and antenna
a rural environment. It is assumed that both the transmitting and receIving
nOise are comparable For F = 4, TA = 109 K, and a signal-to-noise ratio of
antennas are located on cars, so propagation between the two is by means
100, we will require
of the surface wave. The followmg parameters are assumed to hold:
A2 TransrilItter power ~ 5 W
P", ~ 4; 1.51/Pm, ~ lOOK tJ.f[(F -1/)To+ 1/TA]
Antenna gam ~ umty
= lOOK tJ.j (FTo + 1/TA) ReceIver-nOIse figure F = 4
~ 106 x 1 38 x 10-2,(4 x 300 + 1.22 X 103)
Receiver bandWIdth ~ 5 kHz
for tJ.j ~ 10 kHz Hence the reqUIred mCldent power IS
Ground parameters K' ~ 12
~ 41T x 1.38 x 2.42 x 10- ~ 2.55 X 10-12 W m2
14
P 3
0' ~ 5 X 10- Sim
m' (300)2 X 1 5 x 1.22 x 10 6 I
Figure 5.18 shows that an average value for the antenna-noise temperature
whIch corresponds to a field strength 01 43.81-' Vim. is 104K
If we assume that the transmittmg antenna has umty gain, then The numerIcal dIstance p IS gIven by
P ~ P,,,,, 41A 12 (662)
me 4'1fd2 s
p -;==ic1T;:d/~A,,=o
2
=.~ ~ 0 25 ~ ~ 0.0225d
2
At 1 MHz and wIth a good ground ,onductlvlty (0' ~ 10- S/m), the v'12 + (90/27)2 Ao
 RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 389
388 PROPAGATION

for d expressed m meters. At the maxImum range 50/f~k ~ 50/3 ~ 16.7 mi, layers Dunng the daytIme the F layer sphts mto two layers called the FI and F,
for which the flat-earth formulas hold p ~ 601 For this large numerical layers. Figure 6.38 shows typical electron density curves versus height for
distance IA,I ~ (5/6) x 10-3 ~ 8 83 X 10-4 The receIved power is gIven by daytime and mghttime conditIOns. The D layer vanishes at mght
We will show that these IOmzed layers will cause radio waves m the
,A~
4
P, I 5 x (8.33 X 10- )2 frequency range up to 40 MHz to be effectively reflected back to earth These
P ree ~ 47Td' 2A,1 47T 47T2(4 x 601)2 reflectmg layers thus alIOwcommumcation by radio waves to take place over
distances of several thousand miles, as shown in Fig 639. One or more skips
~ 1.52 X 10- 14 W
may be involved. The electron concentration varies with the time of day, with
In the calculatIOn we used d/ Ao ~ 4p. The noise power at the receIver lOput season, and over periods of several years in accordance with solar actIvity. The
is given by (we assume that the antenna efficiency is unity) effective dielectric constant, as will be shown, depends on frequency and the
electron concentration -Thus for a given electron density Jhere exists a maXI-
p. ~ K !::..f[TA + (F-1)Tol mum upper useful frequency above which the radio wave penetrates through
~ 1.38 x 10-23 x 5 X 103 (104 + 3 x 300) ~ 7.52 X 10- W
16 the ionosphere. The IOnosphere propagalIon path is not a very stable one, so a
considerable amount of sIgnal fadmg occurs. For highly reliable communication
ThIS nOIse level IS considerably less than the received signal power, so a links some form of diversity, such as several spaced receiving antenna~ or
range of 167 mi is quite realistic The signal-to-nOIse ratio at this distance several different frequencies used simultaneously, must be employed
is 20.2 Beyond a range of 16.7 ml the effect of the sphencal earth will In simple qualitative terms the existence of iOnIzation layers may be
cause'the received -signal- to- attenuate -very -rapIdly. For -communication expiamed as follows. At great heIghts the solar radiation th.at causes the
over longer distances it is necessary to use elevated antennas, at least at ionization of the gas molecules is very intense, but there are very few molecules
one terminal. • to be iomzed, so the electron concentration is small. At somewhat lower
heIghts there WIll be a much greater concentration of molecules, so a peak in
Surface-Wave Attenuation for Horizontal Polarization ionization density occurs. At suffiCIently low heIghts most of the IOnizing
radiation has been absorbed, so the electron concentratlon agam becomes very
For honzontal polanzatIOn the surface-wave attenuatIOn approac?es low. On this basis one expects to have a broad layer of ionized gas and high
free-electron denSIty at some height above the earth's surface. Since the
atmosphere IS composed of several dIfferent gases, although predominantly
nitrogen and oxygen, and these gases have different iOlllzation and recom-
where the numencal dIstance p IS now given by bination characteristics, several peaks or layers in the electron concentration
occur. The E and F layers have a permanent existence, even though the height
7Td 1.8 x 104 0' K'-l
p~ tanb~-­ varies on a daily basis These two layers are the most Important ones for radio
AD fMHz cos b O'/W€o
communications in the frequency range of 3 to 40 MHz. Above 40 MHz the
Since U/WE o now occurs In the numerator Instead of the denominator of p, the
numerical distance p for a given range d is much larger for honzontal
polarIzation than for vertical polarization at low frequencies. Because of tj1is,
horizontal polarization is generally not used when communicating by means of
the surface wav$" . 1000
500
"
E
{ Split F layer
"
6_6 IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
'" 100
The IOnosphere is that regIOn of the atmosphere surroundmg the earth that IS 50
IOnized (pnmarily by solar radiation). During the day the ionized layers eXIst 10' 10 10 lOll 10 12
between about 90 and 1000 km above the earth's surface. The electron denSIty N/m 3
is of order 1010 to 1012 electrons per cubic meter. There are primarily three
layers m whIch the electron density peaks up These are called the D, E, and F Figure 6.38 TYPical vanatlon of electron denSIty versus height
 RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 391
390 PROPAGATION

Ionosphere collISIOn term IS mcluded It IS found that the effective dIelectnc constant K IS
///-------'- complex and IS given by

/
/
/
,//
--- - ---'"" ......... K = 1-
w2
p
w(w - jv)
(6.68)

ThIs formula shows that collISIOns WIll produce higher absorptIOn of low-
antenna distance frequency waves, for which w is more nearly comparable in value to the
Surface Second skip Figure 6.39 IllustratIOn of radlO··wave collisIOn frequency v. Note that for w > wp K is less than umty. When w = wp
of earth
or reflection reflectlon- from the ionosphere we have K = 0 and for w < wp we get a negatIve value for K Plane waves
propagatmg III an IonIzed gas wIll have a propagatIOn constant k = w V /LoKEo =
wave wIll penetrate through the ionosphere In the D layer the collisIOn V; ko Thus when w < wp' k will be pure Imaginary for v = O-,-mdicating that
frequency is quite hIgh, so even though lower frequency waves (2 MHz or the plane .wav~ ~iIl be~ome ~Y~gescent and d tall 'WtJ~_.9:1stance·.
below) can be reflected from this layer the absorption is very hIgh. At higher - ..- Consider first -a: plane wave incident normally on an ionized layer inwmclr
frequencies collIsions have a smaller effect, since (t) IS then much higher the electro enSlty increases WIth height, as shown III Fig. 640 . When the
wave reaches the helg t at w IC e e enslty IS suffiCIent to make
Dielectric Constant of Ionized Gas K = 0, propagation ceases and the wave is reflected back toward the earth
Consider next the case of oblIque inCIdence, also shown in Fig 640 If N
In an ionized gas only- th-~ ~otion 'of electrons is important under the action of mcreases with heIght then K decreases with height, and the ray IS bent
a high-frequency electric field, since the ions are more than 1800 tImes heavier. downward and win be turned around and returned to earth if a height at which
The equation of motion for a single electron of mass m, charge -e, with
velocity v, and acted upon by an electric field ~ IS K = 0, reflection At thIS height

tL fi1~ 1:rZ~ I
m dv = -e~ (6.63) (
dt
For a smusOldal field we can write
JwmV= -eE (6.64) N . ~ ~~
For N electrons per umt volume the mduced current III the IOmzed gas WIll be (a) Wave refracted
back to earth
Ne 2 (b)
J=-eNV=~E (6.65)
jwm
From Maxwell's equatIOn we have
2

V x H= jWEoE+ J= JWE o (I--Ne

2-
mEa
(t)
)
E (6.66) (
-

'2 K(Z3)

'I~
K(Z2)
from whIch we find that the dielectnc constant of the IOmzed gas IS
K(ZI)
'oJ,;"
N e 2' w2
K = 1- - - = 1- --'i (6.67) 'I' K(ZO)

(t)2mEa (t)
.-:-::-,,-:--
A
where the plasma frequency wp IS gIven by wp = 'IN e2lmEo.
At the lower altitudes the electrons suffer a relatIvely large number of
collisions with the neutral molecules and ions. For thIS case Eq (6.64) for
; (c)

momentum conservation requIres a collisional damping force -vmv added on Figure 6.40 (a) Normal mCldence of a wave on the Ionosphere (b) Obhque mCIdence (c) A
the right-hand SIde In this term v is the collision frequency When the layered model used to describe the ionosphere
392 PROPAGATION RADIO-WAVE PROPAGATION 393

\/';;: =0 sin o/j eXIsts. Th,s behavIOr may be understood by breakmg the layer mto VIrtual
a number of thin layers wIth a thickness /1z and wIth a constant value of K(Z) height

in each layer, as shown in Flg~Oc. Snell's law requires that sin o/j =
V K(ZO) sm iJ!o = V K(Z,}~, = V-"S!L,)SIf) 0/" etc Thus the ray will follow a
path suchthat the tangent to the ray satisfies the condItion V K(Z) sm o/(z) =
Sl~ The ray will return to earth If o/(z) reaches 71/2, whIch requires that
V K(Z) = sin o/j at this height Note that for a given value of o/j the requirement
for the ray to return to earth requires a hIgher electron density for higher
frequencies, SInce K = 1- w!fw 2 decreases with w. Conversely, for a gIven Earth Figure 6.41 IllustratIon of virtual heIght
electron-density maxImum the maximum value of o/j that will result in the ray
returning to earth decreases with an increase in w Thus there is an upper hmit Th,s maxImum angle IS about 74° and when used In Eq (6.71) gives
on frequency whIch will result in the wave bemg returned to earth. The (6.72)
required relat)Onship between electron density w or frequency f = w/2.!! and
the angle of incidence is J An electron concentratIon of lOll/m3 wtll gIve f, = 9 MHz and fm" = 32.4 MHz
If We use h' = 300 km then dm" is approximately 2500 mi for reflectIOn from the
f' COS20/j F, layer. For reflection from the E layer the maximum skip distance is about
Ncritical (669)
81 one-half of thiS value, or 1250 mi. If the desired range IS less than d m" then o/j is
For example, if o/j = 1T/4 and N = 2 x IOw/m' then fm" = (81 X 4 X 1010)112 = smaller, and a lower frequency must be used in order to satisfy the relationship
18 X 10' = 1 8 MHz. If we increase o/j to 60', then fm" = 1 8'12 MHz. f = f, sec 0/" which must hold at the point in the ionosphere where the ray IS
When N is given m electrons per cubic meter K = 1- (81N/f') For normal turn.ed around to propagate toward the earth. Figure 6.43 gives typical values
incIdence the waVe IS returned to earth or reflected if N reaches a value that of the maximum usable frequency for different ranges. The data is tYPIcal for
makes K = O. For a given value of N m " the frequency that makes K = 0 is called winter conditIOns at Washington, D.C., dunng a peak period in solar activity
the CrItical frequency f, and IS given by Note that daytime conditions must occur at the point of reflection, i.e., mIdway
between the transmitter and receiver (1040 ml corresponds to a I-h time
(6.70) difference) If the path was deSIgned on the basis of daytime conditions III the
From Eq (6.69) we can write ionosphere.
f = 9'1 N m" sec o/j = f, sec o/j (671) In order to determine the parameters of IOnospherIC propagatIOn paths It IS
necessary to know the relationship between the skip distance d, the virtual
Th,s value of f IS called the maxImum usable frequency (MUP) when sec o/j has height h', and the angle of incidence o/j. With reference to Fig 6.44, let 8 be the
ItS maximum value. The maximum usable frequency generally does not exceed angle subtended by one-half of the skip distance; thus
40 MHz DUrIng perIods of low solar activity the upper frequency limit IS 25 to
30MHz . . d
8=- (6.73)
If the inclcjent and returned rays are extrapolated to a vertex they meet at 2a,
a height h', called the virtual height of the IOnospheric layer, that is In-
where the effectIve radius of the earth equals 5280 ml, or 8497 km The law of
struinental m returmng the wave to earth (see Fig 641) This is the apparent
sines gIVes
height of' reflectIOn The vlftual height of the F2 layer ranges from 250 to
400 km, while for the F, layer the virtual heIght lies between 200 and 250 km. ae+h' =~
The F layer at nIght is at around 300 km m virtual height. The virtual height of sin q, sin o/j
the E layer IS around 110 km. The virtual heights are important in determining
the maximum value of the angle of incidence o/j and the maximum skip
distance, a~ shown in Fig. 6.42. For radiation leaving the antenna m the
horizontal d,rection the skIp dIStance d is given by d = 2 X V 2a,h ' The
correspondmg maximum value of o/j is gIVen by
h' 2h' Figure 6.42 Illustratton of maximum skIp
tan o/j = d/2=d distance d max
394 PROPAGATION RADlQ.WAVE PROPAGATION 395

Example 6.9 Determination of radiation angle and frequency for a short·

40 wave radio station In this example we assume that a short-wave broadcast-
Ing station located In Ohio wanb to estahlish a broadcasting service to
central Europe The great-cIrcle nommal distance is 4200 mi, or 6760 km.
30 For single-skip propagation the reflecting height h' is given by h' ft =
d'/8 = 42' X 106 x 0,125 = 22 X 106 ft, or 670 km, proVIded the radIation is
beamed in the horizontal direction at the transmlttmg site The required
reflectIOn pomt hes above the ionosphere, and hence the required servIce
must be based on a double skip, each of length 2100 mi. The reqmred
reflection point is now only 167 5 km above the earth The Fl and F, layers
3500 km
10 2000 km
have virtual heIghts ranging from 200 to 400 km and may be used as the
reftectmg layers, provided the transmittmg beam IS directed above the
1000 km
500 km horizon We will assume a nominal virtual height of 300 km" From Eqs.
OL------LL----J
2~---LI~8----~2L4----- Figure 6.43 Maximum usable fre- (6.73) and (674) we then find that .pi = 74440 and", - 7r/2 = 4,16'. The
quency (MUF) for wintertime for dif- transmitting antenna should have its direction of maXImum radiation 4 16°
I Hours 1 ferent skip distances MUF is lower above the local horizon,
Sunns(; Sunset in the summertime
Figure 6.38 shows that the electron concentratIOn 10 the F layer under
daytime conditions is 5 x lOll/m3, The cntical frequency t, is given by Eq
where", is the angle shown in FIg, 6A4 and also equals 7r - 8 - .pi' With this
(670) and is, 636 MHz, The maxImum usable frequency may be found from
replacement for'" we get sin'" = sine 7r - 8 - .p,) = cos(8 + .p,), hence
Eq, (6,71), which gIves tm" = 636 sec 74A4' = 11 06 MHz Operahon in the
h'sm(8 +.p,) internatIOnal shortwave 31-m band (9.2 to 9,7 MHz) would be acceptable
1+- = sin 8 cOt .pi + cos 8 Although this eX'lcmple has illustrated the use of the previously derived
ae sin I/Ii
We now find that formulas, the sample calculatIOns are an oversimplification of the real
h' problem In practice it is necessary to consider the time of day that service
(1 + - - cos 8 )csec 8 = cot.pi (674) is to be provided, the difference in local hme between the two reflecting
a, points, the I1me of year, and the I1me withlll the solar cycle A great deal of
The transmItted ray leaves at an angle '" - 7r/2 relatIve to the local honzon statIstIcal data on electron concentrations and virtual heights "is a:vailable,
where so realisl1C path designs Can be carned out In general, for 24-h service,
different frequencies are used at different I1mes of the day The hIghest
(675) possible frequency should be used so as to mmimize the attenuation.
HO'Yever this frequency should be at least 15 percent below the maximu1"
The apphcatlOn of these relatIOnships will be illustrated in the followlllg usable frequency because of vanatlOns in electron denSl\Y on a daily
example basis •

Effect of the Earth's Magnetic Field

In the discusslOn up to this pomt the effect of the earth's magnehc field on the
motion of the electrons has been neglected ThIS approxImation is reasonably
good at .frequencies above 10 MHz but is generally not valid at frequencies
below 5 MHz. The earth's magnetic field causes the ionospheric medium to
become anisotropIc, and the effective dIelectric constant must be represented
by a matrix or dyadic. It is now found that there are two distmct modes of
propagation called the ordinary and extraordinary waves An inCIdent plane
Figure 6.44 Relationships between skip distance, wave entenng the ionosphere wlll spht into the above two modes, and when
virtual height, and angle of incidence these modes reemerge from the ionosphere they recombine mto a slllgle plane