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 Canis
Modernis
K A R A LY N K E N D A L L- M O R W I C K

Human/Dog Coevolution in
Modernist Literature
Ca n is Modern is
Nigel Rothfels, General Editor

Advisory Board:
Steve Baker (University of Central Lancashire)
Garry Marvin (Roehampton University)
Susan McHugh (University of New England)
Kari Weil (Wesleyan University)

Books in the Animalibus series share a fascination with the status and the role of animals in
human life. Crossing the humanities and the social sciences to include work in history, anthro-
pology, social and cultural geography, environmental studies, and literary and art criticism, these
books ask what thinking about nonhuman animals can teach us about human cultures, about
what it means to be human, and about how that meaning might shift across times and places.

Other titles in the series:

Rachel Poliquin, The Breathless Zoo: Taxidermy Heather Swan, Where Honeybees Thrive:
and the Cultures of Longing Stories from the Field

Joan B. Landes, Paula Young Lee, and Paul Karen Raber and Monica Mattfeld, eds.,
Youngquist, eds., Gorgeous Beasts: Animal Performing Animals: History, Agency, Theater
Bodies in Historical Perspective
J. Keri Cronin, Art for Animals: Visual Culture
Liv Emma Thorsen, Karen A. Rader, and Adam and Animal Advocacy, 1870–1914
Dodd, eds., Animals on Display: The Creaturely
Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, The Hidden Life of
in Museums, Zoos, and Natural History
Life: A Walk Through the Reaches of Time
Ann-Janine Morey, Picturing Dogs, Seeing
Elizabeth Young, Pet Projects: Animal Fiction
Ourselves: Vintage American Photographs
and Taxidermy in the Nineteenth-Century
Mary Sanders Pollock, Storytelling Apes: Archive
Primatology Narratives Past and Future
Marcus Baynes-Rock, Crocodile Undone:
Ingrid H. Tague, Animal Companions: Pets and The Domestication of Australia’s Fauna
Social Change in Eighteenth-Century Britain
Deborah Nadal, Rabies in the Streets:
Dick Blau and Nigel Rothfels, Elephant House Interspecies Camaraderie in Urban India

Marcus Baynes-Rock, Among the Bone Eaters: Mustafa Haikal, translated by Thomas Dunlap,
Encounters with Hyenas in Harar Master Pongo: A Gorilla Conquers Europe

Monica Mattfeld, Becoming Centaur: Austin McQuinn, Becoming Audible: Sounding

Eighteenth-Century Masculinity and English Animality in Performance
Horsemanship
Ca n is Moder n is
Human/Dog Coevolution in
Modernist Literature

Karalyn Kendall-Morwick

The Pennsylvania State University Press

University Park, Pennsylvania
Portions of chapter 2 previously appeared as “Mongrel Fiction: Canine Bildung
and the Feminist Critique of Anthropocentrism in Virginia Woolf ’s Flush,”
Modern Fiction Studies 60, no. 3 (2014): 506–26. Copyright © 2014 The Johns
Hopkins University Press.

Portions of chapter 4 previously appeared as “Dogging the Subject: Samuel

Beckett, Emmanuel Levinas, and Posthumanist Ethics,” Journal of Modern
Literature 36, no. 3 (2013): 100–119. Reproduced with permission from Indiana
University Press.

Additional material from chapter 4 previously appeared as “The Face of a Dog:

Levinasian Ethics and Human/Dog Coevolution,” in Queering the Non/Human,
edited by Noreen Giffney and Myra J. Hird (Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2008),
185–204. Reproduced with permission of Informa UK Limited through PLSclear.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kendall-Morwick, Karalyn, author.

Title: Canis modernis : human/dog coevolution in modernist literature / Karalyn
Kendall-Morwick.
Other titles: Animalibus.
Description: University Park, Pennsylvania : The Pennsylvania State University
Press, [2020] | Series: Animalibus: of animals and cultures | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Summary: “Examines the human-dog relationship in modernist literature,
analyzing works by Jack London, Virginia Woolf, Albert Payson Terhune,
J. R. Ackerley, Samuel Beckett, and others to show how dogs challenge
the autonomy of the human subject and the humanistic underpinnings of
traditional literary forms”—Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020039412 | ISBN 9780271088020 (hardback)
Subjects: LCSH: Dogs in literature. | Human-animal relationships in literature. |
Modernism (Literature)
Classification: LCC PN56.D6 K46 2020 | DDC 809/.933629772—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020039412

Copyright © 2021 Karalyn Kendall-Morwick

All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
Published by The Pennsylvania State University Press,
University Park, PA 16802-1003

The Pennsylvania State University Press is a member of the Association of

University Presses.

It is the policy of The Pennsylvania State University Press to use acid-free paper.
Publications on uncoated stock satisfy the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed
Library Material, ansi z39.48-1992.

Images on page x:
Int. Ch. Bellhaven Laund Logic, out of Florence B. Ilch’s famous Bellhaven kennel
at Red Bank, New Jersey, circa 1922. Rudolph Tauskey / Courtesy AKC Gazette.
 Contents

Acknowledgments
(vii)

Introduction: Modernism and the Canine Condition (1)

1 Canine Origins: Jack London and Konrad Lorenz (21)

2 Mongrelizing Form: Virginia Woolf ’s Flush (55)

3 The New Dog: Albert Payson Terhune and J. R. Ackerley (92)

4 Dogging the Subject:

Samuel Beckett and Emmanuel Levinas (129)

Coda: Modernism and Literary Canine Studies (166)

Notes
(173)
Bibliography
(189)
Index
(199)
Acknowledgments

This book would not have been possible without the generous support,
fellowship, and guidance of many mentors, colleagues, and friends. I owe
an enormous debt of gratitude to Ed Dallis-Comentale, Alyce Miller,
Richard Nash, and Stephen Watt for their early support of the project and
invaluable role in its conceptualization; to Colin Allen, David Herman,
Myra Hird, Daniel O’Hara, Jean-Michel Rabaté, and anonymous review-
ers for their constructive feedback on individual chapters and excerpts;
to Susan McHugh and an anonymous reviewer for their incisive reading
of the manuscript; to Suzanne Wolk for her extraordinarily keen editorial
eye; and to Alex Vose, Nigel Rothfels, Laura Reed-Morrisson, Brian Beer,
and Kendra Boileau for their patient and expert shepherding of the project
through the publication process.
I am grateful to the Animals and Society Institute—particularly Margo
DeMello and Kenneth Shapiro—and Wesleyan Animal Studies for selecting
me as a recipient of the 2013 Human-Animal Studies Fellowship, during
which I benefited enormously from the generous mentorship of Lori
Gruen, Susan McHugh, Carrie Rohman, and Kari Weil and the inspir-
ing fellowship of Joel MacClellan, Beatrice Marovich, David Redmalm,
Jeanette Samyn, Ann Marie Thornburg, and Zipporah Weisberg. I also
gratefully acknowledge the funding for this project provided through the
Ruth Neikamp-Cummings Fellowship, awarded by the Indiana University
Department of English, and additional research activity funds provided by
Indiana University and Washburn University.
Portions of chapters 2 and 4 were previously published as articles in
Modern Fiction Studies and the Journal of Modern Literature, and as part of
a chapter in the edited collection Queering the Non/Human. I thank Johns
Hopkins University Press, Indiana University Press, and the Taylor and
Francis Group for permission to reprint them here.
viii | Acknowledgments

My understanding of the many modes of companion species relating

has been enriched and challenged by more people than I can name here,
but in addition to those identified above, I particularly thank members of
the Society for Literature, Science, and the Arts, the Association for the
Study of Literature and Environment, the Animal Studies Workshop at
the University of Chicago, and the Modernist Studies Workshop at Penn
State; my fellow editors of Humanimalia: A Journal of Human/Animal
Interface Studies; the staff and volunteers at the Bloomington Animal Shel-
ter in Bloomington, Indiana, Helping Hands Humane Society in Topeka,
Kansas, and Lawrence Humane Society in Lawrence, Kansas; the awesomely
dedicated volunteers of Topeka Community Cat Fix; and my dear friend
Courtney Wennerstrom.
I am profoundly thankful for the unconditional love and support of
my husband and best friend, Joey Kendall-Morwick, and my unfailingly
supportive parents, Wayne and Chris Kendall, and sisters, Jenny Thomas
and Erin Hoffer. Finally, I am grateful beyond the reach of words to Oscar,
Benny, Vincent, Ada, Bijou, Zora, Dorian, and most of all my muse and
heart-dog, Gatsby, for teaching me what it means to be companion animals.
 INTRODUCTION
Modernism and the Canine Condition

One of the most perplexing moments in modernist literature comes at the

end of Djuna Barnes’s Nightwood, when an encounter between protagonist
Robin Vote and her ex-lover’s dog escalates into a fit of mutual barking,
whimpering, grinning, and trembling and ends with both participants
prostrate and panting on the floor of an abandoned chapel. The scene is dis-
orienting, not least because of Barnes’s dogged refusal to clarify the nature
of the encounter; her narrator describes Robin’s actions ambiguously as
“going down.”1 In a letter to Emily Coleman, a friend who was instrumen-
tal in preparing the Nightwood manuscript for publication, Barnes writes,
“When they see each other Robin goes down with the dog, and thats the
end. I do not go any further than this into the psychology of the ‘animal’
in Robin because it seems to me that the very act with the dog is pointed
enough, and anything more than that would spoil the scene anyway; as
for what the end promises (?) let the reader make up his own mind, if hes
not an idiot he’ll know.”2 Despite Barnes’s insistence that all but the most
obtuse readers should readily grasp what the scene depicts, critics have
not reached a consensus about just what this “act with the dog” is. Prior to
the so-called animal turn in literary studies, critics interpreted it variously
as a thinly veiled representation of bestiality, an empowering reclamation
2 | Canis Modernis

of presymbolic modes of subjectivity, and a violent act of mastery that

reinstates phallic order.3
With the rapid growth of the interdisciplinary field of animal studies
in the past decade or so, recent scholarship has taken more seriously the
significance of animality in this scene and in modernist literature more
generally. Rather than dismiss literary animals as mere metaphors for
repressed sexuality, degeneracy, or the dehumanized modern subject,
scholars working at the intersections of modernist and animal studies have
revealed a more fundamental decentering of the human at work in texts
like Nightwood. Carrie Rohman, for example, reads Robin’s encounter with
the dog as affirming a “radical posthumanism” that “deflate[s] the self-​
importance of humanism by privileging the nonhuman, the undecidable,
the nonlinguistic, the animal.” In Stalking the Subject, her incisive study of
modernism’s engagement with the question of the animal, Rohman pres-
ents Barnes’s “posthumanist triumph” as one of the more radical examples
of how modernism, in the wake of Darwin’s unprecedented challenge
to human exceptionalism, “acknowledges the uncertainty of the species
barrier.” While writers like T. S. Eliot and Joseph Conrad “cope with that
acknowledgment” via a reactionary “displacement of animality onto a
disenfranchised [human] other,” writers like Barnes and D. H. Lawrence
respond with an affirmative “privileging of the animal . . . that disrupts
the ‘human’ at its core.” By mapping how “modernist texts variously reen-
trench, unsettle, and even invert” the traditionally hierarchical relationship
between humans and other animals, Rohman reveals the modernist roots
of the posthumanist critique of speciesist discourses.4 Peter Meedom
similarly argues that Nightwood challenges the human/animal hierarchy
by refusing to “present us with a recognizable description of the human as
residing above the animal.” Rather than posit “the animal [as] a previous
state to which the human can ‘return,’ ” Meedom proposes that the novel’s
final scene presents Robin and the dog as “creatures that are no longer in
a binary world but in a world of multiple differences and mutual loss” of
the certainty afforded by individuated models of subjectivity.5
Yet even these posthumanist readings of Nightwood, though consistent
with Barnes’s desire to challenge “the debased meaning now put on that nice
word beast,” do not account for the distinctive dogginess of the final scene.6
While Rohman’s reading persuasively demonstrates how Barnes “ultimately
revises the category ‘human’ ” through “a recuperation of animality,” it leaves
the corresponding category of “animal” largely intact.7 Andrew Kalaidjian
 Introduction | 3

likewise compellingly demonstrates how Barnes dissolves human fantasies

of both domination of and escape into nature—revealing instead that
“nature’s dark forces are present regardless of how artificially controlled
one’s environment is”—yet he concludes that “Nightwood ends with a
‘letting be’ of animal and human,” thereby effacing the particularity of
the dog.8 Such erasures of species difference within the category “animal”
bring to mind Derrida’s influential critique of that word in The Animal That
Therefore I Am, a 1997 collection of lectures widely regarded as marking an
animal turn in his later work (although Derrida insists that “the question
. . . of the living animal . . . will always have been the most important and
decisive question,” one that he has been addressing all along—“since I began
writing, in fact”).9 Western humanism’s construction of the animal as a
homogenous category neatly separable from the human, Derrida argues,
belies the unfathomable diversity and complexity of nonhuman life:

Beyond the edge of the so-called human, beyond it but by no

means on a single opposing side, rather than “The Animal” or
“Animal Life” there is already a heterogeneous multiplicity of
the living, or more precisely . . . a multiplicity of organizations of
relations between living and dead, relations . . . among realms that
are more and more difficult to dissociate by means of the figures
of the organic and inorganic, of life and/or death. These relations
are at once intertwined and abyssal, and they can never be totally
objectified. They do not leave room for any simple exteriority of
one term with respect to another. It follows that one will never have
the right to take animals to be the species of a kind that would be
named The Animal, or animal in general.10

As Barnes signals by adding scare quotes when referencing “the psychol-

ogy of the ‘animal’ ” in her letter to Coleman, the creature whom Robin
encounters at the end of Nightwood is not the animal in this generic sense.
Rather, he is a member of a species that, Donna Haraway reminds us, exists
in an “obligatory, constitutive, historical, protean relationship with human
beings”—a relationship in which “none of the partners pre-exist the relating,
and the relating is never done once and for all.”11
Dogs’ intimate proximity to the human, as the end of Nightwood unnerv-
ingly illustrates, means that dogs are uniquely positioned to dismantle the
humanist myth of a self-transparent subject differentiated from the animal
4 | Canis Modernis

by its rational autonomy and linguistic ability. While Robin seems to have
no difficulty “speaking in a low voice to the animals” as she wanders “the
open country” just a few paragraphs before the final scene, it is precisely the
encounter with the dog that initiates her descent into what Donna Gersten-
berger calls “a world in which human speech is not possible.”12 The positive
tenor of interpretations like Rohman’s is complicated by the fact that the dog
is clearly frightened by Robin’s inhuman behavior—he retreats to a corner,
“claw[s] sideways at the wall,” and bites at her in desperation—and that both
woman and beast ultimately “[give] up.”13 The final image of Robin lying on
the floor, the dog’s “head flat along her knees,” suggests that the two achieve
a communion of sorts, but the novel remains deeply ambivalent about the
nature of their connection. Simultaneously “obscene and touching,” this
scene evokes, in Haraway’s words, the “brutalities as well as multiform
beauties” peculiar to the human/dog relationship, making it representative
of the complex engagement with the canine spanning modernist literature,
science, and philosophy that is the focus of this book.14
I read the canine encounter in Nightwood as a particularly salient
example of a widespread but unexamined tendency in literary modern-
ism: going to the dogs. From the strays wandering the streets of Dublin in
James Joyce’s Ulysses to the highbred subject of Virginia Woolf ’s Flush, dogs
populate a range of modernist texts yet remain notably underrepresented
in critical accounts of the period. When the figure of the dog has managed
to garner critical attention within modernist studies, it has typically been
dismissed as a mere metaphor for the fragmentation and degradation of
the modern human subject. Dana Seitler, for example, reads the final scene
in Nightwood as expressing “the dehumanizing effects of modernization”
by staging “the corporeal ruination of the human.”15 S. A. Cowan similarly
reads a canine image in Eliot’s Waste Land—in which a dog threatens to
“dig . . . up” a corpse in an ironic betrayal of his role as “friend to men”—as
signifying “the decay and extinction of spirit that is [the poem’s] most prom-
inent theme.”16 And Philip Howard Solomon regards the canine figures in
the late modernist fiction of Samuel Beckett as “structural device[s]” that
reveal the human characters with whom they are associated to be “lowly
dogs.”17 Even scholars who resist the temptation to read dogs as ipso facto
emblems of degraded humanity tend to regard them as representatives
of the animal or animality in the generic sense, emphasizing, as Rohman
does, how they blur the species boundary in light of Darwin’s revelation
of biological kinship between humans and other animals.
 Introduction | 5

Undoubtedly, modernist representations of animals serve in part to

register Darwin’s challenge to the human/animal binary, and studies like
Rohman’s lay vital groundwork for understanding modernism’s complex
and multifaceted engagement with the so-called animal question. The
title of Rohman’s Stalking the Subject encapsulates how “the specter of the
animal profoundly threatens the sovereignty of the Western subject of
consciousness in modernist literature, and [thus] our understanding of
that literature is incomplete without accounting for this complex threat.”18
Recasting Rohman’s formulation as “dogging the subject” (the title of my
fourth chapter and an implicit theme of the entire book), I build on her
work to show how attending to nonhuman animals in their individual and
species particularity can yield crucial insight into modernism’s response
to “the species problematic” that haunts the human subject. In particular,
looking at the figure of the dog enables me to go beyond examining mod-
ernist critiques of human exceptionalism to highlight another, equally
significant implication of evolutionary theory that has been largely ignored
within modernist studies: the contingent mutability of species.
By “contingent mutability” I mean something more than what Paul
Sheehan has in mind when he notes in Modernism, Narrative, and Human-
ism that the “mechanism of natural selection” explains the human as a prod-
uct of “chance and necessity rather than divine guidance,” with the result
that “evolution naturalised the human being by emphasizing its animal
origins.”19 Tim Armstrong, too, alludes to but does not fully articulate the
contingent nature of species being when he observes in Modernism, Tech-
nology, and the Body that “Darwinian science suggested a substrata [sic]
of primitive material within the body and brain, and aroused widespread
fears of regression, destabilizing relations between self and world. The
body became a more contingent mechanism, incorporating evolutionary
survivals.”20 Left out of these descriptions are the interspecies relations that
propel the contingent mechanism of natural selection, with the result that
the human body not only evinces its own animal ancestry but also bears
traces of the countless other species in whose company it evolved.
The revelation of the human’s “animal origins” or “primitive substra-
tum” complicates any rigid distinction between the human and other
animals, but its potential to unseat the human from its privileged position
atop the species hierarchy is limited. Social Darwinism and the other tele-
ological interpretations of evolutionary processes that proliferated in the
late Victorian era, Rohman notes, betray “a residual humanism” insofar as
6 | Canis Modernis

they resituate the human at the pinnacle of “a narrative of purposefulness.”21

Darwin biographer Peter Bowler explains:

The basic evolutionary position was indeed adopted by a majority

of late Victorian thinkers, but their beliefs about how we emerged
from the apes did not necessarily follow Darwin’s own suggestions
and certainly did not anticipate the modern viewpoint. . . . People
found that they could reconcile themselves to the prospect of
an animal ancestry provided that the evolutionary process was
seen as a force driving nature towards a morally significant goal.
Instead of seeing ourselves as standing above nature by virtue of
our possession of an immortal soul, we became the cutting edge of
nature’s drive toward the generation of ever-higher mental states.22

The humanist frameworks through which evolutionary theory came to be

understood in the Victorian era obscure the revolutionary implications of
Darwin’s ideas—a point Rohman makes via Elizabeth Grosz, who argues
that Darwin’s understanding of species distinctions as always provisional
and unstable “uncannily anticipates Derridean différance.” By underscoring
the arbitrariness with which organisms are classified as species, subspecies,
and varieties, Grosz insists, “Darwin inadvertently introduces a funda-
mental indeterminacy into the largely Newtonian framework he aspired to
transpose into the field of natural history: the impossibility of either exact
prediction or even precise calculation or designation. . . . This differentiated
his understanding of natural selection from that of his contemporaries and
predecessors: [evolutionary] science could not take the ready-made or
pregiven unity of individuals or classes for granted but had to understand
how any provisional unity and cohesion derives from the oscillations and
vacillations of difference. The origin can be nothing but a difference!”23
These “oscillations and vacillations of difference” destabilize the human
even more fundamentally than does the fact of human/animal kinship. By
pointing to the indeterminacy of species difference, Darwin highlights not
only the mutability of species, as Grosz notes, but also the role of interspe-
cies relations in shaping all organisms. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin
calls this implication of his theory of natural selection an insight “of the
highest importance”: “The structure of every organic being is related, in
the most essential yet often hidden manner, to that of all other organic
beings, with which it comes into competition for food or residence, or
 Introduction | 7

from which it has to escape, or on which it preys.” Evolution, in other

words, is always co-evolution; each species’ development is both driven
and delimited by “the mutual relations of all organic beings.”24 This insight
has profound consequences for post-Darwinian conceptualizations of the
human. Darwin’s proposition that species—including the human—shape
one another through competition, cooperation, parasitism, and predation
radically undermines Western humanism’s construction of the autonomous,
self-authored subject. To extend Armstrong’s insight, the human body
“harbour[s] a crisis” for modernism not only because it retains traces of
its “animal” past but also because it is permeated and perforated by the
interspecies relations that enabled its “evolutionary survivals.”25 Herein
lies the special significance of the dog for modernism’s reconfiguration of
the human: as our coevolutionary partners, dogs are specially equipped to
expose the human as a contingent being shaped by its material interactions
with other species.
Dogs have long been recognized as one of the first domesticated species,
yet their coevolutionary relationship with the human complicates even this
designation. Domestication is customarily understood as a process of “wild
animals’ being transformed into something more useful to humans,” in the
words of Guns, Germs, and Steel author Jared Diamond. As this definition
indicates, humans tend to think of domestication as something that hap-
pens to animals; that is, humans actively seek out potentially useful species
whose members passively adapt to meet human needs by submitting to
selective breeding programs. Thus even while Diamond’s study underscores
the complexity and limitations of the human role in domestication, his
repeated use of the passive voice echoes the familiar narrative of animal
submission to human will: “Wolves were domesticated . . . to become our
dogs” (emphasis added). Implicitly, then, domestication remains a process
driven by human agency to which animals passively submit. Even those
modifications that are not direct results of human intervention are char-
acterized as “automatic evolutionary responses . . . to the altered forces
of natural selection operating in human environments as compared with
wild environments.”26
But as Diamond’s own account reveals, domestication requires some
agency on the part of animals. Cheetahs, for example, “were prized by
ancient Egyptians and Assyrians and modern Indians as hunting animals
infinitely superior to dogs,” yet despite concerted efforts to domesticate
such an obviously useful species—rumor has it one of the Mughal emperors
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