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 CARR AHER'S

Polymer
Chemistry
NINTH EDITION

Charles E. Carraher, Jr.

CARR AHER'S

Polymer
Chemistry
NINTH EDITION
CARR AHER'S

Polymer
Chemistry
NINTH EDITION

Charles E. Carraher, Jr.

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
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Contents
Preface��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xv
Acknowledgments��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xvii
Author..............................................................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 Introduction to Polymers����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1

1.1 History of Polymers............................................................................................1
1.2 Why Polymers?................................................................................................. 11
1.3 Today’s Marketplace......................................................................................... 14
1.4 Environmental Assessment.............................................................................. 17
1.5 Summary..........................................................................................................20
Glossary.......................................................................................................................20
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 21
Further Readings......................................................................................................... 21
General Encyclopedias and Dictionaries..................................................................... 23

Chapter 2 Polymer Structure (Morphology)�������������������������������������������������������������������������������25

2.1 Stereochemistry of Polymers............................................................................26
2.1.1 Chain Length....................................................................................... 27
2.1.2 Pendant Groups and Branching........................................................... 29
2.1.3 Tacticity............................................................................................... 30
2.2 Molecular Interactions...................................................................................... 33
2.2.1 Glass Transition and Melt Transition.................................................. 36
2.2.2 Secondary Structure............................................................................ 39
2.3 Polymer Crystals..............................................................................................40
2.4 Amorphous Bulk State.....................................................................................44
2.5 Polymer Structure–Property Relationships......................................................44
2.6 Cross-Linking................................................................................................... 48
2.7 Crystalline and Amorphous Combinations...................................................... 50
2.8 Summary.......................................................................................................... 51
Glossary....................................................................................................................... 52
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 54
Further Readings......................................................................................................... 55

Chapter 3 Molecular Weight of Polymers����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57

3.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 57
3.2 Solubility.......................................................................................................... 58
3.2.1 Polymer Solubility: Actual.................................................................. 63
3.3 Average Molecular Weight Values................................................................... 65
3.4 Fractionation of Polydisperse Systems............................................................. 69
3.5 Chromatography............................................................................................... 69
3.6 Colligative Molecular Weights......................................................................... 73
3.6.1 Osmometry.......................................................................................... 73
3.6.2 End-Group Analysis............................................................................ 75
3.6.3 Ebulliometry and Cryometry.............................................................. 75

v
vi Contents

3.7 Light-Scattering Photometry............................................................................ 75

3.8 Other Techniques.............................................................................................. 82
3.8.1 Ultracentrifugation.............................................................................. 82
3.8.2 Mass Spectrometry.............................................................................. 83
3.9 Viscometry.......................................................................................................84
3.10 Summary..........................................................................................................90
Glossary....................................................................................................................... 91
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 93
Further Readings......................................................................................................... 95

Chapter 4 Polycondensation Polymers (Step-Reaction Polymerization)������������������������������������97

4.1 Comparison between Polymer Type and Kinetics of Polymerization..............97
4.2 Introduction.................................................................................................... 102
4.3 Stepwise Kinetics........................................................................................... 102
4.4 Polycondensation Mechanisms....................................................................... 107
4.5 Polyesters........................................................................................................ 108
4.6 Polycarbonates................................................................................................ 116
4.7 Synthetic Polyamides..................................................................................... 120
4.8 Polyimides...................................................................................................... 127
4.9 Polyamide-Imide............................................................................................ 130
4.10 Polybenzimidazoles and Related Polymers.................................................... 131
4.11 Polyurethanes and Polyureas.......................................................................... 133
4.12 Polysulfides..................................................................................................... 136
4.13 Polyethers and Epoxies................................................................................... 137
4.14 Polysulfones.................................................................................................... 141
4.15 Poly(Ether Ether Ketone) and Polyketones.................................................... 143
4.16 Phenolic and Amino Plastics.......................................................................... 144
4.17 Furan Resins................................................................................................... 146
4.18 Synthetic Routes............................................................................................. 146
4.19 Liquid Crystals............................................................................................... 147
4.20 Microfibers..................................................................................................... 151
4.21 General Stepwise Polymerization.................................................................. 152
4.22 Summary........................................................................................................ 154
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 155
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 156
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 158

Chapter 5 Ionic Chain-Reaction and Complex Coordination Polymerization

(Addition Polymerization)���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 159
5.1 Cationic Polymerization................................................................................. 161
5.2 Anionic Polymerization.................................................................................. 166
5.3 Stereoregularity.............................................................................................. 171
5.4 Polymerization with Complex Coordination Catalysts.................................. 171
5.5 Soluble Stereoregulating Catalysis................................................................. 173
5.6 Polyethylenes.................................................................................................. 176
5.7 Polypropylene................................................................................................. 183
5.8 Polymers from 1,4-Dienes.............................................................................. 188
5.9 Polyisobutylene............................................................................................... 190
Contents vii

5.10 Metathesis Reactions...................................................................................... 191

5.11 Zwitterionic Polymerization........................................................................... 193
5.12 Isomerization Polymerization......................................................................... 193
5.13 Precipitation Polymerization.......................................................................... 194
5.14 Summary........................................................................................................ 194
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 195
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 196
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 198

Chapter 6 Free-Radical Chain Polymerization (Addition Polymerization)������������������������������ 199

6.1 Initiators for Free-Radical Chain Polymerization.......................................... 199
6.2 Mechanism for Free-Radical Chain Polymerization...................................... 203
6.3 Chain Transfer................................................................................................209
6.4 Polymerization Techniques............................................................................ 211
6.5 Fluorine-Containing Polymers....................................................................... 216
6.6 Polystyrene..................................................................................................... 220
6.7 Poly(Vinyl Chloride)...................................................................................... 222
6.8 Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)............................................................................. 225
6.9 Poly(Vinyl Alcohol) and Poly(Vinyl Acetals)................................................ 228
6.10 Polyacrylonitrile............................................................................................. 228
6.11 Solid-State Irradiation Polymerization........................................................... 229
6.12 Plasma Polymerizations.................................................................................. 230
6.13 Summary........................................................................................................ 231
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 231
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 232
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 234

Chapter 7 Copolymerization����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 235

7.1 Kinetics of Copolymerization........................................................................ 236
7.2 Q-e Scheme....................................................................................................240
7.3 Commercial Copolymers................................................................................ 242
7.4 Block Copolymers.......................................................................................... 242
7.5 Graft Copolymers...........................................................................................244
7.6 Elastomers...................................................................................................... 245
7.7 Thermoplastic Elastomers..............................................................................248
7.8 Blends............................................................................................................. 250
7.8.1 Immiscible Blends............................................................................. 250
7.8.2 Miscible Blends................................................................................. 252
7.9 Fluoroelastomers............................................................................................ 253
7.10 Nitrile Rubber................................................................................................. 253
7.11 Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene Terpolymers............................................. 254
7.12 EPDM Rubber................................................................................................ 255
7.13 Networks: General.......................................................................................... 255
7.14 Polymer Mixtures........................................................................................... 256
7.15 Dendrites........................................................................................................ 257
7.16 Ionomers......................................................................................................... 259
7.17 Viscosity Modifiers........................................................................................260
7.18 Summary........................................................................................................264
viii Contents

Glossary.....................................................................................................................264
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 265
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 267

Chapter 8 Composites and Fillers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 269

8.1 Fillers.............................................................................................................. 269
8.2 Types of Composites....................................................................................... 270
8.3 Long-Fiber Composites: Theory.................................................................... 272
8.4 Fibers and Resins............................................................................................ 274
8.5 Long-Fiber Composites: Applications............................................................ 276
8.6 Nanocomposites.............................................................................................280
8.7 Fabrication...................................................................................................... 283
8.7.1 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites..................................... 283
8.7.2 Structural Composites....................................................................... 283
8.7.3 Laminating........................................................................................284
8.7.4 Particulate..........................................................................................284
8.8 Metal-Matrix Composites.............................................................................. 285
8.9 Summary........................................................................................................ 287
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 288
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 288
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 289

Chapter 9 Naturally Occurring Polymers: Plants��������������������������������������������������������������������� 291

9.1 Polysaccharides.............................................................................................. 292
9.2 Cellulose......................................................................................................... 294
9.3 Paper............................................................................................................... 296
9.4 Cellulose-Regenerating Processes.................................................................. 298
9.4.1 Rayon.................................................................................................300
9.4.2 Cellophane......................................................................................... 301
9.5 Esters and Ethers of Cellulose........................................................................ 301
9.5.1 Inorganic Esters................................................................................. 301
9.5.2 Organic Esters...................................................................................302
9.5.3 Organic Ethers...................................................................................304
9.6 Starch..............................................................................................................306
9.7 Homopolysaccharides.....................................................................................308
9.7.1 Fructans............................................................................................. 311
9.7.2 Chitin and Chitosan........................................................................... 311
9.7.3 Others................................................................................................ 313
9.8 Heteropolysaccharides.................................................................................... 313
9.9 Synthetic Rubbers........................................................................................... 316
9.10 Naturally Occurring Polyisoprenes................................................................ 322
9.11 Resins............................................................................................................. 326
9.12 Balloons.......................................................................................................... 327
9.13 Lignin............................................................................................................. 329
9.14 Melanins......................................................................................................... 330
9.15 Asphalt............................................................................................................ 331
9.16 Summary........................................................................................................ 332
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 333
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 334
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 335
Contents ix

Chapter 10 Naturally Occurring Polymers: Animals����������������������������������������������������������������� 337

10.1 Proteins........................................................................................................... 339
10.2 Levels of Protein Structure............................................................................. 342
10.2.1 Primary Structure.............................................................................. 342
10.2.2 Secondary Structure.......................................................................... 342
10.2.2.1 Keratins..............................................................................344
10.2.2.2 Silk..................................................................................... 345
10.2.2.3 Wool................................................................................... 347
10.2.2.4 Collagen............................................................................. 347
10.2.2.5 Elastin................................................................................348
10.2.3 Tertiary Structure..............................................................................348
10.2.3.1 Globular Proteins...............................................................348
10.2.3.2 Fibrous Proteins................................................................. 350
10.2.3.3 Membrane Proteins............................................................ 350
10.2.4 Quaternary Structure........................................................................ 350
10.3 Nucleic Acids.................................................................................................. 353
10.4 Flow of Biological Information...................................................................... 357
10.5 RNA Interference........................................................................................... 359
10.6 Polymer Structure........................................................................................... 361
10.7 Protein Folding...............................................................................................364
10.8 Genetic Engineering....................................................................................... 366
10.9 DNA Profiling................................................................................................ 369
10.10 Human Genome: General............................................................................... 371
10.11 Chromosomes................................................................................................. 376
10.11.1 Next Step........................................................................................... 387
10.12 Spliceosomes.................................................................................................. 388
10.13 Proteomics...................................................................................................... 388
10.14 Protein Site Activity Identification................................................................. 390
10.15 Summary........................................................................................................ 390
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 391
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 394
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 395

Chapter 11 Organometallic and Inorganic–Organic Polymers�������������������������������������������������� 397

11.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 397
11.2 Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms.................................................................... 399
11.3 Condensation Organometallic Polymers........................................................400
11.3.1 Polysiloxanes..................................................................................... 401
11.3.2 Organotin and Related Condensation Polymers................................404
11.4 Coordination Polymers...................................................................................407
11.4.1 Platinum-Containing Polymers.........................................................408
11.5 Addition Polymers..........................................................................................409
11.5.1 Ferrocene-Containing and Related Polymers................................... 411
11.5.2 Polyphosphazenes and Related Polymers......................................... 413
11.5.3 Boron-Containing Polymers............................................................. 414
11.6 Ion-Exchange Resins...................................................................................... 415
11.7 Summary........................................................................................................ 417
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 417
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 417
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 418
x Contents

Chapter 12 Inorganic Polymers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 421

12.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 421
12.2 Portland Cement............................................................................................. 421
12.3 Other Cements................................................................................................ 424
12.4 Silicates........................................................................................................... 424
12.5 Silicon Dioxide (Amorphous)......................................................................... 428
12.6 Kinds of Amorphous Glass............................................................................ 430
12.7 Safety Glass.................................................................................................... 432
12.7.1 New Applications of Glass................................................................ 434
12.8 Lenses............................................................................................................. 434
12.9 Solgel.............................................................................................................. 437
12.10 Aerogels.......................................................................................................... 437
12.11 Silicon Dioxide (Crystalline Forms): Quartz Forms......................................440
12.12 Silicon Dioxide in Electronic Chips............................................................... 441
12.13 Silicon Dioxide in Optical Fibers................................................................... 442
12.14 Asbestos.......................................................................................................... 443
12.15 Fly Ash and Aluminosilicates........................................................................ 443
12.16 Polymeric Carbon: Diamond.......................................................................... 445
12.17 Polymeric Carbon: Graphite...........................................................................446
12.18 Internal Cyclization: Carbon Fibers and Related Materials........................... 447
12.19 Carbon Nanotubes..........................................................................................449
12.19.1 Structures.......................................................................................... 450
12.20 Bitumens......................................................................................................... 455
12.21 Carbon Black.................................................................................................. 456
12.22 Polysulfur....................................................................................................... 457
12.23 Ceramics......................................................................................................... 458
12.24 High-Temperature Superconductors............................................................... 459
12.24.1 Discovery of the 123-Compound...................................................... 459
12.24.2 Structure of the 123-Compound........................................................460
12.25 Zeolites...........................................................................................................460
12.26 Summary........................................................................................................ 462
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 462
Exercises....................................................................................................................464
Further Readings.......................................................................................................464

Chapter 13 Testing and Spectrometric Characterization of Polymers���������������������������������������� 467

13.1 Spectronic Characterization of Polymers.......................................................468
13.1.1 Infrared Spectroscopy.......................................................................468
13.1.2 Raman Spectroscopy.........................................................................469
13.1.3 NMR Spectroscopy...........................................................................469
13.1.4 NMR Applications............................................................................ 471
13.1.5 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy............................. 471
13.1.6 X-Ray Spectroscopy.......................................................................... 472
13.2 Surface Characterization................................................................................ 472
13.2.1 Auger Electron Spectroscopy and X-Ray Photoelectron
Spectroscopy..................................................................................... 473
13.2.2 Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscopy......................................... 473
13.2.3 Electron Microscopy......................................................................... 474
13.2.4 Scanning Probe Microscopy............................................................. 474
13.2.5 Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy................................................... 477
Contents xi

13.3 Amorphous Region Determinations............................................................... 477

13.4 Mass Spectrometry......................................................................................... 478
13.5 Thermal Analysis........................................................................................... 479
13.6 Thermal Property Tests.................................................................................. 481
13.6.1 Softening Range................................................................................ 481
13.6.2 Heat Deflection Temperature............................................................ 481
13.6.3 Glass Transition Temperatures.......................................................... 481
13.6.4 Thermal Conductivity....................................................................... 482
13.6.5 Thermal Expansion........................................................................... 483
13.7 Flammability..................................................................................................484
13.8 Electric Properties: Theory............................................................................484
13.9 Electric Measurements................................................................................... 486
13.9.1 Dielectric Constant............................................................................ 487
13.9.2 Electric Resistance............................................................................ 487
13.9.3 Dissipation Factor and Power Loss................................................... 488
13.9.4 Electric Conductivity and Dielectric Strength.................................. 488
13.10 Optical Property Tests.................................................................................... 490
13.10.1 Index of Refraction............................................................................ 490
13.10.2 Optical Clarity................................................................................... 491
13.10.3 Absorption and Reflectance.............................................................. 491
13.11 Weatherability................................................................................................ 491
13.12 Chemical Resistance...................................................................................... 491
13.13 Measurement of Particle Size......................................................................... 493
13.14 Measurement of Adhesion.............................................................................. 493
13.15 Permeability and Diffusion............................................................................ 495
13.16 Summary........................................................................................................ 496
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 497
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 498
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 499
Chapter 14 Rheology and Physical Tests������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 501
14.1 Rheology........................................................................................................ 501
14.1.1 Rheology and Physical Tests.............................................................504
14.1.1.1 Response Time................................................................... 507
14.2 Typical Stress–Strain Behavior...................................................................... 507
14.3 Stress–Strain Relationships............................................................................ 511
14.4 Specific Physical Tests.................................................................................... 513
14.4.1 Tensile Strength................................................................................. 513
14.4.2 Tensile Strength of Inorganic and Metallic Fibers and Whiskers..... 514
14.4.3 Compressive Strength........................................................................ 515
14.4.4 Impact Strength................................................................................. 516
14.4.5 Hardness............................................................................................ 517
14.4.6 Brinell Hardness................................................................................ 517
14.4.7 Rockwell Hardness............................................................................ 517
14.4.8 Shear Strength................................................................................... 519
14.4.9 Abrasion Resistance.......................................................................... 520
14.4.10 Failure................................................................................................ 520
14.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 520
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 521
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 522
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 522
xii Contents

Chapter 15 Additives������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 525

15.1 Plasticizers...................................................................................................... 525
15.2 Antioxidants................................................................................................... 529
15.3 Heat Stabilizers.............................................................................................. 530
15.4 Ultraviolet Stabilizers..................................................................................... 531
15.5 Flame Retardants............................................................................................ 532
15.6 Colorants......................................................................................................... 533
15.7 Curing Agents................................................................................................. 533
15.8 Antistatic Agents: Antistats............................................................................ 534
15.9 Chemical Blowing Agents.............................................................................. 534
15.10 Compatibilizers.............................................................................................. 535
15.11 Impact Modifiers............................................................................................ 535
15.12 Processing Aids.............................................................................................. 535
15.13 Lubricants....................................................................................................... 535
15.14 Microorganism Inhibitors............................................................................... 535
15.15 Summary........................................................................................................ 536
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 536
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 537
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 538

Chapter 16 Reactions on Polymers��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 539

16.1 Reactions with Polyolefins and Polyenes........................................................ 539
16.2 Reactions of Aromatic and Aliphatic Pendant Groups..................................540
16.3 Degradation.................................................................................................... 541
16.4 Cross-Linking................................................................................................. 543
16.5 Reactivities of End Groups............................................................................. 545
16.6 Supramolecules and Self-Assembly...............................................................546
16.7 Transfer and Retention of Oxygen.................................................................. 553
16.8 Nature’s Macromolecular Catalysts............................................................... 556
16.9 Photosynthesis................................................................................................ 561
16.9.1 Purple Photosynthetic Bacteria......................................................... 563
16.9.2 Green Sulfur Bacteria.......................................................................564
16.10 Mechanisms of Physical Energy Absorption.................................................564
16.11 Breakage of Polymeric Materials................................................................... 566
16.12 Summary........................................................................................................ 568
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 568
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 569
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 570

Chapter 17 Synthesis of Reactants and Intermediates for Polymers������������������������������������������ 571

17.1 Monomer Synthesis from Basic Feedstocks................................................... 571
17.2 Reactants for Step-Reaction Polymerization.................................................. 579
17.3 Synthesis of Vinyl Monomers........................................................................ 585
17.4 Synthesis of Free-Radical Initiators............................................................... 590
17.5 Summary........................................................................................................ 591
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 592
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 592
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 592
Contents xiii

Chapter 18 Polymer Technology������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 593

18.1 Fibers.............................................................................................................. 596
18.1.1 Polymer Processing: Spinning and Fiber Production........................ 596
18.1.1.1 Introduction....................................................................... 596
18.1.1.2 Melt Spinning.................................................................... 597
18.1.1.3 Dry Spinning..................................................................... 599
18.1.1.4 Wet Spinning..................................................................... 599
18.1.1.5 Other Spinning Processes..................................................600
18.1.1.6 Nonspinning Fiber Production..........................................600
18.1.1.7 Natural Fibers.................................................................... 601
18.2 Elastomers......................................................................................................602
18.2.1 Elastomer Processing........................................................................602
18.3 Films and Sheets.............................................................................................604
18.3.1 Calendering.......................................................................................605
18.4 Polymeric Foams............................................................................................606
18.5 Reinforced Plastics (Composites) and Laminates..........................................606
18.5.1 Composites........................................................................................606
18.5.2 Particle-Reinforced Composites–Large-Particle Composites...........607
18.5.3 Fiber-Reinforced Composites............................................................607
18.5.4 Processing of Fiber-Reinforced Composites.....................................608
18.5.5 Structural Composites.......................................................................609
18.5.6 Laminating........................................................................................609
18.6 Molding.......................................................................................................... 610
18.6.1 Injection Molding.............................................................................. 610
18.6.2 Blow Molding.................................................................................... 612
18.6.3 Rotational Molding........................................................................... 614
18.6.4 Compression and Transfer Molding.................................................. 614
18.6.5 Thermoforming................................................................................. 616
18.7 Casting............................................................................................................ 618
18.8 Extrusion........................................................................................................ 618
18.9 Coatings.......................................................................................................... 619
18.9.1 Processing......................................................................................... 621
18.9.2 Rainwear........................................................................................... 623
18.10 Adhesives........................................................................................................ 623
18.11 Summary........................................................................................................ 628
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 628
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 630
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 631

Chapter 19 Selected Topics��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 633

19.1 Conductive Polymeric Materials.................................................................... 633
19.1.1 Photoconductive and Photonic Polymers.......................................... 633
19.1.2 Electrically Conductive Polymers..................................................... 634
19.1.3 Electrochromism...............................................................................640
19.1.4 Nanowires..........................................................................................640
19.2 Nonlinear Optical Behavior........................................................................... 642
19.3 Photophysics and Photochemistry: Basics...................................................... 643
19.4 Drug Design and Activity...............................................................................648
19.5 Synthetic Biomedical Polymers...................................................................... 651
19.5.1 Dentistry............................................................................................ 654
xiv Contents

19.6 Sutures............................................................................................................ 656

19.7 Geotextiles...................................................................................................... 662
19.8 Smart Materials.............................................................................................. 662
19.9 High-Performance Thermoplastics................................................................664
19.10 Construction and Building.............................................................................666
19.11 Flame-Resistant Textiles................................................................................ 667
19.12 Water-Soluble Polymers................................................................................. 669
19.13 Anaerobic Adhesives...................................................................................... 670
19.14 Hydrogels........................................................................................................ 672
19.15 Emerging Polymers........................................................................................ 672
19.16 Green Materials.............................................................................................. 677
19.17 New Materials: Additional Aspects...............................................................684
19.18 Summary........................................................................................................ 686
Glossary..................................................................................................................... 687
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 688
Further Readings....................................................................................................... 689

Solutions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 691
Appendix A: Symbols������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 719
Appendix B: Trade Names���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 725
Appendix C: Syllabus................................................................................................................... 757
Appendix D: Polymer Core Course Committees���������������������������������������������������������������������� 759
Appendix E: Structures of Common Polymers������������������������������������������������������������������������� 761
Appendix F: Mathematical Values and Units��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 765
Appendix G: Comments on Health............................................................................................. 767
Appendix H: ISO 9000 and 14000.............................................................................................. 769
Appendix I: Electronic Education Websites������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 771
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