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Flywheel Energy Storage Systems and Their Applications: A Review

Article in International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology · April 2024

DOI: 10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V72I4P122

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International Journal of Engineering Trends and Technology Volume 72 Issue 4, 209-215, April 2024
ISSN: 2231–5381 / https://doi.org/10.14445/22315381/IJETT-V72I4P122 © 2024 Seventh Sense Research Group®

Original Article

Flywheel Energy Storage Systems and Their

Applications: A Review
N. Z. Nkomo1, A. A. Alugongo2
1,2
Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Management & Mechanical Engineering,
Vaal University of Technology, Vanderbijlpark, South Africa.
1Corresponding Author : [email protected]

Received: 03 October 2023 Revised: 29 December 2024 Accepted: 02 March 2024 Published: 24 April 2024

Abstract - This study gives a critical review of flywheel energy storage systems and their feasibility in various applications.
Flywheel energy storage systems have gained increased popularity as a method of environmentally friendly energy storage.
Fly wheels store energy in mechanical rotational energy to be then converted into the required power form when required.
Energy storage is a vital component of any power system, as the stored energy can be used to offset inconsistencies in the
power delivery system. The energy crisis, mainly in developing countries, has had an adverse effect on various sectors,
resulting in a resort to various energy storage systems to cater for the outages that are experienced. Solar systems have been
the preferred backup system to use. However, the high cost of purchase and maintenance of solar batteries has been a major
hindrance. Flywheel energy storage systems are suitable and economical when frequent charge and discharge cycles are
required. Furthermore, flywheel batteries have high power density and a low environmental footprint. Various techniques
are being employed to improve the efficiency of the flywheel, including the use of composite materials. Application areas of
flywheel technology will be discussed in this review paper in fields such as electric vehicles, storage systems for solar and
wind generation as well as in uninterrupted power supply systems.

Keywords - Energy storage systems, Flywheel, Mechanical batteries, Renewable energy.

1. Introduction Energy storage devices can be grouped into four classes

Energy is an essential part of any modern society and is which are electrical based, electrochemical based, thermal,
essential for its development. There is extremely high and mechanical systems. Currently, the most widely used
energy demand in today’s 4th industrial revolution. The energy storage system is the chemical battery. However,
increase in energy demand and its impact on the chemical batteries have several shortcomings, such as high
environment has led to increasing dependence on renewable cost, low thermal reliability, short life cycles and high
energy. Energy storage is imperative in any grid system, and maintenance costs. Furthermore, chemical batteries cannot
it works as an energy buffer that can alleviate imbalances provide high power in a short time and are unsuitable for
between energy production and consumption [1]. The use of applications where rapid discharge and charging occur
renewable energy is gaining significant traction in frequently. Disposal of chemical batteries creates water and
electricity supply due to the limited quantity of fossil fuels air pollution. As the batteries corrode, chemicals soak and
available. Furthermore, research has shown beyond doubt contaminate groundwater and surface water. About 4% of
that fossil fuels are harmful to the environment. In attempts landfill waste includes e-waste, often containing batteries
to reduce environmental impact this has led to significant [11] Flywheel Energy Storage Systems (FESS) is a
amounts of research in renewable energy. However, most of sustainable energy storage source as it is environmentally
the renewable energy sources from wind and solar tend to friendly, can sustain infinite charge/discharge cycles and
be intermittent, with some need for energy storage systems has a high power-to-weight ratio in comparison to chemical
to buffer these fluctuations in power generation. If an batteries [12]. A flywheel is a mechanical battery that is
effective storage system is coupled to intermittent made up of a spinning mass around an axis. The flywheel
renewable energy, the power supply can be consistent and works through the principle of storing energy in the form of
this will add considerable value to the system and make it kinetic rotational energy [13]. The flywheel has existed for
sustainable [2]. There are a number of energy storage thousands of years, and a typical example is the potter’s
systems in use, such as Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) [3], wheel, which uses a flywheel system to preserve energy
Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) [4], Battery under its own inertia [14] The flywheel is also used
Energy Storage (BES) [5], Capacitor Storage (CS) [6], considerably in reciprocating engines as the torque is
Super Capacitor Energy Storage (SCES) [7], Thermal intermittent. The flywheel can be used to smooth out the
Energy Storage (TES) [8], Hydrogen Storage System (HSS) discontinuous energy source [15]. FESS is generally
[9] and Flywheel Energy Storage System (FESS) [10] supported by active magnetic bearing (AMB) systems due

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)

 N. Z. Nkomo & A. A. Alugongo / IJETT, 72(4), 209-215, 2024

to their low friction [16] Flywheels have been used flywheel, the mass, size, and speed of rotation must
traditionally to smoothen out fluctuations in irregular drive increase. However, the material of the flywheel governs the
mechanics. However, flywheel systems are gaining traction highest possible speed of the flywheel. The moment of
due to advancements in the technology of magnetic inertia of a flywheel is calculated as a function of its shape.
bearings, the material of flywheel and drive systems [2]. In steel solid cylinder flywheel rotors, the inertia is
Flywheels are now a possible technology for power storage calculated as shown in equation 3.
1
systems for fixed or mobile installations. FESS have 𝐼 = 𝑟 4 𝜋𝛼ᴘ (3)
2
numerous advantages, such as high power density, high
energy density, no capacity degradation, ease of
Where 𝛂 is the length of the cylinder, and p is the
measurement of state of charge, don’t require periodic
density of the cylinder material. The maximum energy
maintenance and have short recharge times [17].
density in relation to the volume and mass is as shown in
Furthermore, flywheels are environmentally friendly as they
equations 4 and 5, respectively.
contain no chemicals and are a scalable technology [16]. A
𝑒𝑣 = 𝐾𝜎 (4)
shortcoming of FESS is its high self-discharge rate, with
losses in the region of 5-20% per hour [18, 19]. FESS
systems can be combined with renewable energy due to 𝑒𝑚 = 𝐾𝜎⁄𝑝 (5)
their fast response time, making them suitable for
uninterrupted power to the grid. In equations 4 and 5, ev and em represent the kinetic
energy per unit volume. K represents the flywheel shape
The energy storage systems in use have limited cycles factor, σ represents the maximum stress, and p is density.
of storage and have an impact on the environment, such as The flywheel can take several shapes, such as constant
lithium battery energy storage. The mining of lithium and stress disk, conical disk, constant thickness (pierced and
the manufacture of the battery has an environmental impact. unpierced) disk, disk with rim and thin rim, as shown in.
Therefore, there is a need for a more environmentally The shape of the flywheel influences its shape factor.
friendly energy storage mechanism that also has a lower
carbon footprint, such as FESS technology. FESS has a Table 1. Showing shape factor (K) for various planar geometries of
flywheels [17, 2]
significant advantage over lithium energy storage and other
chemical batteries in that it has a fast charge and discharge
Shape
rate, low maintenance, high energy storage density and Shape of
Cross-Sectional shape factor
minimal environmental pollution. Furthermore, the use of flywheel
(K)
FESS technology gives a battery that is capable of
thousands of cycles without degradation in the depth, rate
or frequency of charge cycles, unlike chemical batteries.
Disc 1.000
The objective of this article is to give a review of the
FESS technology, its application, and future trends. The
paper will give insight into how FESS works and will
highlight investigations that have been done into FES Modified
technology to improve its efficiency. constant 0.931
stress disc
2. Working Principle
A FESS system works by storing up charge in the form
of kinetic energy. The flywheel system is enclosed in a
Conical disc 0.806
vacuum containment to reduce friction. The kinetic energy
is transferred to the flywheel through external drives, which
may be mechanical or electrical in nature. The amount of
energy that can be collected in a flywheel system is directly Flat
proportional to the moment of inertia and the square of its unpierced 0.606
angular velocity, as shown in equation 1. disc
1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝐼𝜔2 (1)
2

Where Ek is the flywheel energy, I represent the

moment of inertia, and 𝜔 is the flywheel angular velocity. Thin firm 0.500
The moment of inertia is dependent on two variables which
are the flywheel mass and diameter, as shown in equation 2.
1
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 (2)
2
Rim with
0.400
web
Where m is the mass of the flywheel, therefore, from
equations (1) and (2), to increase the energy storage of the

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Research has been carried out by DeTeresa and

Grooves (2001) [26] who concluded that carbon fibre-
reinforced composites are most suited in flywheel designs
for high performance.

5. Bearing Systems
The bearings systems used to support the flywheel rotor
must have minimal frictional drag. The options available are
the mechanical rolling element and magnetic bearings. The
mechanical rolling element bearings are normally lubricated
using oils capable of operating in vacuum conditions.
Fig. 1 Flywheel design [20] Mechanical bearings are suited for low-speed flywheels and
tend to have high friction, high energy losses, low operating
3. Components of FESS lifespan and high maintenance costs. On the other hand,
The FESS typical components are the spinning rotor, magnetic bearings such as the Passive Magnetic Bearing
bearings, dual-function motor/generator, power electronic (PMB) and the Active Magnetic Bearing (AMB) operate by
unit and housing unit, as shown in Fig. 1. Flywheels are levitating around the moving rotor shaft without coming
broadly classified into two types, namely low speed into direct contact with it. Due to their lack of physical
(<10 000 rpm) and high speed (<100 000 rpm). The low- contact, these magnetic bearings work well with high-speed
speed FESS typically use heavy materials such as steel, flywheels and have low friction and, hence, low energy
whereas the high-speed FESS normally use lighter losses [27, 28].
composite materials. Composite flywheels allow for much
higher density than conventional steel-based flywheels due 5.1. Passive Magnetic Bearing (PMB)
to their low density and high mechanical strength properties Passive Magnetic Bearings (PMBs) are bearings that
[21]. use permanent magnets to compensate for the weight of the
flywheel without the need for any power requirement.
4. Materials of the Flywheel Passive magnetic bearings cannot be used as the sole
The flywheel rotor is the main component of the FESS bearing due to Earnshaw’s theorem. Earnshaw’s theorem
and is the rotating disc that is responsible for storing the states that a collection of point charges cannot be
kinetic energy. Two main kinds of material have been used maintained in a stable equilibrium configuration solely by
in flywheel design namely steel and composite materials the electrostatic interaction of the charges. Furthermore,
[22]. PMBs cannot provide a stable suspension in all dimensions
and are used only as an auxiliary bearings [29, 30].
4.1. Steel Flywheel
Steel flywheels work best at lower rotational speeds of 5.2. Active Magnetic Bearing (AMB)
less than 10000 rpm. Much research into steel flywheels is Active magnetic bearings require a power source to
focused on enhancing the geometry profile using various work. The AMB assist to reduce the vibrations of the rotor
software modelling tools to improve the energy-carrying [31]. However, Active Magnetic Bearings (AMB) can only
density [23]. be used after careful consideration of the power loss from
energizing the system versus the gain obtained.
4.2. Composite Flywheels
Composite flywheels can withstand higher rotational 5.3. Safety and Containment
speeds and stress compared to conventional steel flywheels. There is a need for a safety containment system in the
Furthermore, composite materials are lighter than steel case of a failed or runaway flywheel. The FESS failure
flywheels. This implies that composites can find use in could originate from crack growth due to material flaws,
high-speed flywheel systems and can handle speeds up to bearing failure or external shock load, as shown in Table 2.
100 000 rpm [24, 17, 25]. Composite materials have been The vacuum chamber acts as the first safety enclosure to
traditionally more expensive than steel; however, with prevent rotor debris from flying free. As a contingency,
advancements in technology and the availability of there are barrier systems put in place which include thick
materials, composites are now cost-competitive. steel, concrete chambers and/or underground vaults [17].
Table 2. Typical failure root causes and their failure mode for flywheel systems [32]
Cause Initial Failure Mode
Flywheel rotor damage is caused by rotational stress due to crack Rotor pieces break off and fly off in both
propagation or excessive speed. tangential and radial directions.
The flywheel shaft or hub is damaged due to torsional stresses, which The flywheel rotor loosens and flies off in a radial
can be caused by excessive bearing vibrations. direction.
Composite flywheel rotor cracks on softening of the resin. This Flywheel particles break out in a radial and
occurs if the vacuum is not sufficient. tangential direction.
External factors to the flywheel, such as earthquakes and penetrations Damaged flywheel particles are being flung off in
of the flywheel holding chamber. radial and tangential directions.

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6. FESS Applications FESS technology can be used as a hybrid system in

FESS have numerous applications and possible vehicles. The battery lifespan management system in
applications, such as Uninterruptable Power Supply (UPS), electric vehicles degrades over time due to
power smoothing, aircraft and military projects, vehicles, charging/discharging processes due to stochastic heat and
renewable energy storage systems and aircraft carriers. In mass transfer. FESS can be integrated into the battery
the subsequent subsections, these applications will be storage system and can improve the battery lifespan [36,
reviewed and presented. 37].

6.1. FESS in Vehicles 6.2. Renewable Energy and FESS

FESS can be used as the only source of energy for the Wind and solar power generation is becoming a
propulsion of a vehicle, as was done with Gyro Buses. Gyro significant power generation medium. However, both these
buses developed by Oerlikon shown in 2 were used as power generation methods fluctuate widely, with wind
regular transport in Switzerland from October 1943 and power depending on wind speed and solar power dependent
used to ply a 4.5km route between Yverdon-les Bains and on the availability of sunshine. There is, therefore, a need to
Grandson [33]. The bus was also used in Kinshasa in the have an energy storage system embedded in the renewable
Democratic Republic of Congo until 1969. The flywheel energy system.
was made from steel with a mass of 1500 kg and had a
vertical rotation axis with an outside diameter of 1.6m. The Solar photovoltaic power is an environmentally
recharging process took approximately 4 minutes, friendly and sustainable energy source that is also
impacting 150 kW [33]. The generator motor got its power economical [38]. However, the irregular nature of the solar
from a three-phase 50 Hz network through bar collectors on irradiance results in unstable power. Hence some form of
the roof of the bus. The motor had a maximum speed of storage systems must be used with solar systems. A French
2900 rpm and a minimum operation speed of 2300 rpm start-up company Energiestro, has developed FESS for use
implying 63% of the stored energy was wasted [33]. This in residential solar PV systems. The flywheel is made from
bus could attain speeds of 55 km/hr and cover 5 to 6 km prestressed concrete, and the idea is for its purpose in rural
between charges. electrification in developing countries [39].

The flywheel technology at this time was rudimentary; 6.3. Uninterruptible Power System (UPS)
however, the system worked. The flywheel has to be Most available FESS systems find use under UPS
adequately sized to be able to move the vehicle a applications. The main reason for the use of FESS systems
considerable distance. This type of technology can work for in this application is due to the high-power quality, longer
buses that travel set routes within the city. This bus had life cycles and low maintenance requirement of the system
some disadvantages, which led to its demise with one of [16]. Direct Current (DC) FESS can be used almost
those being that the spinning flywheel acts like a huge anywhere that batteries are used in UPS systems.
gyroscope which resists change in orientation. This could
also be an advantage as this also resulted in a smooth ride. The flywheel system can provide power during the
period the backup generator is firing up. Generally,
There is a need for further research into the use of this chemical batteries can supply backup power for much
technology in hybrid vehicles to create cheaper and longer- longer than FESS can. However, this must be looked at in
lasting batteries. The parasitic loses of charging the perspective in areas where the flywheel would be more
flywheel can be offset by regenerative braking systems and suited.
optimization techniques to reduce fuel consumption. During
regenerative braking of the flywheel, the kinetic energy The flywheel could have the advantage of [40]:
from the automotive can be used to run a generator and • Useful operating span of approximately 20 years,
return some power to the flywheel system [34]. whereas UPS chemical batteries typically last between
3 - 5 years.
• Chemical batteries require a narrow optimum
temperature range, whereas flywheels can handle
harsher ambient conditions.
• Frequent discharge and charge cycles have very little
impact on flywheel life in comparison to chemical
batteries.
• Flywheels are compact and can use only about 10 to
20% of the space required by chemical batteries for the
same output.
• Flywheels require much less maintenance, hence
lowering the operating costs.
• Flywheels do not have to contend with safety issues
related to chemicals.
Fig. 2 Flywheel powered Gyro Bus [35]

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6.4. FESS in Aerospace mechanical batteries, such as the FESS over chemical
Flywheels are finding applications in the aerospace batteries, will determine the development of this
industry as a store of energy as well as to control the technology. The advantages of FESS which include their
orientation of satellites [41]. FESS are important in the low cost, high discharge and discharge cycles and
space industry as they can substitute hazardous and heavy reliability, make it attractive. However, it has disadvantages
chemical batteries. FESS technology can be used in small such as the complexity of the design, the need for high
satellites and probes to maned power stations. In power speeds and related problems that originate from rotating a
stations, two counter-rotating flywheels are used to counter huge mass at high speed. There is a need for further research
the net torque and momentum. In addition to energy storage, into this technology to improve it.
the flywheel can provide the added functionality of attitude
control; these systems are normally referred to by NASA as There is research taking place into various composite
flywheel-based Integrated Power and Attitude Control flywheel rotors that are lower in cost and can operate at
Systems (IPACS) [42]. The attractiveness of FESS systems higher speeds safely. There is also a thrust into the use of
in aerospace has initiated research to use the technology in lighter and environmentally friendly materials [48].
hybrid mode or as a sole storage system [8, 43].
There is significant research being done into the various
6.5. Energy Saving in Repetitive Motions ways to minimize losses which have an adverse effect on
In engineering applications, some of the machine the charge holding capacity. The losses are mechanical and
motions are repetitive in nature, such as cranes lifting electrical in nature. These two need to be tackled
objects to relocate them to another area. A robotic arm concurrently to produce an efficient FESS.
which follows a predetermined path will accelerate and
decelerate according to the required speed. It is a possibility 8. Conclusion
that through the regenerative process, the excess energy will This review paper has presented a review of FESS and
be harvested and utilized in the next trajectory of the robotic its various applications. Energy storage systems are
arm. The flywheel energy storage system can utilize this important in creating a buffer for renewable energy sources.
energy hence improving the efficiency of the operation Chemical batteries are the preferred method of energy
significantly [44, 45]. Furthermore, the flywheel is suited storage; however, this review article shows that FESS
for repeated charge and discharge cycles with minimal loss technology has several advantages over chemical batteries.
in efficiency. Research that is being carried out by FESS, including
optimizing the rotor shape and material, has the potential to
6.6. Military Applications reduce cost and increase efficiency considerably. FESS
Flywheel energy storage is finding use in military systems have been used in a wide range of end uses such as
applications such as charging modules for aircraft renewable energy, transportation, space and others. There is
electromagnetic launch systems [46]. The flywheel energy a need for further research on FESS systems in an
storage is a substitute for steam-powered catapults on interdisciplinary approach that involves electrical,
aircraft carriers. The use of flywheels in this application has mechanical, and magnetic systems to improve their
the potential for weight reduction. efficiency.

The US Marine Corps are researching the integration of Funding Statement

flywheel energy storage systems to supply power to their
This study was funded by the Vaal University of
base stations through renewable energy sources. This will
Technology.
reduce the dependence on chemical batteries and, ultimately
cost of running [47].
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to acknowledge the Department of
7. Future Trends Industrial Engineering & Operations Management and
The future of flywheel energy storage systems is
Mechanical Engineering at Vaal University of Technology
debatable mainly because its success hinges on several
for enabling this research.
factors. The amount of research and funding put into
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