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The Sasanian Era
This Volume is dedicated to the memory of

Mary Boyce ( 1920 - 2006)

and
Boris Marshak ( 1933 - 2006)
 The Sasanian Era
The Idea of Iran
Volume III

Edited By

Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis

and
Sarah Stewart

in association with The London Middle East Institute at SOAS

and
The British Museum

Supported by the Soudavar Memorial Foundation

Published in 2008 by I.B.Tauris & Co Ltd
6 Salem Road, London W2 4BU
175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010
www.ibtauris.com

In the United States of America and Canada distributed by

Palgrave Macmillan a division of St. Martin’s Press
175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010

Copyright © London Middle East Institute, 2008

The right of Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis & Sarah Stewart to be identified as

editors of this work has been asserted by the editors in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patent Act 1988.

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any
part thereof, may not be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the publisher.

ISBN 978 1 84511 690 3

The Idea of Iran Vol. 3

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: available

Typeset by P. Fozooni

Printed and bound in Great Britain by TJ International Ltd, Padstow,

Cornwall from camera-ready copy edited and supplied by the editors
 Contents

Introduction 1

How Pious Was Shapur I? 7

Early Sasanian Coinage 17

Formation and Ideology of the Sasanian State in the Context of 31

Archaeological Evidence

Kingship in Early Sasanian Iran 60

Image and Identity: Art of the Early Sasanian Dynasty 71

The Sasanians in the East 88

Religion in the late Sasanian Period:
103
Eran, Aneran, and other Religious Designations
State and Society in Late Antique Iran 118

Prices and Drachms in the Late Sasanian Period 132

Late Sasanian Society between Orality and Literacy 140

List of Abbreviations 156

Bibliography 158
 List of Figures

Silver drachm of Ardashir as king of Fars, SNS I, type I/1 (mint A). British 18
Museum.
Gold dinar of Ardashir I, SNS I, type IIa/2 (mint B). British Museum. 18
Silver drachm of Ardashir I, SNS I, type IIa/3a (mint B). British Museum. 19
Billon tetradrachm of Ardashir I, SNS I, type IIe/3a (mint C). 19
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Ardashir I, SNS I, type IIIa/3a (mint C). Kunsthistorisches 20
Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Ardashir I, SNS I, type IIIb/3b (mint B). British Museum. 20
Gold double dinar of Ardashir I, SNS I, type IIIa / 3a (mint C). British 20
Museum.
Silver drachm of Ardashir I, SNS I, type VI/3b (mint B). Kunsthistorisches 20
Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Ardashir I, SNS I, type VIII/3a (Sakastan?). 21
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Shapur I, SNS I, type IIc/1b (style indéterminé). 21
Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Shapur I, SNS I, type Ib/1a (style A). British Museum. 22
Gold dinar of Shapur I, SNS I, type IIc / 1a (style A). Staatliche Museen zu 22
Berlin.
Billon drachm of Shapur I, SNS I, type IIc/1b (style P). Kunsthistorisches 22
Museum, Vienna.
Billon antoninianus of emperor Valerianus (253–260) from the mint of 23
Antioch. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
Gold double dinar of Shapur I with the Roman emperor Philip the Arab. 23
Private Collection.
Bronze coin of the king of Marv. Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. 24
Silver drachm of Ohrmazd I, SNS II, type Ib/2b. Kunsthistorisches 24
Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Ohrmazd I, SNS II, type Ia/1. Bibliothèque national de 25
France.
Silver drachm of Bahram I, SNS II, type I/1a. Kunsthistorisches Museum, 25
Vienna.
Silver drachm of Bahram II, SNS II, type VI/3. Kunsthistorisches Museum, 25
Vienna.
Silver drachm of Bahram II, SNS II, type IV/1. British Museum. 26
Silver drachm of Bahram II, SNS II, type VII/5. Kunsthistorisches 26
Museum, Vienna.
Silver drachm of Bahram II from the mint of Ray, SNS II type VI/3. British 26
Museum.
Silver drachm of Narseh, SNS II, type Ia/1a. Private Collection. 27
Silver drachm of Narseh, SNS II, type Ib/4a. Private Collection. 27
Silver drachm of Narseh, SNS II, type II/5b. British Museum. 27
Silver drachm of Narseh from the mint of Sakastan, SNS II, type Ia/1d. 28
Private Collection.
Gold dinar of Ohrmazd II from the mint of Marv, SNS II, type Ia/3h. 29
British Museum.
Silver drachm of Ohrmazd II from the mint of Ray, SNS II, type Ia/2c. 29
Private Collection.
Silver drachm of Ohrmazd II, SNS type Ia/3d. Private Collection. 29
Graffiti from Persepolis. Papak (C) and his son Shapur (A, B, D, E). 33
Detail of Ardashir’s jousting relief, Firuzabad. 34
Investiture relief, Firuzabad. Ahuramazda is handing over the ring of 36
kingship to Ardashir. His page, his son Shapur and two knights are standing
behind the king.
Sketch plan of the ruined fortress of Shah Nishin, northwest of Darab. 41
View over the mountain ridges with Qaleh Dukhtar and the plain of 42
Firuzabad.
View of Qaleh Dukhtar from the west, the staircase, centre left, the palace, 43
aivan and domed throne hall (photo courtesy of G. Gerster).
View of the ruined city of Ardashir Khurreh (photo courtesy of G. Gerster). 45
Map of Firuzabad and plan of the city of Ardashir Khurreh. 46
The Minar/Tower in the centre of Ardashir Khurreh with the outlines of the 47
destroyed staircase.
Ardashir’s second palace, the “Atashkadeh”, in the plain of Firuzabad. 48
Shaded areas indicate the first floor and a niche above the double stairs in
the aivan, in which would have been the throne seat.
Drawing of scenes decorating an engaged column. Qaleh-i Yazdgird, Iran. 73
Herrmann 1977a: 70.
Reconstruction of an engaged column and stucco male head. Hajiabad, 74
Iran. Azarnoush 1994: fig. 143.
Drawing of a stucco plaque having a medium-sized male bust. Hajiabad, 74
Iran. Tracing by the author from Azarnoush 1994: pl. xi.
Drawing of a rock-carved hunting scene. Kal-i Jangal, Iran. Tracing by the 75
author from Henning 1953: pl. v.
Drawing of a low-relief hunting scene. Tangi-i Sarvak, Iran. Tracing by the 76
author from Mathiesen 1992: II, fig. 21.
Drawing of a monumental sculpture of a male head. Qaleh-i Now, Iran. 77
From Kawami 1987: figs. 31, 32.
Hunting scene on a wall in Building A. Hatra, Iraq. From Venco Ricciardi 79
1996: fig. 7.
Drawing of a mosaic pavement showing Bellerophon and Pegasus. 80
Palmyra, Syria. Tracing by the author from Gawlikowski 2005: fig. 37.
Drawing of a mosaic pavement showing a tiger hunt. Palmyra, Syria. 80
Tracing by the author from Gawlikowski 2005: fig. 38.
Rubbing from a silver plate found in the tomb of Feng Hetu. 81
Datong, Shanxi Province, China. From WenWu 1983.8.
Drawing of a tiger hunt on a silver plate. Japanese private 82
collection. From Tanabe 1998: fig. 1.
Drawing by the author of a crown detail on Fig. 11. Japanese private 82
collection.
Drawing by the author of the bud device on the reverse of Fig. 11.
Japanese private collection.
Drawing of the crowns of the Kushano-Sasanian rulers Ardashir and Peroz 83
I. From Carter 1985: 223, table 1.
Drawing of a detail on the rock relief of Hormizd II (303–309 CE). 83
Naqsh-i Rustam, Iran. From Herrmann 1977b: fig.1.
Sketch-map of north-central Afghanistan, showing places mentioned 89
in the Bactrian documents.
Scyphate gold dinar of Peroz with legend πιρωζο ϸα—υανοϸαυο 95
= pirōzo šauanošauo “Pirōz Shahan-shah”. Collection of Aman ur
Rahman, Islamabad/Dubai.
Seal with the Pahlavi legends KTK “Kadag” and ktkst’n ’wst’nd’l 97
“provincial administrator of Kadagistān” (after Gyselen 2002: 222, fig. 43).
 Acknowledgements

The editors are grateful to the Trustees of the Soudavar Memorial Foundation
for sponsoring the symposia and making the publication of the proceedings
possible. In particular, we are indebted to Mrs Fatema Soudavar-Farmanfarmaian
for her help, advice and involvement in the planning of each symposium.
This double volume would not have been possible without the input and
expertise of Dr. Parvis Fozooni, who once again has formatted and typeset this
volume with his usual dedication and eye for detail. We are also grateful to
Helen Knox for copyediting the papers, and to Dr Elizabeth Pendleton for her
help.
We would like to thank Iradj Bagherzade, Alex Wright and staff at I.B.Tauris
for their help in producing the publication.
Finally, our thanks go to the authors who submitted their papers within the
given deadline, thereby making it possible to publish this series in record time.
 Introduction

Vesta Sarkhosh Curtis (The British Museum)

and
Sarah Stewart (The London Middle East Institute at
SOAS)

T his is the third volume of the Idea of Iran and deals with the Sasanian
period. The previous two volumes covered the early period – the
formation of the Achaemenid empire – and the Parthian era. The success
of the symposia, which began as a lecture series in the summer of 2004, would
not have been possible without the generous support of Mrs Fatema Soudavar
Farmanfarmaian and fellow trustees of the Soudavar Memorial Foudation.
Their enthusiasm and commitment to the projects have created such confidence
amongst supporters of Iranian studies that this programme has become a major
event in the academic calendar in London. From the beginning it has been our
aim to publish the proceedings on a regular basis; but the turnaround has
exceeded expectation thanks to the dedication of our contributors and, in
particular, Dr Parvis Fozooni.
The second volume in the series, The Age of the Parthians, covered 400
years of Iranian history ending with the collapse of the Parthian empire in 224
CE. The current volume is the proceedings of two symposia and begins with
the advent of the Sasanian dynasty and the reign of Ardashir I. This is an
extraordinarily fertile period in Iranian history for it is during the reign of the
early Sasanians kings that we see the beginnings of an Iranian state and the
formation of a centralised religion. This phenomenon is covered by contributors
from different disciplines. What we see here is a comprehensive coverage of
various aspects of kingship, religion and society through the eyes of experts in
numismatics, philology, history, art history and archaeology.
The paucity of primary sources for this period has meant that there has been
substantial scholarly debate over much of the extant material. As in previous
volumes we have attempted to challenge traditional views and present a re-
appraisal of current thinking with regard to existing evidence. Contributors to
the early Sasanian period discuss the characteristic features of the Sasanian
state during its formative years including how the centralisation of power and
religion manifested itself through coinage, art and architecture. Contributors
2 THE SASANIAN ERA

dealing with the late Sasanian period cover aspects of language, economics,
religion and military expansion as well as evidence from an archive found in
Bactria.
An important phenomenon that has largely been neglected by scholars of
pre-Islamic Iran is the transition from an oral to a written tradition during the
Sasanian period This development had far-reaching consequences for the way
in which Iranian history was transmitted, the nature and purpose of recorded
history and the ability of rulers and priests to centralise and transmit
knowledge.
Philip Kreyenbroek argues that the state propaganda of the early Sasanian
kings drew on written accounts that were based on oral traditions. He gives
examples of traditions that began in oral transmission for example the account
of Ardashir’s lineage, and compares them with later versions once they were
written down. In this way he is able to show how these stories and legends were
used to serve the purposes of Sasanian state propaganda, through the
preservation of certain histories or versions of history and the exclusion of
others: ‘propaganda, in other words, played a key role in early Sasanian state-
building, and the court was evidently capable of making the population accept
as national history a version of events that was not based on fact, but had been
drawn up for this very purpose’. Linked to this idea of ‘state-building’ was the
notion of the piety of the early Sasanian monarchs, nowhere better expressed
than in the Letter of Tansar where the high priest asserts that state and religion
are twins. The accepted view of Shapur I’s piety is questioned by Kreyenbroek
in view of this king’s welcoming attitude towards the prophet Mani. At court
he was granted extended privileges. Kreyenbroek therefore challenges
traditional views about Shapur’s religious commitment to Zoroastrianism. He
suggests and it was in fact the prelate Kirder who, over the course of an
exceptionally long career, succeeded in presenting a uniform version of
Zoroastrianism throughout the realm. This would not have been possible before
the written composition and transmission of religious texts.
The consolidation of church and state is also the subject of Michael Alram’s
contribution. He discusses the importance of the power and identity of the early
Sasanian kings as witnessed through coinage. He charts the progression of the
royal title from ‘king’ to ‘king of kings’ to ‘the divine Mazdayasnian king of
the Iranians whose seed is from the gods’. In this way the monarch creates ‘a
new identity for his dynasty as well as for the Sasanian state’. Both obverse and
reverse of these coins emphasise the importance of kingship and the divine
right of the king to rule. This is manifested variously through the religious
symbolism of kingly glory, or kwarenah and those divine beings or yazatas
associated in with the investiture of the king. The reverse of Ardashir’s coins
emphasise the link between religion and kingship with the depiction of a fire
altar placed on a royal throne. Under Shapur I, a fire altar is flanked by a figure,
a symbol that becomes the hallmark of Sasanian coins until the seventh century
CE. Alram presents a new double dinar of Shapur I which shows the triumph of
the mounted king over the captive Roman emperor Philip the Arab on the
 INTRODUCTION 3

reverse. The coin inscription describes Shapur as king of kings of the Iranians
and non-Iranians which, until the discovery of this coin, was only known from
Shapur’s inscription at Ka‛ba-i Zardusht and coins of his son and successor
Ormazd I. The royal title is now fully extended and indicates the diversity of
the Sasanian realm.
State planning and monumental buildings are further testament to the
centralisation of Sasanian Iran under Ardashir I. Dietrich Huff examines the
architecture of Firuzabad/Ardashir Khurreh as an example of the power and
authority of the first Sasanian monarch. Ardashir’s meticulously detailed plan
of his new city reflects his understanding of the strategic importance of
location: “…to create a kind of miniature model realm with residents, city and
countryside, set into an order which symbolises his conception of an ideal
state”. By choosing a location surrounded by mountains, the king ensured that
Ardashir Khurreh (Gur) would be protected from attack by the heavy Parthian
cavalry. The fortress of Qaleh Dukhtar overlooking the plain provided further
protection.
Touraj Daryayee continues with an analysis of kingship in early Sasanian
Iran, as seen through monumental inscriptions and coin legends. He gives a
detailed breakdown of the composition of the royal titles both from religious as
well as political points of view. He moves away from a traditional concept of
Iranian civilisation as a “static unchanging phenomenon” and draws attention to
the various distinct traditions surrounding the notion of kingship that existed on
the Iranian plateau in the third century. These are: the Avestan tradition, the
Old Persian Achaemenid royal ideology, the Hellenistic notion of kingship
introduced by Alexander and the Seleucids, the Arsacid tradition and finally the
Persian tradition of the Sasanians from their homeland. All these traditions
were unified by the Sasanian dynasty in Persis. Daryayee looks for continuities
in the notion of kingship with reference to the imperial ideology of previous
dynasties. The image of a deified king, which was unknown in the Zoroastrian
tradition, appears both in the iconography and inscriptions on Seleucid and
Parthian coins, and was adopted by the early Sasanian rulers.
The consolidation of the Sasanian empire is also reflected in the art and
architecture of the early Sasanian period. Prudence Harper examines the
consolidation of Sasanian dynastic power through an examination of the visual
expressions of power and authority during this period. The art of the imperial
court under Ardashir and Shapur depicts large rock reliefs commemorating the
investiture and victories of the king of kings. This tradition drew on earlier
prototypes known from Achaemenid, Hellenistic and Parthian art, but
introduced a unified dynastic imagery which became a hallmark of a central
Sasanian imagery. With the expansion of the Sasanian empire “a related but
distinct imagery arose” in the borderlands. This is evidenced by Sasanian silver
plates as well as the newly discovered rock reliefs at Shamarq in northern
Afghanistan.
Nicholas Sims-Williams takes us from the heartlands of the Sasanian
empire to ancient Bactria, or modern Afghanistan. He discusses the recent
4 THE SASANIAN ERA

discovery of more than 150 documents in Bactrian, an Iranian branch of the

Indo-European language family and also the language of the administration.
These documents shed light on governance and society in the east, the
relationship of this region with Sasanian Iran and in particular between the
Sasanians and nomadic peoples such as the Hepthalites from the north-east
who, until the arrival of the western Turks in the middle of the sixth century,
were ruling over Bactria. Sims-Williams examines documents that give
fascinating insights into the lives of members of the aristocracy for example
through marriage contracts and correspondence. Through family names and
names of the calendar months, we discover the nature of the relationship
between Bactria and Sasanian Iran. The change from local month names to
Middle Persian month names and vice versa suggests a certain dependence or
“cultural independence from Iran”.
Shaul Shaked examines the two main sources of information for religion
during the Sasanian period and highlights the differences between them. On the
one hand is the Pahlavi religious literature, compiled in the Islamic period and
transmitted through the Zoroastrian priesthood, and on the other hand there are
the royal chroniclers, also dating from the Islamic period, but writing in Arabic.
Shaked questions the religious commitment of the early Sasanian kings in the
same way that Kreyenbroek questions the piety of Shapur I. But whereas
Kreyenbroek develops his argument around the presence of the prophet Mani at
the Sasanian court of the time, the focus of Shaked’s study is the term Eran and
Aneran, commonly used in Sasanian inscriptions, and its relationship to the
term hu-dēn and duš- dēn, used to designate followers of the good religion as
opposed to upholders of the evil religion. Through a detailed discussion of
certain texts Shaked concludes that the epithet Aneran was very common and
had different implications according to whether it was used by kings or priests.
For the Sasanian king and his court, the term referred to someone who was
ethnically not Iranian. For the priesthood, the term described someone who
belonged to a “religion other than Zoroastrianism”.
James Howard-Johnston looks at the grand picture of late Sasanian Iran and
compares the military achievements of the first Sasanian rulers, Ardashir I and
Shapur I, with those of Kavad I and Khusrau I and II. He asks how the view,
commonly held by scholars, of a predominantly feudal empire that was inferior
when compared to that of Rome, can be upheld in the light of what we know to
be the highly developed State administration and military prowess of the late
Sasanians. Regional cohesion and resilience, in the author’s view, were key to
the Sasanian response to the military incursions into Iran. These, coupled with
huge investment in military and civil infrastructure are what Howard-Johnston
suggests explain the scale of achievement of the late Sasanian rulers.
Philippe Gignoux tackles the question of economic data in the Sasanian
period despite the dearth of source material. He looks at Pahlavi literature and
Bactrian documents as well as references in early Arabic and Persian literature
and provides interesting and vital information about certain transactions. These
 INTRODUCTION 5

give us an idea of the cost of all sorts of things ranging from animals, medicine
and meat, to ritual ceremonies performed by priests.
Philip Huyse’s paper returns us to the issue of orality and literacy that Philip
Kreyenbroek discusses in the first paper of this volume. He also mentions the
lack written sources which makes the oral tradition, and the way in which it is
understood and dealt with by modern scholars, all the more significant. Huyse
draws our attention to the vocabulary linked to ‘memory’ for example the
different ways of reciting prayers, and the fact that texts were spoken and
listened to rather than read. He demonstrates, through various texts, such as the
Denkard, and passages from the Yashts and the Vendidad, that Zoroastrians
continued to maintain characteristics of the oral tradition well into the Islamic
period. He suggests that it is not until the story of Khusrau and his page that we
have clear evidence that priests were trained in the art of writing as well as the
memorisation of texts. He also outlines the debate amongst scholars regarding
the date of the introduction of the Avestan script as well as the writing down of
the Avesta.
The present volume provides a fascinating view of Sasanian Iran by ten
eminent scholars. They combine new discoveries with new interpretations of
hitherto accepted views of extant material.
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