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 AFRICAN HISTORIES AND MODERNITIES

SHADOWS OF
EMPIRE IN
WEST AFRICA
New Perspectives on European Fortifications

Edited by
John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu and Victoria Ellen Smith
African Histories and Modernities

Series editors
Toyin Falola
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, TX, USA

Matthew M. Heaton
Virginia Tech
Blacksburg, VA, USA
This book series serves as a scholarly forum on African contributions
to and negotiations of diverse modernities over time and space, with a
particular emphasis on historical developments. Specifically, it aims to
refute the hegemonic conception of a singular modernity, Western in ori-
gin, spreading out to encompass the globe over the last several decades.
Indeed, rather than reinforcing conceptual boundaries or parameters, the
series instead looks to receive and respond to changing perspectives on
an important but inherently nebulous idea, deliberately creating a space
in which multiple modernities can interact, overlap, and conflict. While
privileging works that emphasize historical change over time, the series
will also feature scholarship that blurs the lines between the histori-
cal and the contemporary, recognizing the ways in which our changing
understandings of modernity in the present have the capacity to affect
the way we think about African and global histories.

Editorial Board
Aderonke Adesanya, Art History, James Madison University
Kwabena Akurang- Parry, History, Shippensburg University
Samuel O. Oloruntoba, History, University of North Carolina,

Wilmington
Tyler Fleming, History, University of Louisville
Barbara Harlow, English and Comparative Literature, University of

Texas at Austin
Emmanuel Mbah, History, College of Staten Island
Akin Ogundiran, Africana Studies, University of North Carolina,

Charlotte

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14758
 John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu
Victoria Ellen Smith
Editors

Shadows of Empire
in West Africa
New Perspectives on European Fortifications
Editors
John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu Victoria Ellen Smith
Norwegian University of Science and University of Ghana
Technology Legon, Ghana
Trondheim, Norway

African Histories and Modernities

ISBN 978-3-319-39281-3 ISBN 978-3-319-39282-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39282-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017944543

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and
information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication.
Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied,
with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published
maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover image courtesy of Victoria Ellen Smith

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
This collection is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Kwabena Adu-Boahen.
 Preface

The book is a product of a project called Shadows of Empire: a study of

European imperial forts and castles from the sixteenth century to the
present. This project applied entangled history approaches to the study of
Afro-European relationships in West Africa from the fifteenth century,
emphasising the centrality of fortifications as centres of interaction and
exchange. “Shadows of Empire” is, in turn, a sub-project under the
multi-component Beyond Borders: Transnational movements through
history project (2010–2012), an institution-based strategic project
designed and implemented by the Department of Historical Studies,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU, Trondheim).
The Faculty of Humanities of NTNU and the Norwegian Research
Council (NRC) co-funded the project. We are also grateful to the
Department of History of the University of Ghana for facilitating and
organising the infrastructure for the conference.
On 1st and 2nd August 2012, many of the contributors attended a
conference entitled Shadows of Empire: Studies of European Colonial
Fortifications in West Africa from fifteenth Century at the University of
Ghana. They came to share their thinking and put forward their research
from the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science
and Technology, University of Cape Coast, Norwegian University of
Science and Technology, Ashesi University, The Courtauld Institute of
Art, University of Basel and Sciences Po (Paris), University of Virginia
and University of California (Los Angeles). This publication brings
together selected and revised papers from the conference along with

vii
viii Preface

specially commissioned chapters from scholars associated with the

University of Warwick, University of Ghana, University of Wisconsin
and Norwegian University of Science and Technology to ensure that this
book presents a fully rounded and cohesive collection. As such, our aim
is to offer multidisciplinary and international approaches through which
we explore the meaning, uses and impacts of European fortification
systems on the Gold Coast (Ghana). We hope that these studies enrich
knowledge about the European-built forts and castles within the West
African milieu.
The process from conference to completed book has been a laborious
one, but the result is one that we are proud to be able to share with you.
We thank Dr. Kofi Baku, who as Head of the History Department at
the University of Ghana, accepted in 2012 to host the Conference from
which this book has emerged. Thanks also go to Tom McCaskie, Toyin
Falola and the team at Palgrave for their support in bringing this project
to publication. Regrettably, Dr. Kwabena Adu-Boahen, former Head of
the Department of History at the University of Cape Coast (Ghana), and
one of the participants of the 2012 conference, did not live to see this
volume into print. We dedicate the book to his memory.

Trondheim, Norway John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu

Legon, Ghana Victoria Ellen Smith
 Contents

1 Introduction: Interpreting West Africa’s Forts and Castles 1

John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu and Victoria Ellen Smith

2 Grossfriedrichsburg, the First German Colony in Africa?

Brandenburg-Prussia, Atlantic Entanglements and
National Memory 33
Roberto Zaugg

3 ‘Far from My Native Land, and Far from You’:

Reimagining the British at Cape Coast Castle in the
Nineteenth Century 75
Victoria Ellen Smith

4 Viewed from a Distance: Eighteenth-Century Images of

Fortifications on the Coast of West Africa 107
Emily Mann

5 Illusions of Grandeur and Protection: Perceptions

and (Mis)Representations of the Defensive Efficacy
of European-Built Fortifications on the Gold Coast,
Seventeenth–Early Nineteenth Centuries 137
John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu and Hermann W. von Hesse

ix
x Contents

6 Female Agency in a Cultural Confluence: Women, Trade

and Politics in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century
Gold Coast 169
Kwabena Adu-Boahen

7 Fort Metal Cross: Commercial Epicentre of the British on

the Gold Coast 201
Fritz Biveridge

8 European Fortifications in West Africa as Architectural

Containers and Oppressive Contraptions 239
Henry Nii Adziri Wellington and Rexford Assasie Oppong

9 A Theatre of Memory for the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade:

Cape Coast Castle and Its Museum 273
Neelima Jeychandran

10 Diplomacy, Identity and Appropriation of the “Door

of no Return”. President Barack Obama and Family in
Ghana and the Cape Coast Castle, 2009 297
John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu and Ebenezer Ayesu

11 Recreating Pre-colonial Forts and Castles: Heritage

Policies and Restoration Practices in the Gold Coast/
Ghana, 1945 to 1970s 327
Jon Olav Hove

Index 351
 Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Prof. John Kwadwo Osei-Tutu is a Professor of History and currently

Head of the History Program at the Institute of Historical Studies,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). He became
a Visiting Scholar at the Department of History at the University of
Ghana in 2013–2014. His specialties are African and World/Global
histories. The articles in this anthology are products of the conference,
Shadows of Empire: Studies of European Colonial Fortifications in West
Africa from fifteenth Century, which was held in Accra in 2012. His
teaching and research interests include African-European encounters in
West Africa from the fifteenth century; colonisation, colonial rule and
popular encounters with British colonial rule; history of natural resources
regulation; oil and development in West Africa. He has been involved in
multidisciplinary and collaborative projects including the Asafo History
(documentation) Project; NKOSOO 2015: development of sustainable
oil industry for Ghana (under the Norwegian Petroleum Directorate’s
“Oil for Development (OfD)” program); and the “Beyond Borders:
Transnational movements through history project”. Currently, he is
involved in the “Political Regulation of Natural Resources 1890–2010,
Global Experiences, project that is funded by the Norwegian Research
Council”, and is the project coordinator for “NORPART-2016/10009:
Inter-cultural historical studies”, a mobility project funded by the
Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Education.

xi
xii Editors and Contributors

Dr. Victoria Ellen Smith is a Lecturer in the Department of History

at the University of Ghana where she teaches the theory and practice of
oral history, and the history of the Fante states, as well as being a mem-
ber of the “History of the University of Ghana Project” and Founding
Curator of the Adu Boahen Memorial Library and Archive. Her research
interests are in the history, culture and literature of Ghana, with a par-
ticular focus on Fante and Anglo-Ghanaian societies. Having completed
her Ph.D. in Comparative Cultural Studies at the University of Warwick
in 2011, she moved to the University of Ghana in 2012. In 2013, she
co-formed an international research team that was awarded an AHRC
Research Grant (Early Careers scheme) for the project “Decolonizing
Voices: World Literature and Broadcast Culture at the End of Empire”,
which has resulted in extensive research on the relationship between
radio and mid-twentieth century Ghanaian literature. In 2017, she
became a Core Network Member for the AHRC Research Networking
Grant project, “Small Magazines, Literary Networks and Self-Fashioning
in Africa and its Diasporas”. Her current publication work includes co-
editing the memoir of BBC/GCBS radio producer, Henry Swanzy,
with Michael Niblett (Warwick) and Chris Campbell (Exeter) for
Peepal Tree Press; co-editing a Special Issue of Obsidian: Literature &
Arts in the African Diaspora on Ghanaian literature with Helen Yitah
(Ghana) and Audrey Gadzekpo (Ghana); and editing a 60th anniversary
Second Edition of Voices of Ghana: literary contributions to the Ghana
Broadcasting System, 1955–57 for James Currey.

Contributors

Dr. Kwabena Adu-Boahen was a Historian and, until his death in

2014, the Head of the Department of History, University of Cape
Coast (2011–2014). He gained his DPhil degree from the University
of Melbourne, Australia, in 2005. His main area of research was gender
issues and women’s history, with a focus on women’s economic activ-
ity, women and the slave trade, child trafficking and female education.
Other research interests include state and inter-state relations on the
Gold Coast, post-abolition slave holding, Europeans and slave trading,
history and identity making in the Atlantic world, and local history. He
initiated several projects including cultural heritage research; historical
heritage: study on the slave castles in Cape Coast and Elmina; and the
 Editors and Contributors xiii

“Place Names Research Project”. He also held academic administrative

positions on several academic boards at the University of Cape Coast. In
addition, he received awards both in Ghana and internationally for his
scholarship. He was editor of the Abibisem: Journal of African Culture
and Civilisation (2009–2014).
Dr. Ebenezer Ayesu is a Historian and currently a Senior Research
Fellow at the Institute of African Studies at the University of Ghana,
Legon. He studied at the Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA,
for his Ph.D. While in the USA, he worked as Visiting Faculty in History
at Xavier University, Cincinnati, Ohio. His teaching and research focus
on African history with special emphasis on traditional institutions;
festivals and funerals; eighteenth and nineteenth centuries European
activities in West Africa; biographies and the African diaspora. He was a
Fulbright Scholar (2006–2008). He has published, among others things,
on Afro-Brazilians in Ghana; re-examination of the foundation history
of the Akuapem State; chieftaincy, church and the family in Ghana; the
African diaspora; biographies; youth unemployment and superstition;
marriage, sex, labour and gender relations; and welfare of women in the
Gold Coast during British colonial rule. In addition, he has produced a
60-minute documentary on the Annual Odwira Festival of Amanokrom
Akuapem. He is currently working on the documentation of the chiefly
and priestly regalia of Akuapem. His hobbies include listening to music
(highlife music of the 1960s-80; gospel; reggae; country music); design-
ing African wear (male and female); and observing nature.
Dr. Fritz Biveridge is an Historical Archaeologist and Senior Lecturer
at the Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies, University
of Ghana. He holds a Doctorate of Philosophy degree in Historical
Archaeology from the University of Ghana. Teaching and research inter-
ests include issues relating to heritage management, cultural contact and
the socio-economic and political impact on the groups involved, particu-
larly in terms of acculturation patterns. He is currently investigating the
consequences of the English presence along the Dixcove coastline and
how it impacted Ahanta land and neighbouring polities in the early six-
teenth to late nineteenth centuries. Dr. Biveridge is a former Head of the
Department of Archaeology and Heritage Studies. He has held several
academic administrative positions on academic boards at University of
Ghana since he joined the department in 2007.
xiv Editors and Contributors

Dr. Jon Olav Hove has a Ph.D. in the colonial history of Ghana. He
is working as an Associate Professor in cultural heritage studies at the
Department of Historical Studies at the Norwegian University of Science
and Technology. Research interests include the history and memory
of the transatlantic slave trade and colonialism in both West Africa and
Scandinavia. He has published articles on, among other things, Ghanaian
politics in the late colonial period, the management and understanding
of Atlantic heritage in Ghana as well as Norway, and digital archives and
heritage.
Dr. Neelima Jeychandran is a Mellon Visiting Assistant Professor in the
Indian Ocean Worlds Research Initiative with a joint appointment in the
Departments of Anthropology and African American and African Studies
at the University of California, Davis. She holds a Ph.D. in Culture and
Performance from the University of California, Los Angeles. Currently,
she is working on her book on “African Memoryscapes in India” and is
curating a digital spatial history archive to map the sacred landscapes and
memorial shrines of the African-descent communities in India.
Dr. Emily Mann studied art history at the Courtauld Institute
in London, where she completed her Ph.D. in 2015 and has been
appointed Early Career Lecturer in Early Modern Art. Focusing on
architecture and its representation in English and other European colo-
nial and commercial settlements from the late sixteenth to the mid-eight-
eenth century, her research investigates the meanings of building and
buildings in the emerging empires and in the broader context of inter-
imperial competition and conflict over territory and trade. As Research
Associate with the Centre for the Political Economies of International
Commerce (PEIC) at the University of Kent, she further investigated
the architectural enterprises of early modern trading corporations such
as the English and Dutch East India companies and the Royal African
Company. Her publications include “To Build and Fortify: Defensive
Architecture in the Early Atlantic Colonies” in Building the British
Atlantic World: Spaces, Places and Material Culture, 1600–1850, ed. by
Daniel Maudlin and Bernard L. Herman (University of North Carolina
Press, 2016).
Prof. Rexford Assasie Oppong is an Associate Professor of Architecture
in the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science & Technology (KNUST).
He holds a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Architecture from the
 Editors and Contributors xv

Liverpool School of Architecture at the University of Liverpool (UK);

a Masters in Urban Planning and Management from La Sapienza-
University (Rome, Italy); and a B.Sc. (design) and Postgraduate Diploma
(architecture) from KNUST (Kumasi, Ghana). Prof. Oppong is a
researcher, academic and architect with interest in human settlements
planning. He is a registered member of the Ghana Institute of Architects
and has acted as a consultant to a number of organisations and institu-
tions in urban/rural Ghana in the areas of architecture and building
construction. He has planned, designed and supervised a number of
projects for the Presbyterian Church of Ghana and has won many schol-
arships and awards/prizes. He co-won (with Professor Kwasi Kwafo
Adarkwa, former Vice-Chancellor of KNUST) the Appraisal Institute
Prize for the best paper delivery award at the Royal Institute of Chartered
Surveyors/International Real Estate Society sponsored Conference, held
at Livingstone, Zambia, in 2007. He has served as editor and reviewer for
a number of Ghanaian and international academic journals and confer-
ences. Prof. Oppong currently holds an Honorary Research Fellowship
from the Liverpool School of Architecture and the British Academy
International Partnership and Mobility Award since 2015.
Hermann W. von Hesse is currently a Ph.D. student in history at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison. In 2014, he was awarded an MPhil
degree in history from the University of Ghana, Legon. His MPhil dis-
sertation is entitled “Euro-Africans, Afro-Brazilians and the Evolution
of Social Space in Nineteenth-Century Accra”. He has broader research
interests in the urban and architectural history of Africa and the Atlantic
world and also gender and sexuality. His works include “Døde rot-
ter under Christiansborg: om koloniale spøgelser i Ghana og Danmark
(Dead Rats Under Christiansborg: On Colonial Ghosts in Ghana and
Denmark)” co-authored with Pernille Ipsen (forthcoming) and “Wɔ ‘ya
Adabraka wɔ ya mɔ gbɛ” (‘We‘re going to Adabraka to secure a space’):
Gã Architectural and Urban Authenticity and Colonial Urban Planning
in Accra, c.1877–1908” in Replenishing History: New Directions to
Historical Research in the 21st Century in Ghana, ed. by Nana Yaw B.
Sapong and J. Otto Pohl (Banbury: Ayebia, 2014).
Prof. Henry Nii-Adziri Wellington FGA, studied at the Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) for the
B.Sc. in Design (1967) and M.Sc. in Architecture (1969) degrees.
He obtained the Dipl. Ing. in Urban Design (1972) and Dr. Ing in
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