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PALGRAVE STUDIES IN POPULISMS
SERIES EDITOR: IHSAN YILMAZ

Islamist Populism in
Turkey and Indonesia:
A Comparative Analysis
Mustafa Demir · Greg Barton
 Palgrave Studies in Populisms

Series Editor
Ihsan Yilmaz, Alfred Deakin Institute, Deakin University, Burwood,
VIC, Australia
This Palgrave Macmillan book series addresses the phenomenon of
populism which has become part of mainstream politics. Its contested
meanings and various shapes inform many aspects of political and social
life across the world. In some cases, it emerges in the form of an indi-
vidual leader; in others, in the form of a social movement or a political
party. It is thus important that we understand not merely its defining
features and causes, but also its relationship with other social phenomena.
While populism’s relationships with globalisation, nationalism, and race
are regularly discussed in scholarly literature, there is still need and also
great interest in studies that look at different manifestations of populism
in different parts of the world and in relation to a rich variety of contexts,
polities, religions, and movements. This series includes works on political
science, political psychology, sociology, anthropology, political economy
and theology. It makes a significant contribution to populism studies and
literature from different angles. There is an enormous interest among the
scholars from different backgrounds in studying populism and this books
series is an important avenue of publication for their studies.
 Mustafa Demir · Greg Barton

Islamist Populism
in Turkey
and Indonesia:
A Comparative
Analysis
Mustafa Demir Greg Barton
Department of Politics Alfred Deakin Institute
University of Surrey Deakin University
Guildford, Surrey, UK Burwood, VIC, Australia

ISSN 2731-3069 ISSN 2731-3077 (electronic)

Palgrave Studies in Populisms
ISBN 978-981-99-7979-0 ISBN 978-981-99-7980-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7980-6

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights
of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc.
in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such
names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for
general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither
the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with
respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: Özgür Kesedar/EyeEm

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Singapore Pte Ltd.
The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore
189721, Singapore

Paper in this product is recyclable.

 Preface

In Muslim-majority regions, democracies are rare, and those that exist

exhibit various shades of democratic development, ranging from ‘flawed’
to ‘hybrid’ regimes. Despite aspirations for progress in their demo-
cratic journeys, recent democracy indices indicate that democracy has
been backsliding in some of these countries over the last decade, partly
due to the rise of populist politics. Populist movements have exploited
cultural insecurities—both real and imagined—to gain, maintain, and
consolidate political power, particularly in flawed democracies and hybrid
regimes. In Muslim-majority countries such as Turkey and Indonesia, reli-
gion—specifically Islam—has become a central instrument in the populist
playbook. Populist actors have constructed a religious-civilizational frame-
work within which they create political binaries, manipulate insecurities,
and promote traditional anti-elite and anti-‘other’ antagonisms.
The literature on Islam and democracy presents a diverse range
of perspectives and approaches, emphasizing the complex relationship
between religion and politics in Muslim-majority countries that we have
explored in the next section. These studies underscore the importance
of context, historical development, and political dimensions in under-
standing the compatibility of Islam and democracy. However, the vulner-
ability of Islam and Muslims to populism is not adequately addressed.
Although there is emerging interest in this area, there is still a need
for case studies to explore how populism is employed to undermine

v
vi PREFACE

democratic credentials, eliminate political rivals, and ultimately consol-

idate authority. This book fills this gap by offering invaluable insights
through an exploration of two prominent cases, Turkey and Indonesia.
In this book, we advance the notion that populism is a multifaceted
phenomenon that relies on various pre-existing fractures within societies
and cultures. Once in power, populism intensifies these differences to
further consolidate its position, utilizing various state apparatuses such as
state-controlled religious institutions. This comprehensive analysis offers
insights into the growing trend of populism in the Muslim world and its
impact on contemporary politics.
Populism, combined with Islamic identity politics, has become a core
element of Turkey’s ruling AKP ideology and is an emerging force
in Indonesia. Initially, populism in both countries initially held some
promise of possibly playing a democratizing role. However, once in
power, populists have revealed themselves as opponents of pluralism, the
rule of law, and the separation of powers—essential components for the
functioning of liberal democracies. In recent years, social pluralism in
Turkey and Indonesia has suffered at the hands of Islamist political actors.
Briefly, in this book, we explore the role of religion in populist poli-
tics, concentrating on the rise of authoritarianism in two Muslim-majority
nations: Turkey and Indonesia. We contend that Islamic actors have
been shaped by, and have in turn shaped, the contexts in which they
exist. These contexts include colonization, decolonization, the rise of
the nation-state, urbanization, Cold War politics, and the internet revo-
lution. The current Islamist populist moment in the Muslim world is a
result of a lengthy historical process, encompassing Islamist opposition to
Western ideas, struggles against secular authoritarian actors, urbanization
processes, the emergence of identity politics and the internet revolution,
and international interventions by Western powers.
Throughout the book, we will discuss these contextual factors as we
examine key political developments. These elements hold considerable
explanatory power in understanding the unique behaviours of Islamic
political and civil society actors, their emergence and growth, their power
bases, constituencies, and current positions. As for this research we
understand and define populism as a force undermining and backsliding
democratic achievement and progress globally in the twenty-first century.
We also focus on the religious aspect of populism, specifically Islamist
populism.
 PREFACE vii

Structure of the Book

This book offers a comprehensive analysis of the rise of Islamist move-
ments and the decline of democracies in Turkey and Indonesia, focusing
on the complex interplay between democracy, populism, and religion in
these Muslim-majority countries. The book is divided into seven chapters,
each delving into various aspects of the subject matter to provide a deeper
understanding of the factors influencing the changing political landscape.
In the first chapter, we establish a solid conceptual foundation and
clarify our theoretical approach to the subject. By highlighting the signif-
icance and effectiveness of populism as a lens for understanding the
political transformations in Turkey and Indonesia, we set the stage for
a more in-depth exploration of the factors at play.
The second chapter examines the central theoretical concepts and
issues, focusing on the various dimensions of populism in the context
of democracy, religion, and identity politics. We critically assess existing
literature and clarify our theoretical and conceptual approach to provide
a more nuanced understanding of the topic.
The third chapter investigates the historical and political developments
that contributed to the rise of Islamism in Turkey. We explore the decline
and fall of the Islamic Caliphate and the Ottoman Empire, as well as the
emergence of Ottoman Islamism, to understand the ideological leanings
of civil and political Islamists in Muslim-majority countries.
In the fourth chapter, we delve into Indonesia’s rich history, examining
its journey towards independence and the challenges faced during the
democratization process. We scrutinize the policies implemented during
the Suharto regime and the emergence of prominent Islamic organiza-
tions, setting the stage for exploring the evolution of civil and political
Islam in relation to populist Islamism in contemporary Indonesia.
The fifth chapter investigates the trajectory of the Islamist AKP in
Turkish politics, examining its initial democratization efforts and subse-
quent authoritarian shift. We emphasize the role of religious populism as
a tool for authoritarianism in Muslim-majority countries and underscore
the importance of protecting civil society and democratic values against
such political movements.
In the sixth chapter, we examine the era of post-Suharto democratiza-
tion in Indonesia, analysing the economic and political forces that led to
the downfall of the Suharto regime. We explore the subject of Islamism
viii PREFACE

in Indonesia and its interplay with democracy, as well as the emergence

of Islamic liberalism as a significant social movement.
The final chapter offers a comparative analysis of our findings, illus-
trating how populist Islamists have adeptly seized upon public anger
towards corrupt secular authoritarian regimes and turned these nega-
tive emotions into public demand for populist solutions. Through this
comparative lens, we aim to generate insights and stimulate further
research and discussion on this important subject.
Overall, the book is structured to guide readers through a systematic
exploration of the intricate relationship between democracy, populism,
and religion in Turkey and Indonesia. We hope to provide a comprehen-
sive understanding of the factors contributing to the changing political
landscape in these Muslim-majority countries.

Guildford, UK Mustafa Demir

Burwood, Australia Greg Barton
 Acknowledgements

We would like to take a moment to express our sincere appreciation to

the individuals, with particular reference to Prof Ihsan Yilmaz, who have
been an unwavering source of support and encouragement throughout
the writing process of this book. Our families, friends, and colleagues have
believed in our abilities, provided understanding, and shown us love, all
of which have been the foundation upon which we have been able to
devote our time and energy to this project. We are dedicating this book
to them as a token of our gratitude and affection.
I (Mustafa) want to extend a special dedication to my wife, Esma. I
am deeply grateful for her sacrifices and for standing by my side through
thick and thin. Her presence in my life is a constant source of inspira-
tion offering me her unwavering love and support. Additionally, I extend
my profound gratitude to my friend Benjamin. His contributions have
been remarkably significant, offering not just insightful discussions and
the exchange of ideas, but also serving as a rich source of news and
links that greatly enhanced the content of the book. Lastly, our beloved
cat, Luna, has been an integral part of this journey. Her companionship,
warmth, and soothing purrs have brought comfort during the long hours
of writing and research. We are truly grateful for her endearing presence
in our lives.
I (Greg) would like to take this opportunity to extend my deepest
appreciation and gratitude to my wife and best friend, Siew Mee. It is

ix
x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

with her unwavering love, encouragement, and support that I was able to
complete this book.
Lastly, we acknowledge the Australian Research Council [ARC]
for their support in this endeavour through the Discovery Grant
[DP220100829], Religious Populism, Emotions and Political Mobilisa-
tion. Their support has been invaluable in helping us bring this project to
fruition.

London and Melbourne Mustafa Demir

2023 Greg Barton
 Contents

1 Introduction: Setting the Stage: Populism, Religion,

and Democracy in Turkey and Indonesia 1
Introduction 1
Terminology and Theoretical Frame 2
Democracy, Populism, and Religion 3
Populism and Religion 5
Colonization, Secularism, and Islamism 6
Bibliography 7
2 Exploring the Dimensions of Populism: Democracy,
Religion, and Identity Politics 13
Introduction 13
Democracy and the Muslim World 14
Conclusion 21
Bibliography 22
3 From Ottoman Empire to Modern Turkey: The
Journey of Islamist Discourse in a Secular Majority
Muslim Country 29
Introduction 29
The Sultanate, the Caliphate, and Ottoman Islamism 30
Transformation of the Ottoman Empire into a Modern
Republic 33
Mustafa Kemal and the Establishment of the Modern Turkey 36

xi
xii CONTENTS

Islamism Under the Kemalist Rule 46

Conclusion 51
Bibliography 52
4 Indonesia’s Journey to Independence and the Evolution
of Political Islam: A Historical Perspective 59
Islam’s Journey in Indonesia 59
The Colonial Era, First Under Portuguese and Later Dutch
Rule 60
The Indonesian Independence Movement, Its Leader
Sukarno, and the Pancasila Ideology 62
Decolonization, Islamic Movements, and Indonesian
Nationalism 65
The Suharto Coup and the Demise of the First Democratic Era 67
Conclusion 75
Bibliography 76
5 The Rise and Fall of Democracy in Turkey 81
Introduction 81
1980s, the Rise of Islamism in Turkey 84
Political Opportunity Structures and Islamist Ideological
Change in the Late 1990s 85
The Rise of AKP and Its Democratic Decade Under
Kemalist Hegemony 87
Islamists and Contingent Nature of Their Ideology 90
The 2016 Coup Attempt and the End of Democracy in Turkey 93
The Rise of Populist Islamism in Turkey 100
Radical İslamism in AKP Rhetoric: Martyrdom, Takfirism,
and Jihadism 103
Conclusion 104
Bibliography 106
6 Post-suharto Democratization and State of Islamist
Populism 113
Introduction 113
Breakdown of the Suharto Regime and Return to Democracy 114
Islamism in Indonesia 116
Official Repression and Underground Development
of Islamism 117
Radical Islamists in Indonesia 119
 CONTENTS xiii

Islamist Populism in Indonesia 121

Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) 122
Conclusion 128
Bibliography 129
7 Democracy, Populism, and Religion: A Comparative
Analysis of the Rise of Populist Islamism in Turkey
and Indonesia 137
Introduction 137
State of Democracy in Turkey and Indonesia 138
Rise of Religious Populism in Indonesia and Turkey 142
Bibliography 147

Index 155
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction: Setting the Stage: Populism,

Religion, and Democracy in Turkey
and Indonesia

Introduction
In this book, we explore the use of religion and faith for personal gains
by populist political actors in two Muslim-majority countries, Turkey and
Indonesia. We highlight that the current Islamist populist moment in
the Muslim world is a consequence of a long historical process involving
Islamist opposition to Western ideas, repression under and battles against
secular authoritarian actors, urbanization, the rise of identity politics, the
internet revolution, and international interventions by Western powers.
We argue that Islamic actors have been shaped by, and in turn, have
shaped the context in which they exist. This context includes colonization,
decolonization, the rise of the nation-state, urbanization, Cold War poli-
tics, and the internet revolution. Throughout the book, we discuss these
contextual factors while examining significant political developments,
which hold considerable explanatory power in understanding the unique
behaviours of Islamic political and civil society actors, their emergence
and growth, their power bases, constituencies, and current positions.
Our book connects historical processes with crucial political transfor-
mations occurring in the modern era in both Turkey and Indonesia. It
offers a fresh perspective on populist authoritarian turns and how reli-
gion has been employed in these two countries. Our aim is to provide

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature 1

Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023
M. Demir and G. Barton, Islamist Populism in Turkey and Indonesia:
A Comparative Analysis, Palgrave Studies in Populisms,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7980-6_1
2 M. DEMIR AND G. BARTON

readers with a scholarly foundation to help make sense of these complex

processes.
By studying how Islamists in majority Muslim countries use religion
in their populist appeal in the cases of Turkey and Indonesia, our book
adopts a comparative approach that is valuable for students and academic
scholars in politics, social psychology, sociology, international relations,
and communication studies. These readers will be interested in how our
book connects historical processes and their relevance and role in the
political transformations taking place in the modern era.
The current Islamist populist moment in the Muslim world is a
result of a lengthy historical process that involved Islamist opposition
to Western ideas, repression under and battles against secular authori-
tarian actors (Barton 2006), processes of urbanization, the rise of identity
politics and the internet revolution, and international interventions by
Western powers. We argue that Islamic actors have been shaped by,
and in turn have shaped, the context in which they exist. This context
includes colonization, decolonization, the rise of the nation-state, urban-
ization, Cold War politics, and the internet revolution. Throughout the
book, we will discuss these contextual factors as we examine key polit-
ical developments. These elements hold significant explanatory power in
understanding the unique behaviours of Islamic political and civil society
actors, their emergence and growth, their power bases, constituencies,
and current positions.
In this chapter, we initially provide a brief overview of scholarship on
populism and the contested nature of its definition. We then map out the
various dimensions (e.g. horizontal, vertical, and intersections of both)
and aspects (civilizational) in which populism can exist and emerge as a
political force. We also examine how religion, specifically Islam, is utilized
within these dimensions to carve out populist binaries. Subsequently, we
set out the historical context in which populist discourse and politics have
emerged and dominated the political spectrum.

Terminology and Theoretical Frame

The current Islamist populist moment in the Muslim world is a conse-
quence of a long historical process that involved Islamist opposition
to Western ideas, repression under and battles against secular author-
itarian actors, processes of urbanization, the rise of identity politics
and the internet revolution, and international interventions by Western
 1 INTRODUCTION: SETTING THE STAGE: POPULISM … 3

powers (Barton 2009, 2020, 2022). We argue that Islamic actors have
been shaped by and in turn shaped the context in which they exist. This
context involved colonization, decolonization and the rise of the nation-
state, urbanization, Cold War politics, and the internet revolution (Yilmaz
2023). Throughout the book, we will discuss these contextual issues as we
examine important political developments. They have significant power to
explain the peculiar behaviours of Islamic political and civil society actors,
how they emerge and flourish, their power bases, their constituencies, and
their current positions.
Populism has become an important political force across the Muslim
world and is present and effective in the politics of both Indonesia and
Turkey, and extremely influential in the latter, which is ruled by a populist
authoritarian party. An abstract notion, populism has been defined in
multiple ways. The most common approach today is to define populism
as a set of ideas or a “thin-centred ideology” which may be “combined
with other beliefs and ideas of politics” (la Torre 2019, 7). Populism is
also sometimes understood to be a strategy (Weyland 2001), a discourse
(Laclau 2005), or a political style (Moffitt 2017). However, in this book,
we have adopted Mudde’s ideological approach and define populism as an
ideology or set of ideas that “considers society to be ultimately separated
into two homogenous and antagonistic groups, “the pure people” versus
“the corrupt elite,” and which argues that politics should be an expression
of the volonté générale (general will) of the [pure] people” (Mudde 2004,
543). Beyond this minimal definition, it appears that populist antago-
nism has two dimensions: a vertical dimension which manifests as hostility
between “the people” and “elites”, and a horizontal dimension which
manifests as hostility between “the people” and “others” (De Cleen and
Stavrakakis 2017).

Democracy, Populism, and Religion

In recent years, the relationship between Islam and democracy has
become an increasingly critical topic in political discourse. Scholars have
explored the compatibility of Islamic principles with liberal-democratic
values and the ways in which Muslim-majority countries navigate the
complex relationship between religion and politics (Hashemi 2009; Brui-
nessen 2018; Hadiz 2016; Schneier 2015; Barton 2015; Geri 2017).
Hashemi (2009) challenges the widely-held belief that religious poli-
tics and liberal-democratic development are inherently incompatible. He
4 M. DEMIR AND G. BARTON

argues for the necessity of rethinking democratic theory to incorporate

the variable of religion in the development of liberal democracy. Hashemi
contends that an indigenous theory of Muslim secularism is not only
possible but essential for the advancement of liberal democracy in Muslim
societies.
Utilizing a comparative approach, Martin van Bruinessen (2018)
examines how Turkey and Indonesia invested heavily in the education
of religious personnel and the dissemination of religious views that
aligned with the drive for modernization and development. However,
these efforts inadvertently enabled the social mobility of marginalized
conservatives and facilitated their gradual control over parts of the state
apparatus (Barton 2001, 2002).
Hadiz’s “Islamic Populism in Indonesia and the Middle East” (2016)
compares the evolution of Islamic populism in Indonesia to the Middle
East, using approaches from historical sociology and political economy.
Hadiz contends that competing strands of Islamic politics result from
contemporary struggles over power and material resources and are rooted
in a variety of social and historical contexts. This comparative frame-
work sheds new light on the diverse trajectories of Islamic politics in the
modern world.
Schneier (2015) investigates the political dimensions of Islam,
analysing the relationship between politics and religion in forty-seven
Muslim-majority countries, with a particular focus on Turkey and
Indonesia. Schneier’s findings suggest that the boundaries between
church and state in the Islamic world are more variable and diverse
than commonly assumed, and that the concept of “Islamic law” is more
political than religious.
Maurizio Geri’s “Ethnic Minorities in Democratizing Muslim Coun-
tries: Turkey and Indonesia” (2018) explores the treatment of ethnic
minorities’ demands for inclusiveness and autonomy in democratizing
Muslim countries. Geri introduces the concept of “autonomization” and
examines the securitization of Kurds in Turkey and the autonomiza-
tion of Acehnese in Indonesia. The study aims to expand generalizations
and comparisons by examining states with ethnic diversity and minimal
religious diversity.
Moreover, there is an emerging trend examining Islamist populist poli-
tics in relation to democratic progress in majority Muslim countries.
These studies primarily explore how Islam is politicized and crafted as
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