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European Art and the Wider World 1350–1550
 This book forms part of the series Art and its Global Histories published by

Manchester University Press in association with The Open University. The books

in the series are:

European Art and the Wider World 1350–1550, edited by Kathleen

Christian and Leah R. Clark

Art, Commerce and Colonialism 1600–1800, edited by Emma Barker

Empire and Art: British India, edited by Renate Dohmen

Art after Empire: From Colonialism to Globalisation, edited by Warren Carter

Art and its Global Histories: A Reader, edited by Diana Newall

European Art and the Wider World

1350–1550

Edited by Kathleen Christian and Leah R. Clark

 Published by Manchester University Press

Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA

www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk

in association with

The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA

www.open.ac.uk

First published 2017

Copyright © 2017 The Open University

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, transmitted or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission

from the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd. Details

of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the

Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Barnard’s Inn, 86 Fetter Lane, London, EC4A

1EN (website www.cla.co.uk).

This publication forms part of the Open University module Art and its global

histories (A344). Details of this and other Open University modules can be

obtained from Student Recruitment, The Open University, PO Box 197, Milton

Keynes MK7 6BJ, United Kingdom (tel. +44 (0)300 303 5303; email general-

[email protected]).

Edited and designed by The Open University

Typeset by The Open University

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for

ISBN 978 1 5261 2290 2 (paperback)

ISBN 978 1 5261 2291 9 (ebook)

The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for

any external or third-party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not

guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or

appropriate.
Contents

Preface

Introduction

Kathleen Christian and Leah R. Clark

Chapter 1 Renaissance altarpieces: the

far in the near

Kathleen Christian

Chapter 2 Cultural crossings in Spain

and the New World 1350–1550

Kim Woods

Chapter 3 Collecting the world: art,

nature and representation

Leah R. Clark

Chapter 4 Aspects of art in Venice:

encounters with the East

Paul Wood with Kathleen Christian and Leah R. Clark

Conclusion

Leah R. Clark and Kathleen Christian

Index
Preface

This is the first of four books in the series Art and its Global

Histories, which together form the main texts of an Open University

Level 3 module of the same name. Each book is also designed to be

read independently by the general reader. The series as a whole

offers an accessible introduction to the ways in which the history of

Western art from the fourteenth century to the present day has been

bound up with cross-cultural exchanges and global forces.

Each book in the series explores a distinct period of this long

history, apart from the third, which focuses on the art and visual

culture of the British Empire, with particular reference to India. The

present book, European Art and the Wider World 1350–1550,

examines European art and material culture in the ‘age of

exploration’ through the lens of expanding global connections and

conflicts. Chapter 4 is a revised and updated version of Paul Wood,

‘Art in fifteenth-century Venice: an aesthetic of diversity’, from the

book Locating Renaissance Art produced for the Open University

module Renaissance art reconsidered (AA315).

All of the books in the series include teaching elements. To

encourage the reader to reflect on the material presented, each

chapter contains short exercises in the form of questions printed in

bold type. They are followed by discursive sections, the end of

which is marked by .

The four books in the series are:

 European Art and the Wider World 1350–1550, edited by

Kathleen Christian and Leah R. Clark

Art, Commerce and Colonialism 1600–1800, edited by Emma

Barker

Empire and Art: British India, edited by Renate Dohmen

Art after Empire: From Colonialism to Globalisation, edited by

Warren Carter.

There is also a companion reader:

Art and its Global Histories: A Reader, edited by Diana

Newall.
Introduction

Kathleen Christian and Leah R. Clark

This book examines select examples of European art and visual

culture made between c.1350 and 1550, asking how art and objects

from this period can be read as the products of global connections.

It is concerned with the ties that joined Europe to the wider world

at a time when commodities, ideas, designs and technologies

circulated over long distances, crossed boundaries and travelled

between cultures, with significant consequences for the visual arts.

This period in European history is traditionally understood as ‘the

Renaissance’, which is often celebrated as a high point in the

European tradition, and associated with new inventions inspired by

the revival of an indigenous classical past. Recently, however, the

Renaissance has become globalised, as alternative readings of the art

of the period take into account the interdependencies that bound

Europe with the rest of the world.

It has long been recognised that the Renaissance was a time of

remarkable transformation, when many genres and conventions that

would come to define European art were invented or re-energised.

Looking at the engraving of Adam and Eve by the German artist

Albrecht Dürer (Plate 0.1), the artistic priorities characteristic of

this era become apparent: attention to the idealised human body

and the natural world, for example, or the meticulous use of shading

to create the illusion of volume. Dürer’s image is a print on paper

made from an engraved copper plate, a technique developed in the

fifteenth century which first made it possible for artists to

disseminate their visual inventions widely. From Jan van Eyck’s

mastery of the oil painting technique, to Filippo Brunelleschi’s or

Leon Battista Alberti’s inventive reinterpretation of antique

architecture, to the landscapes of Albrecht Altdorfer in Germany, to

painting on canvas and the rise of portraiture and self-portraiture,

the Renaissance established new techniques and modes of visual

representation that would endure for centuries.

Plate 0.1 Albrecht Dürer, Adam and Eve, 1504, engraving, 25 × 19 cm.

Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, object number RP-P-OB-1155.

 European Renaissance art favoured realism, an emphasis on the

human figure, naturalism and the perspectival or illusionistic

representation of pictorial space. On the surface, one might

therefore have the impression that the arts of Renaissance Europe

are fundamentally different and separate from contemporary visual

traditions in other parts of the world. It is often mistakenly asserted,

for example, that European Renaissance art is figural while Islamic

art is iconoclastic or shuns all form of figural representation, when

in fact there is a rich tradition of figurative representation in the

Islamic secular arts. Rather than focusing on oppositions and one-

to-one comparisons, however, the approach of global art history is

instead to search for commonalities, interdependencies, overlaps

and dialogues between Europe and the wider world. Such

approaches are transforming the study of the Renaissance by

recasting a period long positioned at the centre of a European canon

as culturally diverse and intertwined.

On the whole, the importation of non-European art did not bring

about fundamental shifts in the dominant modes of representation

prevailing in Europe during this period. What did deeply affect

European art, however, was the vast movement of materials, objects,

ideas and technologies which circulated globally in this era. This

was a time when Chinese porcelain dishes could be found in

1
merchants’ houses in Florence or on the Swahili coast of Africa;

when the edges of garments worn by figures of Christian saints in

Italian Renaissance paintings were decorated with an imitation

Arabic script (Chapter 1, Plate 1.10); and when the leading Venetian

artist Gentile Bellini worked as a court painter for the Ottoman

sultan Mehmed II the Conqueror (r.1444–46 and 1451–81) in

Constantinople (Chapter 4, Plate 4.8). As will be explored in

Chapter 2 of this book, more than 700 years of Muslim rule

established a lasting tradition of Islamic crafts, art and architecture

on the Iberian peninsula. These select examples underline the extent

to which European visual culture is the product of multiple

traditions and perspectives, to a greater degree than has been

recognised in the history of art.

Throughout this period, world powers exchanged valuable goods

as diplomatic gifts and Europeans imported objects from around the

globe: textiles from different, sometimes very distant parts of Asia;

ivories carved in Africa for Portuguese traders; Mamluk brassware

2
from Syria and Egypt; and featherwork from Meso-America. In the

Renaissance the high aesthetic and cultural value accorded to refined

imported or gifted goods represents the continuation of a long-lived

hierarchy, whereby many of the most prized things known in Europe

3
were imported from Asia. For Europeans the ‘East’ had been –

since the ancient origins of the long-distance trade networks later

known as the Silk Road – a source of colourful, glittering, aromatic

things: silk, spices such as pepper and saffron, porcelain, jewels,

4
ointments, perfumes and pigments. Desire for these luxuries only

increased in the Renaissance, and access to them was a coup that, at

different points in time, gave Venice, Lisbon, Antwerp or other

places vast cultural and economic advantages (Plate 0.2). Goods,

technologies and ideas arrived from elsewhere, even if Europeans

usually had only a vague awareness of where they had originated or

how they had travelled. Significantly, what have been called the ‘four

great inventions’ – gunpowder, paper, movable type used in printing

and the compass – originated in China and passed directly to

Europe through contact with the Mongols or indirectly via Islamic

5
cultures that had adopted and developed them (Plate 0.3).

Taking a global perspective on this period entails re-examining

the circumstances that gave rise to the period known as the

Renaissance. After the end of the ancient Roman Empire, western

Europe was a loose conglomeration of different political authorities.

On the periphery of the Eurasian continent, it was cut off from the

vibrant, wealthy cities of the Byzantine Empire or western and

central Asia, which were connected to the silk roads. Around the

twelfth to the fifteenth centuries, however, Europe was catching up

with those, more prosperous parts of the world. First, during what

has been called the ‘commercial revolution’ which began in the

twelfth century, there were improvements in trade, infrastructure

6
and banking systems, as well as in industry and crafts. Artisans

developed an aptitude for imitating imported goods and using them

7
as a basis for local products that could compete with the originals.

Then the fifteenth century brought new prosperity and further

innovation in the arts and sciences, with the invention of the

printing press (1440s) as well as expanded participation in global

8
trade. By the end of the fifteenth century, Iberian powers claimed

major victories in the global competition to control the highly

profitable spice trade by navigating new overseas routes. At a time

when the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire dominated much of

the Mediterranean, the Portuguese reached Asia by sailing around

Africa. By 1511 they had established outposts across the west and

east coasts of Africa and in Brazil, Hormuz in the Persian Gulf, Goa

on the west coast of India and Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. In

1492, Columbus sailed west on behalf of Isabella I of Castile and

Ferdinand II of Aragon (r.1474/75–1504) in the hopes of finding a

new passage to Asia but, as was understood only later, reached a

previously unknown continent. By skilful navigation and

cartography, by means of military force, slavery and religious

conversion, Europe entered into entangled relationships with the

wider world. Still, Europe was not dominant on a global scale; this

would only occur after c.1800 when western Europe became

industrialised. In an earlier era, European kingdoms and states

competed with many intertwined global powers, which rose and fell

in rivalry for access to the same goods and resources.

Plate 0.2 Europe c.1500.

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