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 CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION METHODS AND PROCEDURES
CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION
METHODS AND PROCEDURES
“I believe this is an essential handbook for all crime scene
investigation students. I am confident that many practitioners also
will find it a useful source of reference. I have no hesitation in
commending this volume as a valuable standard text for crime scene
examiners.” G.C. Knupfer, Former Detective Chief Superintendent and
Dean of Studies, National Training Centre for Scientific Support to
Crime Investigation, UK

Forensic evidence is increasingly significant in the detection and

prosecution of crime. This means that the knowledge, skill and ability
of the person who examines the scene of the crime – the Crime Scene
Investigator (CSI) – has never been more important.

This book guides aspiring and newly appointed CSIs through the
methods and procedures for the accurate recording and recovery
of evidence from the scene of a crime. It features photographs,
drawings, self-assessment questions, and checklists of roles,
equipment and activities required at the crime scene, providing the
student or trainee CSI with a step-by-step handbook and the
practising CSI with an invaluable reference. The book also offers a
broad understanding of the development and context within which a
modern CSI must work as an integral member of investigative teams.

CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION is essential reading for all students

of forensic law enforcement, especially those wishing to become
Crime Scene Investigators. The text is ideal for undergraduate and
FE students and as a reference for trainee forensic practitioners.

IAN PEPPER is a Senior Lecturer in Crime Scene and Forensic IAN K. PEPPER
Science based in the School of Science and Technology at the
University of Teesside. He is a former Crime Scene Examiner and
Fingerprint Officer and has been an Instructor and Team Leader at the
National Training Centre for Scientific Support to Crime Investigation.
He has designed and delivered Crime Scene Investigator training in
the Far East, Middle East and Africa and is a member of the
International Association for Identification and the Fingerprint Society.

Cover Design: Grosvenor (Northampton) Ltd

Crime Scene
Investigation
Crime Scene
Investigation
Methods and Procedures

Ian K. Pepper

Open University Press

Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL

email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121–2289, USA

First published 2005

Copyright # Ian K. Pepper 2005

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any for, or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher
or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such licences
(for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the Copyright Licensing
Agency Ltd of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, W1T 4LP.

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0335 21490 8 (pb) 0335 21491 6 (hb)

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

CIP data applied for

Typeset by YHT Ltd, London

Printed in the UK by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall
 Contents

Abbreviations vi
Introduction xi
Dedication x

1 The history and contemporary structure of the police, scientific

services and crime scene investigation in the United Kingdom 1

2 Approaching the crime scene, packaging the evidence and the

documentation required 13

3 The basics of crime scene photography 26

4 Trace evidence: fibres, glass, hairs, paint and soil 39

5 Impressions: footwear marks, instrument marks, glove marks and tyres 48

6 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and body fluids 57

7 Fingerprints 68

8 The investigation of a fire scene 92

9 Firearms and explosives 99

10 The leadership and management of the forensic examination of a

major crime scene 109

11 Other sources of evidence for the crime scene investigator 124

12 The Criminal Law Courts in the United Kingdom 140

13 Organizations related to crime scene investigation 149

14 Health and safety at a crime scene 156

Answers to questions 164

References 170
Index 175
 Abbreviations

Like any large organization the police service has developed its own ‘lan-
guage’ that may be confusing to an aspiring or new forensic practitioner.
Listed here are some common abbreviations and what they stand for; how-
ever, this is not an exhaustive list.

ACE-V analysed, compared, evaluated and verified

ACPO Association of Chief Police Officers
AIB Accident Investigation Branch
ALF Animal Liberation Front
ARV Armed Response Vehicle
ASA American Standards Association
ASCLD American Society of Crime Laboratory Directors

BTP British Transport Police

CAP Common Approach Path

CBRN chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear
CID Criminal Investigation Department
CJA Criminal Justice Act 1967
CJPO Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1995
CJSU Criminal Justice Support Unit
COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
CPA Crime Pattern Analyst
CPO Crime Prevention/Reduction Officer
CPS Crown Prosecution Service
CRFP Council for the Registration of Forensic Practitioners
CRO Criminal Records Office
CSE crime scene examiner (as CSI)
CSI crime scene investigator
CSM crime scene manager

DFO Diazafluoren-9-One
DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid

EOD Explosives Ordnance Disposal

ESDA Electrostatic detection apparatus
ESLA electrostatic lifting apparatus
 ABBREVIATIONS vii

FAIR Forensic After Incident Review

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation
FDL Fingerprint Development Laboratory
FDR firearms discharge residue
FIO Force Intelligence Officer
FIT Fire Investigation Team
FLINTS Force Linked Intelligence System
FLO family liaison officer
FME forensic medical examiner
FSAG Forensic Search Advisory Group
FSS Forensic Science Service

GPS global positioning system

GRIM Glass Refractive Index Measurement

HMIC Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary

HOLMES Home Office Large Major Enquiry System
HSE Health and Safety Executive

IAFIS Integrated Automatic Fingerprint Identification System

IAI International Association for Identification
Interpol International Criminal Police Organization
ISO International Standards Organization

JP Justice of the Peace

KM Kastle Mayer

LCN DNA low copy number DNA

LGC Laboratory of Government Chemists
LIO Local Intelligence Officer
LMG leucomalachite green
LSD lysergic acid diethylamide

MDAT Major Disaster Advisory Team

Met Metropolitan Police
MLP multilocus probe
MOD Police Ministry of Defence Police

NAFIS National Automated Fingerprint Identification System

NCIS National Criminal Intelligence Service
NCOF National Crime and Operations Faculty
NCS National Crime Squad
viii ABBREVIATIONS

NHTCU National Hi-Tec Crime Unit

NSLEC National Specialist Law Enforcement Centre
NTCSSCI National Training Centre for Scientific Support to Crime
Investigation

PACE Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984

PCR polymerase chain reaction
PITO Police Information Technology Organization
PM post-mortem examination
PNC Police National Computer
POLSA police search adviser
PPE personal protective equipment
PSDB Police Scientific Development Branch
PSNI Police Service of Northern Ireland
PSSO Police Skills and Standards Organization

RAFP Royal Air Force Police

RCMP Royal Canadian Mounted Police
RMP Royal Military Police
Rv Regina versus
RVP rendezvous point

SB Special Branch
SGM second generation multiplex
SICAR shoeprint image capture and retrieval
SIDS Sudden Infant Death Syndrome
SIO Senior Investigating Police Officer
SLP single locus probe
SLR Single Lens Reflex
SOCA Serious and Organized Crime Agency
SOCO scenes of crime officer (as CSI)
SSC scientific support coordinator
SSM scientific support Manager
STR short tandem repeat

TGM third generation multiplex

TSU Technical Support Unit
TTL through the lens

UV ultraviolet

VCSI volume crime scene investigator

VIPER Video Identification Parade Electronic Recording
 Introduction

There are three elements that are important in the investigation of a crime:
the history leading to the offence taking place, the crime scene itself and the
skills of those investigating the event. With the ever-increasing importance of
forensic evidence in the detection and prosecution of crime the knowledge,
skills and abilities of those who examine the scenes of crimes, the crime scene
investigators, has never been more important.
As an operational crime scene investigator (CSI) within an urban police
force in the United Kingdom (UK) I attended in the region of 9000 crime
scenes ranging from multiple murders and robberies to burglaries and stolen
vehicles. I have also been privileged to work as a fingerprint examiner in a
large Fingerprint Bureau making a number of fingerprint identifications from
finger marks recovered from crime scenes by CSIs. As a lecturer and team
leader at the National Training Centre for Scientific Support to Crime In-
vestigation I have delivered training in the investigation of crime scenes
across the UK, Far East, Middle East and Africa. Now as a university lecturer I
educate the CSIs of the future.
The investigation of a crime is like putting together a jigsaw. No one
person has all the pieces but some of the key shapes can be found at the crime
scene. There is only one opportunity for the CSI to recover forensic evidence
from the scene of the crime. The evidence may be of a scientific nature such as
DNA or unique marks on bullets; it may be minute such as fibres, hairs or
paint flakes, or even obscure such as knots or diatoms. Whatever the type of
evidence the CSIs are at the forefront of the investigation and if they don’t
recover the evidence then a forensic specialist cannot identify from where
and whom it came.
This text guides an aspiring or newly appointed CSI through the methods
and procedures for the accurate recording and recovery of evidence from the
scene of a crime, whilst providing a broad understanding of the development
and context within which a modern CSI must operate effectively as an in-
tegral member of investigative teams.
Dedicated to my grandparents Albert and Christiana
Depledge, Colin and Daisy Pepper
1 The history and contemporary
structure of the police,
scientific services and crime
scene investigation in the
United Kingdom

1.1 The early years

Critchley (1967) suggests that the birthplace of the police system in England
and Wales can be found in the ancient customs of the Anglo-Saxons. The
tythingman was responsible for justice over a loose group of families. Such
families were brought together for their common good. Any wrong doing by
an individual meant that they had to be brought by the tythingman to jus-
tice. The tythings were grouped under a royal reeve who exercised judicial
powers. The royal reeve was answerable to the local shire reeve (or sheriff)
who in turn was answerable to the king.
The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 brought a culture that at-
tempted to dominate its new subjects, which sometimes led to barbaric
outcomes. In 1124 a court found 44 men guilty of theft and publicly hanged
them and blinded several others (Critchley 1967). The Normans did however
establish the unpaid role of constable. The constable was appointed annually
from a rota of local eligible males who lived in the area. His role was to report
to the manor any incidents that occurred within the vicinity.
In 1285 the Statute of Winchester established the need for fortified towns
to have a number of watchmen who would patrol the gates between sunset
and sunrise apprehending strangers. Reporting to the constable, the watch-
men could call on the whole town using a ‘hue and cry’ to summon all males
between the ages of 15 and 60 to assist in the apprehension of a stranger.
In 1361 the Justice of the Peace Act enabled the crown to appoint in-
dividuals as Justices of the Peace (JPs) to have responsibility for law and order
and as such have responsibility over any police.
The eighteenth century witnessed a population explosion and growth of
large industrial areas. London became the largest city with over a million
inhabitants. London, being a centre of trade and the capital, became a haven
of crime and criminals. Since 1663 the capital had employed watchmen called
Charlies, named after King Charles II who was instrumental in the scheme
2 CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

(Critchley 1967). They patrolled London’s streets calling out the time, but
they were poorly paid, relatively ineffective and would often turn away from
trouble or ignore it for a bribe.
In the mid-eighteenth century two brothers who were both magistrates,
Henry and John Fielding, published articles on cases over which they had
presided in an effort to illustrate the level to which public order and crime
had sunk in eighteenth-century England. In 1750 Henry Fielding created a
small band of paid constables into a team of ‘thief takers’ led by him and
based at his Bow Street offices. Their aim was to tackle the robbery gangs
which were plaguing London. They had initial successes capturing some
dangerous criminals and although disbanded after a year they were reformed
in 1753 to tackle the rising number of murders which were occurring in the
capital. Within a few weeks they had successfully broken up the gangs of
murderers. On Henry Fielding’s death his brother John Fielding continued his
work, gaining financial support for the continued establishment of the so-
called ‘Bow Street Runners’. John established horseborne patrols on the roads
leading into London to chase and capture highwaymen. He also saw the
importance of intelligence using his Bow Street offices as a centre through
which descriptions of suspects could be gathered and disseminated around
London.
For a week in June 1780 London came under mob rule (Emsley 1991).
Over three hundred people were killed or injured, seventy-two houses and
four gaols were destroyed. The army was finally used to viciously quell the
‘Gordon riots’ and eventually 25 individuals were found guilty and executed
for their part in the mayhem (Radzinowicz 1956b). Unease spread across
London at the way in which the riots had risen and been quelled. No longer
could a few constables, assisted by the public, be relied upon to police the
growing metropolis of London.
A champion of the need for the establishment of a full-time police force
was the magistrate Patrick Colquhoun. Research he conducted demonstrated
that in the year ending in January 1798 goods stolen and lost from the port
area of London equated to over half a million pounds, with nearly half of
these goods being taken from the West India merchants (Radzinowicz 1956a).
So in June 1798, funded mainly by the shipping merchants, a force of 60 full-
time paid officers was established (Critchley 1967). The officers were given
reasonable pay and rules of conduct establishing what was and was not ex-
pected of them. The project was immensely successful and in 1800 an Act of
Parliament turned the private venture into a public body.
In April 1829 the then Home Secretary, Sir Robert Peel, introduced the
Metropolitan Police Act. This established the metropolitan police district as
an area extending seven miles from the centre of London. A force of suitable
men was to be recruited and sworn in as constables. They were to have the
powers and privileges of a constable at common law. The force was to have its
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLICE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES 3

own budget and was to be run by two commissioners: a military man, ex-
Colonel Charles Rowan, and Irish barrister Richard Mayne. They were to re-
port directly to the Home Secretary. Richard Mayne suggested that ‘The pri-
mary object of an efficient police is the prevention of crime: the protection of
life and property, the preservation of public tranquillity, and the absence of
crime, will alone prove whether those efforts have been successful’ (Me-
tropolitan Police 2002). Offices were established for the two new commis-
sioners at 4 Whitehall Place, which backed onto a narrow, little-known lane
called ‘Scotland Yard’. The Metropolitan Police district was split into 17 di-
visions each of which was to be run by a Superintendent supported by an
establishment of 56 men consisting of constables, sergeants and inspectors.
The constables were paid one guinea a week and wore a non-military
uniform consisting of a blue tailed coat, blue trousers and black top hat with a
strengthened crown. They carried a rattle and truncheon concealed beneath
their coat. Recruits had to be under 35, of good physique, at least 50 7} tall,
literate and of good character (Critchley 1967). By 1830 the Metropolitan
Police Force had grown in numbers exceeding over 3000 men and the con-
stables had been nicknamed ‘peelers’ or ‘bobbies’ after their founder. In 1831
the Special Constables Act empowered local magistrates to conscript men
during time of riot and in 1835 the Municipal Corporation Act required the
establishment of regular police forces throughout England and Wales. The
first detective department was founded in the Metropolitan Police during the
early 1840s. Women were not recruited into the police service until the start
of the First World War in 1914 when the Women Police Service was estab-
lished (Fido and Skinner 1999).
Similar developments were occurring elsewhere in the world. In the USA
immigrants took with them the traditions of sheriffs. Perhaps the earliest
recorded appointment of a county sheriff in the USA was in Virginia during
1634 (Haberfeld 2002). In 1789 George Washington appointed US Marshals to
enforce the law across the state boundaries in the USA, but only Texas had a
police force that operated across a whole state (Haberfeld 2002). In 1834 the
first full-time constable was appointed to police parts of Toronto in Canada.
Then in 1844 the New York City Police was formed to police the rapidly
expanding large urban areas of New York. In 1862 the New South Wales
Police was established to police a large portion of Australia. As part of their
new uniforms the New York City Police adopted an eight-point copper star as
its badge of office. Soon these police became known as ‘coppers or cops’
(Bresler 1992). These nicknames stuck and are now in general use as slang for
the police across the world.
4 CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

1.2 The identification of criminals before the use of

fingerprints

Prior to the 1840s the methods of identification of criminals were very lim-
ited, such as an artist’s impression with a rough description or the branding of
repeat offenders (recidivists) with hot irons. The addition of photography in
the 1840s aided this identification process. Bresler (1992) suggests that in
Brussels during 1843 the police took the first ever photograph of a criminal.
In France in early 1879 a young man, Alphonse Bertillon, was employed
by the police in Paris to file these many descriptions and photographs. Having
had a scientific education Bertillon became frustrated with an identification
process that was undoubtedly flawed, leading to many miscarriages of justice.
After only a few months Bertillon wrote a paper that demonstrated that by
using a number of measurements of different parts of the body he could show
that no two individuals were exactly alike. His system of identification used
11 measurements of varying parts of the body ranging from the length and
breadth of the head to distance between elbow joint and fingertip. Called
anthropometry, the system relied upon accurate measurements to identify
the repeat offenders. Such a system did have some recorded success with 26
recidivists being identified in the last three months of 1883 (Rhodes 1956).
The news of such success drew attention to his work from across Europe and
the USA. Bertillon built on this success, implementing the use of a metric
scale when he took photographs of evidence, such as tool marks and foot-
prints, at crime scenes to which he could then apply his basic method of
identification in his workshop (Rhodes 1956). In contemporary terms he was
the first real crime scene investigator and established one of the first crime
laboratories.
Edward Henry (see Chapter 7) introduced the anthropometric system of
identification into colonial India in 1892. Then in 1894 anthropometry was
accepted as a means of identification in England, but the number of Bertil-
lon’s measurements was reduced to five and was to be accompanied by a set of
ten fingerprints that were to be taken from every offender (Thorwald 1965).
The anthropometric system of identification did however rely on the accu-
racy of the measurements of the suspects taken by different police officers,
with varying equipment at different times. Bertillon later added the use of
fingerprints to his French system but only as a supportive means of identifi-
cation. The use of anthropometry was later discarded as a means of accurate
identification (in England this was in 1900). Despite this, Bertillon is generally
regarded as putting the identification of individuals on a scientific basis and
raising the profile of the use of science in the investigation of crime.
A pupil and close friend of Bertillon was Dr Edmond Locard who, in 1910,
established the first real police forensic laboratory to compare evidence
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLICE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES 5

recovered from the crime scene with that from suspect. Locard was particu-
larly interested in poroscopy – the distribution of the sweat pores on finger-
prints. But he is remembered for his principle of exchange of evidence. In
1910 Locard successfully recovered evidence from under the fingernails of a
murder victim. Then in 1920 he first published his principle suggesting that
when one object comes into contact with another something is exchanged
between and taken away by both objects. Locard’s principle is the basis of the
transfer and recovery of all forensic evidence.

Locard’s Principle

1.3 The structure of the contemporary police

At the time of the Police Act (1919) there were over 100 police forces across
England and Wales. The act formalized national police pay and conditions
and forbade policemen the right to strike. Another Police Act (1964) set the
basis for the police service that we have today. It set out the role of the
individuals and agencies involved in running the police service. The Home
Secretary became responsible for ensuring that the police service was run
efficiently. A police authority (consisting of councillors and magistrates) was
established in each force area ensuring that adequate policing was delivered
to the area with suitable and sufficient equipment; they would also hire the
Chief Constable. A Chief Constable would be responsible for the control of
the force including appointments. Such a tripartite system of power sharing
meant that no one individual had overall control of the police and its actions.
The Act also extended the powers of a police constable from his own force to
all forces across England and Wales. This Act gave the impetus for the
eventual amalgamation of over 100 police forces to the largely autonomous
43 Home Office Police Forces we have today.
The push for financial prudence by the government in the 1980s led to
the large-scale civilianization of a number of policing duties. A circular from
the Home Office (1988) to all police authorities and Chief Constables high-
lighted 25 different duties that could efficiently be conducted by civilian staff.
6 CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION: METHODS AND PROCEDURES

These roles ranged from clerical and administrative work to scenes of crime
and forensic examinations. Hence no longer did one have to be a police
constable to be within the police service. In 2001 the largest police force
remains the Metropolitan Police Service with over 30,000 police officers,
11,000 civilian support staff, a number of special constables (volunteer part-
time police officers) and an annual budget of just under £2000 million.
The 43 Home Office Police Forces of England and Wales, the eight
Scottish Police Forces, the Police Service of Northern Ireland and a number of
other specialist law enforcement agencies such as the British Transport Police
(BTP) and Royal Military Police (RMP) have the support of a number of na-
tional organizations. The National Criminal Intelligence Service (NCIS)
gathers, stores and analyses information on criminal activities and provides
such information to police forces and other agencies. The National Crime
Squad (NCS) was formed in 1998 replacing the regional crime squads. Its role
is to dismantle or disrupt criminal enterprises engaged in serious and orga-
nized crime. The Central Police Training and Development Authority (Cen-
trex) provides national training solutions for the police service. The Police
Scientific Development Branch (PSDB) is a Home Office Unit of scientists and
technologists providing technical advice and guidance to ensure the effec-
tiveness and efficiency of the police service. Their developments range from
the high-visibility paint schemes for police helicopters to the best chemicals
to develop fingerprints. The Police Information and Technology Organization
(PITO) provides information, technology and communication systems to the
police service and others within the criminal justice system such as the Police
National Computer (PNC) that holds criminal justice information on a secure
system.
The future of the police service appears to be the development of more
centralized services such as those already evolving within the arenas of in-
telligence and information technology. The smaller police forces are likely to
be amalgamated or encompassed within the larger force areas, forming larger
regional police forces. Such amalgamations will reduce the duplication of
services, such as underwater search units, control rooms and administrative
departments. Amalgamation will ease the movement of personnel and the
sharing of information across police force boundaries and provide a more
cost-effective and efficient police service – after all, the criminal does not stop
at county boundaries. But one has to wonder if the public wishes to have a
more cost-effective and efficient police service? Would they prefer to have
more police officers back on the beat making them feel secure in their home
and on their way to school or work? Bigger, although cheaper, may not
necessarily be better.
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE POLICE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES 7

1.4 Structure of the contemporary scientific support

department

Each of the 43 Home Office police forces in England and Wales, the eight
police forces in Scotland and the Police Service of Northern Ireland has a
scientific support manager (SSM) who heads each individual scientific support
department, as do a number of the other law enforcement agencies such as
the Ministry of Defence Police, Royal Air Force and Royal Military Police and
States of Jersey Police. An SSM may be a police officer or civilian crime scene
investigation/forensic specialist, with the prime requirement being that they
should have strong skills of management (Touche Ross 1987). The SSM
controls the day-to-day management, including personnel, finance and or-
ganization, of the police photography, scenes of crime and fingerprint de-
partments and may occasionally also have responsibility for other specialist
departments such as Technical Support Units.
Each specialist department has a departmental head, usually a specialist
from within the appropriate discipline. In a typical force structure the fin-
gerprint bureau and the photographic department are based centrally, often
in the police force headquarters; whereas in the crime scene investigation
department, the Head of Crime Scene Investigation is based at a central lo-
cation, and the crime scene investigators (CSI) are deployed in sections. These
sections are either based geographically, covering large areas, or divisionally,
working solely as a resource within that particular police divisional area. Each
section has at least one crime scene manager/supervisor who has line man-
agement responsibility for those particular CSIs.
The number of CSIs employed within a police force varies enormously in
relation to the size of the force, from 10 to well over 150. The same can be said
for all of the specialist departments.

A typical UK scientific support unit

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