Questionnaire Units 16 and 17.

Electromagnetic and thermal radiation.

1) What properties characterize an electromagnetic wave? How are they related?

these properties among themselves?

Electromagnetic waves are characterized by their frequency v and wavelength λ. These two
properties in a medium are related by λ = c / v where c is the speed of light in
that medium.

2) What is visible light? How does it differ from other forms of radiation?
electromagnetic?

Visible light is a type of electromagnetic wave whose wavelength is between 0.40 and 0.76.
μm. It differs from other forms of electromagnetic radiation in that it produces the
sensation of seeing in the human eye.

3) What is the difference between microwave cooking and conventional cooking?

Microwaves in the range of 102a 105µm are very suitable for cooking, as they
they are reflected in metals, transmitted through glass and plastics, and absorbed by the
molecules of food (especially water). Therefore, electrical energy
converted into radiation in a microwave oven finally becomes part of the
internal energy of the food without the involvement of conduction and thermal resistances of
convection. In conventional cooking, on the other hand, the thermal resistances of conduction
and convection slow down the transfer of heat and, therefore, the heating process.

4) What is thermal radiation? How does it differ from other forms of

electromagnetic radiation?

Thermal radiation is the radiation emitted as a result of vibrational and translational motions.
rotation of molecules, atoms, and electrons of a substance, and extends from
approximately 0.1 to 100 μm in wavelength. Unlike other forms of
electromagnetic radiation, thermal radiation is emitted by bodies due to their
temperature.

5) Why is radiation usually treated as a surface phenomenon?

The radiation in opaque solids is considered a surface phenomenon as only the radiation
emitted by the molecules in a very thin layer of a body on the surface can
escape from the solid.
6) How do ultraviolet radiation and infrared radiation differ? Does the reader think that their body...
Does it emit any radiation in the ultraviolet range? Explain.

Infrared radiation is found between 0.76 and 100 μm, while ultraviolet radiation
it is found between the wavelengths of 0.01 to 0.40 μm. The human body does not emit
no radiation in the ultraviolet region since bodies at room temperature emit
radiation only in the infrared region.

Black body radiation.

7) What is a black body? Does a black body actually exist?

A black body is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. A black body does not
it actually exists. It is an idealized body that emits the maximum amount of radiation that
It can emit a surface at a given temperature.

8) Why do we define the black body radiation function? What does it represent? For what purpose?
Is it used?

We define the black body radiation function fλ why the integration

it cannot be done. The black body radiation function fλ represents the fraction of
radiation emitted by a black body at temperature T in the wavelength range
from λ = 0 to λ. This function is used to determine the fraction of radiation in a range of
wavelength between λ1y λ2.

9) Define the total and spectral emission powers of a black body. How are they
Are they related to each other? How do they differ?

The emissive power of the spectral black body is the amount of radiation energy emitted by

a black body at an absolute temperature T per unit of time, per unit surface area
unitary and by wavelength of unit around the wavelength λ. The integration of
the spectral emission power of the black body across the entire wavelength spectrum gives the
total emissive power of the black body,

The emissive power of the spectral black body varies with wavelength, the emissive power
total of the black body no.

10) Consider two identical bodies, one at 1,000 K and the other at 1,500 K. Which of the two
which bodies emit more radiation in the region of shorter wavelengths? Which of the
Which body emits more radiation at a wavelength of 20 mm?
The higher the temperature of a body, the greater the fraction of the radiation emitted in
shorter wavelengths. Therefore, the body at 1500 K will emit more radiation in the
region of shorter wavelength. The body at 1000 K emits more radiation at 20 μm than the
body at 1500 K since λT = constant.

Radiation intensity

11) When the variation of the amount of spectral radiation with wavelength is known.
wave, how is the total corresponding amount determined?

When the variation of the amount of spectral radiation with wavelength is known, the
The total correlational amount is determined by integrating that amount with respect to the length of
wave from λ = 0 to λ = ∞.

12) For a surface, how is radiosity defined? For diffusely emitting surfaces and
Reflectors, how is radiosity related to the intensities of the emitted radiation and
reflected?

Radiosity J is the rate at which radiation energy leaves a unit area of a

surface by emission and reflection in all directions. For an emitting surface and
diffuse reflector, the radiosity is related to the intensity of the emitted radiation and
reflected by J = πIe + r (o Jλ = πIλ, e + rfor spectral quantities).

13) How is the intensity of the emitted radiation defined? For a diffusely reflecting surface
broadcaster, how is the power of emission related to the intensity of radiation?
issued?

The intensity of the emitted radiation Ie(θ, φ) is defined as the speed at which it is emitted.
radiation energy d ein the ̇ direction (θ, φ) per unit area normal to this direction and by
solid angle unit around this direction. For a surface that emits
diffusely, the emissive power is related to the intensity of the radiation emitted by
E = πIe(o Eλ = πIλ, e+r for spectral quantities).

Radiation properties.

14) What is a gray body? What is its difference from a black body? What is a
diffuse gray surface?

A body whose surface properties are independent is called a grey body. The
the emissivity of a black body is one for all wavelengths, the emissivity of a
the gray body is between zero and one.

15) Define the properties of emissivity and absorptivity. When are these two properties
Are they the same?
Emissivity is the ratio of radiation emitted by the surface to the radiation emitted by a
black body at the same temperature. The fraction of radiation absorbed by the surface is
calls for absorptivity α,

When the surface temperature equals the temperature of the radiation source, the
total hemispherical emissivity of a temperature is equal to its total hemispherical absorptivity
for the radiation coming from a black body at the same temperature ελ (T) = αλ (T).

Atmospheric and solar radiation

16) What is the solar constant? How is it used to determine surface temperature?
Effective solar? How would the value of the solar constant change if the distance were doubled?
between the Earth and the Sun?

The solar constant represents the rate at which solar energy is incident on the surface.
of the atmosphere when the Earth is at an average distance from the sun. Its value is Gs= 1353 W / m2. The
solar constant is used to estimate the effective temperature of the sun

where is the average distance between the sun and the earth and is the radius of the sun. If the distance between the
earth and the sun doubles, the value of Gsfalls into a room:

The reader has probably noticed the warning signs on the roads.
expressing that bridges can be covered with ice when the roads are not.
Explain how this can happen.

There is heat loss from both sides of the bridge (top and bottom surfaces of the
bridge) that reduces the temperature of the bridge area to very low values. The ground
relatively warm under a road continuously provides heat to the area, making
that it is less likely for water to freeze.
18) When the Earth is closest to the Sun, we have winter in the northern hemisphere.
Explain why. Also, explain why we have summer in the northern hemisphere.
when the Earth is farthest from the Sun.

The reason for the different seasons is the tilt of the Earth that causes radiation
sunlight travels through the atmosphere on a longer journey in winter, and a
shorter route in summer. Therefore, solar radiation is significantly attenuated in
winter.

19) What is the effective sky temperature?

Gas molecules and the particles suspended in the atmosphere emit radiation, as does the
absorption of it. Although this emission is far from resembling the distribution of the
the radiation of a black body is useful in radiation calculations, the treatment of the
atmosphere as a black body at a fictitious lower temperature that emits an amount
equivalent of radiation energy. This fictitious temperature is called the effective temperature
from the skysky.

20) Explain why surfaces often have quite different absorptivities for the
solar radiation and that which originates from surrounding bodies.

Due to different wavelengths of solar radiation and radiation that originates from
of surrounding bodies, the surfaces generally have different absorptivities. The
solar radiation is concentrated in the short wavelength region and the surfaces in the
infrared region.

The vision factor

21) What does the vision factor represent? When is the vision factor of a surface towards itself
isn't it zero?

The vision factor represents the fraction of radiation that leaves surface i and strikes.
directly the surface j. The viewing factor from a surface to itself is not zero
for concave surfaces.

22) What is the cross-string method? For which types of configurations?

Which geometric shapes is the crossed strings method applicable to?

The crossed strings method is applicable to geometries that are very long in one
direction in relation to the other directions. By connecting strings between endpoints, the method
crossed strings is expressed as
23) What are the sum rule and the superposition rule for visual factors?

The sum rule for a space is expressed as where N is the number of

surface of the enclosure. It establishes that the sum of the viewing factors of surface i and a
the sum of all surfaces of the enclosure, including itself, must equal one.

The superposition rule is established as the line of sight factor of a surface i to a

surface j is equal to the sum of the view factors of surface i to the parts of the
surface j, F1 → (2,3)= F1 → 2+ F1 → 3 .

24) How can the reader determine the vision factor F?12when the factor is available
Vision F21and of the surface areas?

The vision factor pair Fi>jy Fj to ithey are related to each other by the rule of reciprocity
AiFij=AjFyeswhere Ajit is the surface area j and Aiit is the surface area i. Therefore,

Heat transfer by radiation between surfaces

25) What are the two methods used in radiation analysis? What is the difference?
between these two methods?

The two methods used in radiation analysis are the direct method and network methods.
the direct method (matrix), equations 13-34 and 13-35 (Cengel, Heat Transfer and
Mass) and N linear algebraic equations for the determination of the N radiosities
unknown for an area N.

Once the radiative fluxes are available, the unknown temperature velocities
superficial and heat transfer can be determined from these equations. This
method involves the use of matrices especially when there is a large amount of
surface.

Therefore, this method requires some knowledge of linear algebra.

The network method involves drawing a surface resistance associated with each surface.
from an enclosure and connect them with spatial resistances. Then, the problem of radiation
it is resolved by treating it as an electrical network problem in which heat transfer
by radiation replaces current and radiosity replaces potential. The method of
networks are not practical for rooms with more than three or four surfaces due to the greater
network complexity.

26) How does the radiosity of a surface differ from the energy emitted? For
What kinds of surfaces are these two quantities identical?

Radiosity is the total radiation energy leaving a surface per unit of time and
per unit area. The radiosity includes the energy of radiation emitted and the energy reflected.
The radiosity and the emitted energy are equal for black bodies since a black body
does not reflect any radiation.

27) What are the radiation resistances of surfaces and space? How do they
What do they express? For which kinds of surfaces is their radiation resistance zero?

The resistance of the radiation surface is given as and represents the resistance of
a surface to the emission of radiation. It is zero for black surfaces. The spatial resistance

it is the resistance to radiation between two surfaces and is expressed as

28) Why is the analysis related to radiation in closed spaces more or less easy than
Do they consist of black surfaces? In this case, how is the transfer ratio expressed?
heat by radiation?

The analysis of radiation exchange between black surfaces is relatively easy due to
the absence of reflection. The radiative heat transfer index between two surfaces
in this case it is expressed as A1Ḟ 12σ (T1-T2) where
4 4
A1it is the surface area, F12it is the
view factor, and T1y T2 these are the temperatures of two surfaces

29) What is a reradiating surface? What simplifications does such a surface offer?
type in the analysis related to radiation?

Some surfaces found in numerous practical applications of heat transfer

they are modeled as adiabatic since the back sides of these surfaces are well
isolated and the net heat transfer through these surfaces is zero. When the
convection effects on the front side (heat transfer) of said surface are
despicable and steady-state conditions are reached, the surface must lose as much
radiation energy like the one received. This surface is called re-radiating surface. In the
Radiation analysis, the surface resistance of a re-radiating surface is taken as zero.
since there is no heat transfer through it.

Radiation exchange with absorbing and emitting gases.

30) How does heat transfer by radiation through a medium differ?

participant of the one that is given through a non-participating medium?

A non-participating medium is completely transparent to thermal radiation and, therefore

Thus, it does not emit, absorb, or disperse radiation. A participating medium, on the other hand, emits and
absorbs radiation throughout its volume.

Problems–Radiation.
1) The synthetic sapphire transmits 85 percent of the incident thermal radiation between 0.2 and
5.5μm. Suppose that through a quartz window a heat source is seen. What flow of
heat in watts will be transmitted through the material from the radiation sources of the body
black at (a) 800°C (b) 550°C (c) 250°C and (d) 70°C?

a) λ2T= (5.5)(1073)=5901.5 Ebo-λ20.72921

qtrans(0.72921) (0.85)(75.150)=46.580 W/m2

b) λ2T= (5.5) (823)=4527 Ebo-λ20.5684

qtrans(0.5684) (0.85)(26.007)=12.565 W/m2

c) λ2T= (5.5) (523)=2877 Ebo-λ20.24497

qtrans(0,24497) (0.85)(4241)=883 W/m2

d) λ2T= (5.5)(343)=1887 Ebo-lambda 20.05059

qtrans=(0.05059)(0.85)(784.7)=33.74 W/m2

Two parallel disks with a diameter of 60 cm are 15 cm apart and are inside a room.
large at 30°C. The properties of the surfaces are T= 540°C; ε= 0.7; T= 300°C; ε= 0.5. If the
disco 2 is a perfectly specular reflector, what is the net heat transferred by
radiation on each surface? (The exchange from the back side should not be included, only that of
the opposing surfaces).

Non-Newtonian fluids

1) What does rheology deal with? Give examples.

2) How do Newtonian fluids differ from rheological ones?

3) In general terms, what is the complexity in the behavior of a non-fluid due to?
Newtonian? Provide examples of complex fluids.
4) What does Deborah's number relate to? What information does a De >> 1 provide?
5) What does the viscosity of a non-Newtonian fluid depend on?
6) Distinguish the ideal elastic solid (Hooke's solid) from the simple viscous fluid (simple fluid)
Newton).

7) Explain the concept of 'relaxation time'. Give examples.

8) How do simple fluids differ from polymeric liquids?

9) State examples of typical flow phenomena of macromolecular liquids.

10) In the lower figure, associate the corresponding curves of each graph. Name each.
behavior and examples of each one.