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 Palgrave Intercultural
Studies in Education

INTERCULTURAL STUDIES
OF CURRICULUM
Theory, Policy and Practice

Edited by
Carmel Roofe and
Christopher Bezzina
 Intercultural Studies in Education

Series editor
Paul W. Miller
School of Education & Professional Development
University of Huddersfield
Huddersfield, West Yorkshire, UK
The book series takes as its starting point the interrelationship between
people in different places and the potential for overlap in the experiences
and practices of peoples and the need for education to play a larger role in
expanding and in these expanding discourses. This proposed book series is
therefore concerned with assessing and arriving at an understanding of
educational practices in multiple settings (countries), using the same
methods of data collection and analysis for each country level analysis con-
tained in each chapter, thereby leading to the production of “Cultures”
[of understanding] on different topics. “Cultures” of understanding
results from and leads to a deeper appreciation and recognition of educa-
tional practices, issues and challenges, (a) within a country (b) between &
among countries and (c) between and among traditions and other speci-
ficities within and between countries.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/15066
Carmel Roofe • Christopher Bezzina
Editors

Intercultural Studies
of Curriculum
Theory, Policy and Practice
Editors
Carmel Roofe Christopher Bezzina
School of Education Leadership for Learning and
University of the West Indies Innovation, Faculty of Education
Kingston, Jamaica University of Malta
Msida, Malta
Department of Education
Uppsala University
Uppsala, Sweden

Intercultural Studies in Education

ISBN 978-3-319-60896-9    ISBN 978-3-319-60897-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60897-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017952540

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Mohd Bharuddin Naitas Mohd Amin / EyeEm / Getty Stock Images

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Contents

Introduction  1
Carmel Roofe and Christopher Bezzina

Part 1 Curriculum as Praxis  9

 ocial Justice and the Teacher Preparation Curriculum:

S
A Cross-Cultural Analysis 15
Carmel Roofe, Christopher Bezzina, and Marilyn Holness

 oward Cross-Cultural Curriculum Development:

T
An Analysis of Science Education in the Philippines, Ghana,
and the United States 37
A. C. Vera Cruz, P. E. Madden, and C. K. Asante

 igh School Teachers’ Perceptions Regarding

H
Inquiry-Based Science Curriculum in the United States,
Georgia, and Israel 59
Alia Sheety, Marika Kapanadze, and Fadeel Joubran

v
vi CONTENTS

 usic as a Platform for Intercultural Understanding:

M
Early Childhood Curriculum and a Growing Neoliberal
Imperative 85
Aleksandra Acker and Berenice Nyland

 ransformative Teacher Leadership in the Dominican

T
Republic, Jamaica and the United States: Potentiality and
Possibility in Curriculum Making and School Reform Efforts105
Eleanor Blair

Part 2 Critical Issues Beyond Pedagogy135

 he Curriculum in Praxis: How Purpose of School is

T
Actualized in Vietnam, Mexico, and the USA145
Sonja Varbelow and Donna Gee

 epresentation of World War II in Vietnam, China, and the

R
USA: Political Ideologies in Secondary History Textbooks165
Chau Vu

 he Grammar of Neoliberalism: What Textbooks Reveal

T
About the Education of Spanish Speakers in Mexico,
Colombia, and the United States191
Andrés Ramírez and Cristobal Salinas

 he Secondary Arts Curricula in Australia, Canada and

T
Malaysia: Issues of Policy and Culture211
Sharon Lierse

 onclusion: The Emerging Curriculum Agenda229

C
Carmel Roofe and Christopher Bezzina

Index237
 List of Figures

Chapter 4
Fig. 1 Inquiry-based learning model (Sheety and Rademacher, p. 123) 67
Chapter 7
Fig. 1 Basic characteristics of the education systems of the USA,
Mexico, and Vietnam at the time pertinent to the six participants 152
Fig. 2 Point of origin for life purpose thinking 160

vii
 List of Tables

Chapter 4
Table 1 General description of the sample 69
Chapter 7
Table 1 Comparison of the education system in Vietnam, Mexico,
and the USA 146
Table 2 The role of US American curriculum encounters in creating
life purpose 154
Table 3 The role of Mexican curriculum encounters in creating
life purpose 155
Table 4 The role of Vietnamese curriculum encounters in creating
life purpose 155
Chapter 10
Table 1 Comparison of Australia, Canada and Malaysia 221

ix
 Introduction

Carmel Roofe and Christopher Bezzina

We start our Introduction by referring to an article we read over

15 years ago by Nelson, who throws light on the need to ask provoca-
tive questions. Whilst Nelson was presenting a framework for thinking
about science and mathematics, we feel that this applies to almost every
other subject. Nelson states that “[b]efore we can think about the
what and the who of the curriculum, we need to think about the why”
(2001, p. 13).

Will the knowledge or skill significantly enhance long-term employment or

educational prospects? … Will the content help citizens participate intelli-
gently in making social and political decisions? … Does the content have
pervasive cultural or historical significance? … Does the content help indi-
viduals ponder on the enduring questions of what it means to be human?
(Nelson 2001, p. 13)

C. Roofe (*)
School of Education, University of the West Indies, Kingston, Jamaica
C. Bezzina
Leadership for Learning and Innovation, Faculty of Education,
University of Malta, Msida, Malta
Department of Education, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

© The Author(s) 2018 1

C. Roofe, C. Bezzina (eds.), Intercultural Studies
of Curriculum, Intercultural Studies in Education,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60897-6_1
2 C. ROOFE AND C. BEZZINA

Five years earlier than Nelson, Cornbleth (1996), in commenting on the

purposes of the curriculum, expressed that the curriculum should provide
answers to three questions: What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile? Why are they most worthwhile? And how should the young
acquire them? Answers to these and other difficult questions reveal the
underlying tensions in curriculum making.
Curriculum is considered a sociological phenomenon and therefore is
influenced by the values, beliefs and understandings that exist within soci-
eties. Considering this, we need to define and redefine the curriculum.
There are varied definitions of the term “curriculum”. Some may look at it
as “content” that needs to be transmitted to students through both formal
and informal means. Others look at it not from the perspective of a body
of knowledge that needs to be transmitted but as a dynamic process of
learning through inquiry, co-operative learning, through teacher-­learner
and learner-learner interaction and co-operation. It is the authenticity of
the experience that leads to mastery. Therefore, from a pragmatic perspec-
tive, the curriculum can be seen as both a process and a product, one that
comprises different forms of learning that take place in different settings,
and not only restricted to the school as the place for learning.
According to UNESCO (2015), it is the curriculum that leads all core
aspects of education that are known to determine quality, inclusion and
relevance. It also represents the core of forging social attitudes and skills,
such as tolerance and respect, conflict management, gender equality, jus-
tice, self-confidence, motivation, while at the same time contributing to
the development of thinking skills that learners need to apply to meet the
needs of their daily lives. Furthermore, the curriculum serves as the pro-
cess that addresses and awakens the consciousness of individuals through
the learning it provides.
As a result of globalization, societies today represent a melting pot of
cultures that influence the learning provided through the tangible and or
intangible outcomes of the curriculum. Within such a context, countries
that are perceived as more powerful seem to influence shifts in mental
cultures and traditions, which then determine what becomes known as
new knowledge. Since curriculum represents the learning that is made
available to students, this has implications for how curriculum is theorized
and practised. We acknowledge the concern raised by Gershon (2015)
that “it isn’t so much that there aren’t a multitude of educational possibili-
ties about what curriculum might mean or how it can function but rather
that educational ideals, ideas, and processes are constantly framed
 INTRODUCTION 3

and re-­framed along particular narrow visions with equally narrow sets of
answers. …Schooling is always academic and social and all academic con-
tent, regardless of topic or delivery is at once necessarily and inextricably
about ideas, processes, and ecologies in relation to choice of this over
that” (pp. 2–3). The question is therefore not just about what is debated
in curriculum but about how we frame the issue(s) under debate.
In a context that includes the challenges of globalization, the phenom-
enon of contemporary individualism, the dominant economic market-­
oriented ideology and the influence of social media, the way we view and
live learning is extremely important. In Learning: The Treasure Within,
Delors and associates had argued, back in 1996, that if education is going
to succeed “in enabling learners to become not only successful learning
achievers at school but also responsible citizens, effective workers, caring
community members, and life-long learners, in an increasingly interde-
pendent world” (Nan-Zhao n.d.), then we need to restructure the cur-
riculum to focus on what has been described as the four pillars of learning,
namely, learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together and
learning to be.
These issues have given rise to the increasing need to undertake analysis
of the philosophical, ideological and practical applications of curriculum
using an intercultural and cross-cultural lens. For us this book, Intercultural
Studies of Curriculum: Theory, Policy and Practice, recognizes the central
role that the curriculum plays in affecting educational quality and learn-
ing. It seeks to provide an opportunity for equitable exchanges and com-
parisons between and among different cultures.
In this book authors from across five continents provide an intercul-
tural analysis of curriculum theory, policy and practice in 17 different
countries. This was achieved through the use of the same data collection
methodology across different countries and different continents to explore
the same issue. This therefore has produced “cultures of curriculum the-
ory, policy and practice” within a country, between and among countries,
and between and among traditions and other specificities within and
between countries. This we believe is an innovative feature of the book as
those inside and outside of schools continue to grapple with curriculum
and its making. This book follows in the series on Intercultural Studies in
Education initiated in this innovative way by Paul Miller as he encour-
ages researchers to seek understanding of educational practices in and
across cultures with particular focus on ensuring equitable recognition
of knowledge from different cultures and perspectives. Furthermore,
4 C. ROOFE AND C. BEZZINA

Intercultural Studies of Curriculum: Theory, Policy and Practice represents

a critical approach to the understanding of curriculum by discerning the
underlying values and assumptions of curriculum issues as explored by the
different authors. Such an approach is significant as Kelly (2004) noted
that the “lack of ability to analyse critically and identify the value positions
implicit in the forms of curriculum we are exposed to is in the long term
inimical to educational development” (p. 21). Moreover, applying an
intercultural lens to curriculum provides an understanding of the multiple
lens through which curriculum can be viewed, thereby challenging our
individual ideologies.
Divided into two sections, the chapters provide empirical research
about curriculum across three countries covering a range of issues. Each
section begins with an introduction, where we provide an overview of
each chapter. Section one, titled Curriculum as Praxis, offers a context for
reflecting on the inter-sectionality between the planned curriculum, the
implemented curriculum and the curriculum outcomes. In this sense,
according to Grundy (1987), the curriculum is not merely a plan to be
implemented but curriculum as praxis is an active reciprocal process that
integrates planning, acting and evaluating which results in informed com-
mitted actions. Each chapter in section one therefore presents an examina-
tion of curriculum praxis across three different country contexts with the
aim of providing an understanding of the committed actions that result
when the planned curriculum reflective of varying philosophies is acted
upon.
Section two, titled Critical Issues Beyond Pedagogy, then shifts the inter-
cultural discourse to an analysis of the ideological dimensions of the cur-
riculum. This involves going beyond what is structured in a curriculum to
influence knowing and experience. In this context, pedagogy is seen as
what is used to influence our knowing about ourselves, others and the
world. Each chapter in this section looks at particular philosophies and
policies that underpin curriculum theory and policy across three different
country contexts. Together they provide critical reflection on how issues
and culture of a people are represented in the curriculum when one looks
beyond the information that is presented.
Our hope is that this book will stimulate critical dialogue, awaken con-
sciousness and produce innovation in curriculum theorizing, policy and
practice within and across different contexts and cultures. We hope that
the chapters will help to challenge existing misconceptions that we may
hold—whatever form or shape they take—and lead to a recognition that
 INTRODUCTION 5

many of these misconceptions stem from environmental factors, such as

widespread denial of educational and economic opportunities for minority
groups, the social prejudice that still exists and the flawed assumptions
(Wolk 2011) that determine our discourse.
In a context where the curriculum reflects the values of society, or part
of society, we need to ensure that educators are placed in situations where
curricula are debated, challenged and developed through a process of
working together (Mitchell and Sackney 2009; Torrance and Humes
2015). It is within such a context that the words of John Goodlad take on
added significance.

The struggle for justice, equity, respect, and appreciation for human diver-
sity has been long and often troubled. It continues to be so. The human
race’s proclivity for arranging its members in hierarchies of strongly main-
tained status and privilege is likely to continue as a malaise that can become
cancerous.
The answer, we know, is education. But education, despite our honoring
the concept, is not in itself good. We must intentionally and even passion-
ately inject morality into education. (Goodlad 2003/2004, p. 21)

If we want to address the injustices that exist in the world that permeate
our societies, we must teach students the ideals of democracy and social
equality and give our young people opportunities to practise those ideals
in their daily lives, both in and out of school, in whichever context we are
engaged. To this end multiple perspectives are important in producing
curriculum theory, policy and practice that is socially just and provides
opportunities for diversity in thinking. This is the principle which this
publication upholds.
These chapters are aimed at throwing light on how authors from
around the globe are framing and handling issues, issues of social (in)jus-
tice through different lenses and perspectives. The intent is to further
open and deepen the conversations so as to “better reflect the multiplici-
ties of curricular voices and visions” (Gershon 2015, p. 4).
In the various chapters we see a plea, a call for educators to act from a
particular value position, for example, the need to see leadership as a
shared activity. The belief that teachers matter is not new to us. The con-
cept and practice of teacher leadership has gained momentum over the
past three decades. Empirical literature reveals numerous studies that
describe dimensions of teacher leadership practice, teacher leadership
6 C. ROOFE AND C. BEZZINA

characteristics and conditions that promote and challenge teacher leader-

ship. Whilst acknowledging that the construct of teacher leadership is not
well defined, conceptually or operationally (see York-Barr and Duke
2004), we do acknowledge that there are conditions that lead towards
teachers’ powerful learning, which include acknowledging teachers’ voice
(Frost 2008) where there is collective participation and staff communica-
tion (Borko 2004), where teachers play a significant role in the creation of
professional knowledge and its transfer within networks and study groups
(Spillane 2006; Darling-Hammond and Richardson 2009), where teach-
ers take initiative to question what is, to help us appreciate that we need to
go beyond Hoyle’s proposition about the “extended professional” (Hoyle
1972) to a commitment that respects Stenhouse’s argument for systematic
questioning of one’s own teaching, to question and to test the theory in
practice (Stenhouse 1975, p. 144), to actively engage in the school and
beyond so that issues of social justice can be truly addressed. It is here that
Fullan’s plea for moral agentry, and to pun the phrase “What’s worth
fighting for …”, stands out. This is what educators constantly struggle
with and for.
These chapters merely help us to scratch the surface, representing a
fraction of what is happening around the globe. We have no doubt that we
can find similar work, similar attempts and struggles within other net-
works seeking to challenge and provoke what is.

References
Borko, H. (2004). Professional development and teacher learning: Mapping the
terrain. Educational Researcher, 33(8), 3–15.
Cornbleth, C. (1996). Curriculum in and out of context. In E. Hollins (Ed.),
Transforming curriculum for a culturally diverse society (pp. 149–162).
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Richardson, N. (2009). Research review. Teacher learn-
ing: What matters? How Teachers Learn, 66(5), 46–53.
Frost, D. (2008). ‘Teacher leadership’: Values and voice. School Leadership and
Management, 28(4), 337–352.
Gershon, W. S. (2015). Editor’s introduction. International Journal of Curriculum
and Social Justice, 1(1), 1–6.
Goodlad, J. I. (2003/2004). Teaching what we hold sacred. Educational
Leadership, 61(4), 18–21.
Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum: Product or praxis? Lewes: Falmer Press.
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