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Understanding Innovation

Hasso Plattner
Christoph Meinel
Larry Leifer Editors

Design Thinking
Research
Making Distinctions:
Collaboration versus Cooperation
Understanding Innovation

Series editors
Christoph Meinel
Potsdam, Germany
Larry Leifer
Stanford, USA
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8802
Hasso Plattner • Christoph Meinel • Larry Leifer
Editors

Design Thinking Research

Making Distinctions: Collaboration versus
Cooperation

123
Editors
Hasso Plattner Christoph Meinel
Hasso Plattner Institute for Software Hasso Plattner Institute for Software
Systems Engineering Systems Engineering
Potsdam, Germany Potsdam, Germany

Larry Leifer
Stanford University
Stanford, CA, USA

ISSN 2197-5752 ISSN 2197-5760 (electronic)

Understanding Innovation
ISBN 978-3-319-60966-9 ISBN 978-3-319-60967-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60967-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947308

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

This year will mark the 10-year anniversary of the founding of the School of Design
Thinking at Hasso Plattner Institute in Potsdam. The d.school, its sister Institute at
Stanford University, is even a few years older. In the meantime, both in California
and Germany thousands of students with diverse backgrounds have learned and
experienced how to tackle wicked problems and complex challenges and come up
with innovative, human-centered solutions.
Due to the extensive work put forth at these institutes, Design Thinking has
become well known and applied in many areas. More and more organizations have
experienced the impact of Design Thinking on their innovation culture. People see
how it changes the way they and their coworkers innovate, how they work in a
team, and in which way it affects the quality of their output. Moreover, Design
Thinking has been acknowledged even more fully by the education sector—both by
students and professionals—and been incorporated into curricula and professional
development programs.
In short, there is an enormous interest in Design Thinking. Since I have been
convinced of its tremendous potential for decades, I am elated about this success,
as it holds great potential for the development of our society. At the same time,
it is crucial, especially with the rising number of people and institutions and
numerous fields of application, to secure and deepen the scientific understanding
of the underlying principles of Design Thinking. It is therefore necessary to find
out how and why Design Thinking works, what are the reasons when it fails, and
what makes it more successful than other management approaches. These are the
key questions that drive my support for the Design Thinking Research Program
between the Hasso Plattner Institute in Potsdam, Germany, and Stanford University,
USA.
Since the implementation of the Design Thinking Research Program in 2008,
more than 100 research projects have been conducted, our understanding of this
field has advanced, and new insights and tools have become available. The research
program and its investigation of the technical, economic, and human factors was the
logical consequence of simply teaching the design thinking method. Researchers
at both institutions, with diverse backgrounds in disciplines such as engineering,

v
vi Preface

humanities, neurology, or economics, examine how the innovative processes that

originate in small, multidisciplinary teams can be improved and developed in the
future.
This publication assembles the findings of the eighth and final year of the first
funding period of the research program. Equally successful as in previous years,
this year’s findings on new forms of collaboration have made it an easy decision to
continue my support of the research program.
The results of the research are, however, not meant to be discussed exclusively
in the scientific community. The discoveries made as well as the newly developed
approaches and tools in design thinking should be available to all who seek to
support and advance to drive innovation, be it in companies or society.

Palo Alto, CA Hasso Plattner

Winter 2016/17
Contents

Introduction: Reflections on Working Together—Through

and Beyond Design Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Larry Leifer and Christoph Meinel
Theoretical Foundations of Design Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Julia P. A. von Thienen, William J. Clancey, Giovanni E. Corazza,
and Christoph Meinel

Part I Modelling and Mapping Teamwork

Quadratic Model of Reciprocal Causation for Monitoring,
Improving, and Reflecting on Design Team Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Neeraj Sonalkar, Ade Mabogunje, and Mark Cutkosky
Breaks with a Purpose .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Franziska Dobrigkeit, Danielly de Paula, and Matthias Uflacker

Part II Tools and Techniques for Productive Collaboration

Mechanical Novel: Crowdsourcing Complex Work Through
Reflection and Revision .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Joy Kim, Sarah Sterman, Allegra Argent Beal Cohen,
and Michael S. Bernstein
Mosaic: Designing Online Creative Communities for Sharing
Works-in-Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Joy Kim, Maneesh Agrawala, and Michael S. Bernstein
Investigating Tangible Collaboration for Design Towards
Augmented Physical Telepresence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Alexa F. Siu, Shenli Yuan, Hieu Pham, Eric Gonzalez,
Lawrence H. Kim, Mathieu Le Goc, and Sean Follmer

vii
viii Contents

The Interaction Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Nikolas Martelaro, Wendy Ju, and Mark Horowitz
Making the Domain Tangible: Implicit Object Lookup for Source
Code Readability .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Patrick Rein, Marcel Taeumel, and Robert Hirschfeld
“... and not building on that”: The Relation of Low Coherence
and Creativity in Design Conversations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Axel Menning, Benedikt Ewald, Claudia Nicolai, and Ulrich Weinberg

Part III Teaching, Training, Priming: Approaches to Teaching

and Enabling Creative Skills
The DT MOOC Prototype: Towards Teaching
Design Thinking at Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Mana Taheri, Lena Mayer, Karen von Schmieden, and Christoph Meinel
Creativity in the Twenty-first Century: The Added Benefit
of Training and Cooperation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Naama Mayseless, Manish Saggar, Grace Hawthorne, and Allan Reiss
Priming Designers Leads to Prime Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Jinjuan She, Carolyn Conner Seepersad, Katja Holtta-Otto,
and Erin F. MacDonald
From Place to Space: How to Conceptualize Places
for Design Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Martin Schwemmle, Claudia Nicolai, Marie Klooker,
and Ulrich Weinberg

Part IV Design Thinking in Practice

Mapping and Measuring Design Thinking in Organizational
Environments .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Adam Royalty and Sheri Shepard
Human Technology Teamwork: Enhancing the Communication
of Pain Between Patients and Providers .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Lauren Aquino Shluzas and David Pickham
Learning from Success and Failure in Healthcare Innovation:
The Story of Tele-Board MED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Anja Perlich, Julia von von Thienen, Matthias Wenzel,
and Christoph Meinel
Contents ix

The Design Thinking Methodology at Work: Semi-Automated

Interactive Recovery .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
Joachim Hänsel and Holger Giese
Abracadabra: Imagining Access to Creative Computing Tools
for Everyone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Joel Sadler, Lauren Aquino Shluzas, and Paulo Blikstein
Introduction: Reflections on Working
Together—Through and Beyond Design
Thinking

Larry Leifer and Christoph Meinel

1 In the Pursuit of Breakthrough-Innovation, Is It Necessary

to Make a Critical Distinction Between Collaborating
and Cooperating?

Given
A team-of-teams organization demands collaboration.
A command-control organization demands cooperation.
The Challenge
How might we make the distinction actionable on a day-to-day, session-to-
session basis within the enterprise? Can a culture of extreme collaboration
co-exist with a culture of extreme cooperation?
Can we summarize the challenge as the distinction between agreeing and
agreeing to DISAGREE? Can we pivot skillfully between these behaviors and
remain civil? Does the distinction extend to coordinating?
‘Zusammenarbeit’ is the German term that describes all forms of working
together. The word does not transport the nuances and implications, and strengths
and weaknesses that characterize different modes of how people actually work
together. But also in English, the terms ‘cooperation’ and ‘collaboration’ are often

L. Leifer
Stanford Center for Design Research, Stanford University, Panama Mall 424,
Stanford 94305-2232, CA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
C. Meinel ()
Hasso Plattner Institute for Software Systems Engineering, Campus Griebnitzsee,
14482 Potsdam, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

H. Plattner et al. (eds.), Design Thinking Research, Understanding Innovation,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-60967-6_1
2 L. Leifer and C. Meinel

used interchangeably (sometimes also conflated with ‘coordination’) or are at least

not very carefully distinguished from one another. The fact that we do not pay much
attention to this distinction when we speak (or write) may point to several issues. For
one, it suggests that we may not be terribly clear about how to choose an appropriate
form of working together. Moreover, it implies that we are also not very good at
switching between different modes as the necessities of our task or the phases of
our project change.
The issue of making accessible distinctions has become more important in
recent years as the challenges we face today seem to demand more and more
collaboration. However, we almost exclusively “teach” people to cooperate. In
formal education, we often prime young people to agree with one “correct”
definition of things. In turn, organizational cultures in enterprises often reward
cooperative behavior. In contrast, applying the design paradigm invites/demands
multiple working definitions depending on context, especially a human context.
It demands the ability to agree to disagree, to hold different opinions about the
nature of human needs, human wants, the problem at hand, as well as to allow for
reframing.
The evolution of humanity might offer an example to visualize this distinction,
as is shown in Fig. 1. We can assume that in our more primitive states, creative
collaboration was a daily necessity. As humankind moved into industrialization our
cultures developed to be dominated by the efficient cooperation model of Taylorism,
and the command control structure became the default mode.
Design Research tackles the issue of making this distinction with new metrics
and a heightened awareness of the intentional bias at the core of our pursuit of
breakthrough innovation in business, government, and academia.

Fig. 1 The evolution of how we work together from an archeological point of view might look
like this: The first half of our development had to be overwhelmingly driven by collaboration.
Every meal, every stranger, every turn of the weather demanded creative collaboration—agreeing
to disagree until something worked or a breakthrough occurred. Whereas the second phase of our
evolution seems to be dominated by efficient cooperation, doing what we are told to do, in school
and on the job
Introduction: Reflections on Working Together—Through and Beyond Design Thinking 3

Cooperation Among Humans

“Language allows humans to cooperate on a very large scale. Certain studies
have suggested that fairness affects human cooperation; individuals are willing to
punish at their own cost (altruistic punishment) if they believe that they are being
treated unfairly. Sanfey et al. (2011) conducted an experiment where 19 individuals
were scanned using MRI while playing an ultimatum game in the role of the
responder. They received offers from other human partners and from a computer
partner. Responders refused unfair offers from human partners at a significantly
higher rate than those from a computer partner. The experiment also suggested
that altruistic punishment is associated with negative emotions that are generated
in unfair situations by the anterior insula of the brain.”1
Cooperation Among Animals
“Cooperation exists in non-human animals. This behavior appears, however, to
occur mostly between relatives. Spending time and resources assisting a related
individual may at first seem destructive to the organism’s chances of survival but
is actually beneficial over the long-term. Since relatives share part of their genetic
make-up, enhancing each other’s chances of survival may actually increase the
likelihood that the helper’s genetic traits will be passed on to future generations.
Some researchers assert that cooperation is more complex than this. They
maintain that helpers may receive more direct, and less indirect, gains from assisting
others than is commonly reported. Furthermore, they insist that cooperation may not
solely be an interaction between two individuals but may be part of the broader goal
of unifying populations.”2
Collaboration
“Collaboration is the process of two or more people or organizations working
together to realize or achieve something successfully. Collaboration is very similar
to, but more closely aligned than, cooperation”, and both are an opposite of competi-
tion. “ Most collaboration requires leadership, although the form of leadership can be
social within a decentralized and egalitarian group. Teams that work collaboratively
can obtain greater resources, recognition and reward when facing competition for
finite resources.
Structured methods of collaboration encourage introspection of behavior and
communication. These methods specifically aim to increase the success of teams
as they engage in collaborative problem solving.
Forms, rubrics, charts and graphs are useful in these situations to objectively
document personal traits with the goal of improving performance in current and
future projects. Collaboration is also present in opposing goals exhibiting the notion
of adversarial collaboration, though this is not a common case for using the word.”3

1
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperation (March 27, 2017)
2
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperation (March 27, 2017)
3
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collaboration (March 27, 2017)
4 L. Leifer and C. Meinel

Fig. 2 Design thinking in practice demands an iterative cycle of creative collaboration, agreeing
to disagree until some of those concepts (ideas) are really worth further attention. Then follows
tangible prototyping to yield informed decisions based on human experience with the prototypes.
With the design challenge re-framed and a workable prototype in hand we can proceed to use
efficient cooperation to “MAKE IT REAL”

Collaboration between the Hasso Plattner Institute, Potsdam, Germany, and

Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA, is a notable example of the pursuit
of breakthrough innovation through design research. We agree to disagree on many
issues and then work closely together to converge on verifiable scientific validation
of design thinking paradigm elements (Fig. 2).

2 The HPI-Stanford Design Thinking Research Program

Design thinking as a user-centric innovation method has become more and more
widespread during recent years in practice, education, and academia. A growing
number of people and organizations have experienced its innovative power. At the
same time the demand to understand this method has increased. Already back in
2008 the joint HPI Stanford Design Thinking Research Program was established,
funded by the Hasso Plattner Foundation. Within this program, scientists from the
Hasso Plattner Institute for Digital Engineering in Potsdam, Germany, and from
Stanford University, USA, strive to gain a deeper understanding of the underlying
principles of design thinking and, consequently, how and why this innovation
method succeeds or fails.
Introduction: Reflections on Working Together—Through and Beyond Design Thinking 5

2.1 Program Vision and Goals

Multidisciplinary research teams from HPI and Stanford with backgrounds in

disciplines such as engineering, design, humanities, or social sciences scientifically
investigate innovation and design thinking in all its holistic dimensions. These
areas of investigation center on technical, economic, and human factors. Applying
rigorous academic methods, the researchers examine how the innovative process can
be improved and further developed.
The program pursues the goal to advance design thinking theory and knowl-
edge within the research community and ultimately improve design practice and
education by gathering scientific evidence to support design activities. It seeks
to yield deep insights into the nature of human needs and the protocols that
design thinking researchers might apply to achieve “insights” versus “data.” Beyond
conveying a mere descriptive understanding of the subject matter, this program
aims, for example, to develop metrics that allow an assessment and prediction of
team performance to facilitate real-time management of how teams work. Scientists
study the complex interaction between members of multi-disciplinary teams, with
special regard to the necessity of creative collaboration across spatial, temporal,
and cultural boundaries. They design, develop, and evaluate innovative tools and
methods that support teams in their creative work. The projects tackle the common
questions of why structures of successful design thinking teams differ substantially
from traditional corporate structures and how design thinking methods mesh with
traditional engineering and management approaches.
Researchers are especially encouraged to develop ambitious, long-term explo-
rative projects that integrate technical, economical, as well as psychological points
of view using design thinking tools and methods. Field studies in real business
environments are useful to assess the impact of design thinking in organizations
and if any transformations of the approach may be warranted.
Special interest is placed on in the following guiding questions:
– What are people really thinking and doing when they are engaged in creative
design innovation?
– How can new frameworks, tools, systems, and methods augment, capture, and
reuse successful practices?
– What is the impact of design thinking on human, business, and technology
performance?
– How do the tools, systems, and methods really work to create the right innovation
at the right time? How do they fail?
Over the past years dozens of research projects have been conducted, our
understanding of this field has advanced and new insights and tools have become
available. And they are not only intended for scientific discourse. With this book
series they are made known to the public at large and to all who want and need to
drive innovation, be it in companies or society.
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