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DIFFERENTIAL
EQUATIONS
& LINEAR ALGEBRA
Fourth Edition

C. Henry Edwards
David E. Penney
The University of Georgia

David T. Calvis
Baldwin Wallace University
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Edwards, C. Henry (Charles Henry), 1937– j Penney, David E. j Calvis,
David
Title: Differential equations & linear algebra / C. Henry Edwards, David E.
Penney, The University of Georgia; with the assistance of David Calvis,
Baldwin-Wallace College.
Description: Fourth edition. j Boston : Pearson, [2018] j Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifies: LCCN 2016030491 j ISBN 9780134497181 (hardcover) j ISBN
013449718X (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Differential equations. j Algebras, Linear.
Classification: LCC QA372 .E34 2018 j DDC 515/.35--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016030491

1 16

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-449718-1

ISBN 10: 0-13-449718-X
CONTENTS

Application Modules vi
Preface ix

CHAPTER First-Order Differential Equations 1

1
1.1 Differential Equations and Mathematical Models 1
1.2 Integrals as General and Particular Solutions 10
1.3 Slope Fields and Solution Curves 17
1.4 Separable Equations and Applications 30
1.5 Linear First-Order Equations 46
1.6 Substitution Methods and Exact Equations 58

CHAPTER Mathematical Models and Numerical Methods 75

2
2.1 Population Models 75
2.2 Equilibrium Solutions and Stability 87
2.3 Acceleration-Velocity Models 94
2.4 Numerical Approximation: Euler’s Method 106
2.5 A Closer Look at the Euler Method 117
2.6 The Runge–Kutta Method 127

CHAPTER Linear Systems and Matrices 138

3
3.1 Introduction to Linear Systems 147
3.2 Matrices and Gaussian Elimination 146
3.3 Reduced Row-Echelon Matrices 156
3.4 Matrix Operations 164
3.5 Inverses of Matrices 175
3.6 Determinants 188
3.7 Linear Equations and Curve Fitting 203

iii
iv Contents

CHAPTER Vector Spaces 211

4
4.1 The Vector Space R3 211
4.2 The Vector Space Rn and Subspaces 221
4.3 Linear Combinations and Independence of Vectors 228
4.4 Bases and Dimension for Vector Spaces 235
4.5 Row and Column Spaces 242
4.6 Orthogonal Vectors in Rn 250
4.7 General Vector Spaces 257

CHAPTER Higher-Order Linear Differential Equations 265

5
5.1 Introduction: Second-Order Linear Equations 265
5.2 General Solutions of Linear Equations 279
5.3 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients 291
5.4 Mechanical Vibrations 302
5.5 Nonhomogeneous Equations and Undetermined Coefficients 314
5.6 Forced Oscillations and Resonance 327

CHAPTER Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 339

6
6.1 Introduction to Eigenvalues 339
6.2 Diagonalization of Matrices 347
6.3 Applications Involving Powers of Matrices 354

CHAPTER Linear Systems of Differential Equations 365

7
7.1 First-Order Systems and Applications 365
7.2 Matrices and Linear Systems 375
7.3 The Eigenvalue Method for Linear Systems 385
7.4 A Gallery of Solution Curves of Linear Systems 398
7.5 Second-Order Systems and Mechanical Applications 424
7.6 Multiple Eigenvalue Solutions 437
7.7 Numerical Methods for Systems 454
 Contents v

CHAPTER Matrix Exponential Methods 469

8
8.1 Matrix Exponentials and Linear Systems 469
8.2 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems 482
8.3 Spectral Decomposition Methods 490

CHAPTER Nonlinear Systems and Phenomena 503

9
9.1 Stability and the Phase Plane 503
9.2 Linear and Almost Linear Systems 514
9.3 Ecological Models: Predators and Competitors 526
9.4 Nonlinear Mechanical Systems 539

CHAPTER Laplace Transform Methods 557

10
10.1 Laplace Transforms and Inverse Transforms 557
10.2 Transformation of Initial Value Problems 567
10.3 Translation and Partial Fractions 578
10.4 Derivatives, Integrals, and Products of Transforms 587
10.5 Periodic and Piecewise Continuous Input Functions 594

CHAPTER Power Series Methods 604

11
11.1 Introduction and Review of Power Series 604
11.2 Power Series Solutions 616
11.3 Frobenius Series Solutions 627
11.4 Bessel Functions 642

References for Further Study 652

Appendix A: Existence and Uniqueness of Solutions 654
Appendix B: Theory of Determinants 668
Answers to Selected Problems 677
Index 733
APPLICATION MODULES

The modules listed below follow the indicated sections in the text. Most provide
computing projects that illustrate the corresponding text sections. Many of these
modules are enhanced by the supplementary material found at the new
Expanded Applications website, which can be accessed by visiting
goo.gl/BXB9k4. For more information about the Expanded Applications,
please review the Principal Features of this Revision section of the preface.
1.3 Computer-Generated Slope Fields and Solution Curves
1.4 The Logistic Equation
1.5 Indoor Temperature Oscillations
1.6 Computer Algebra Solutions
2.1 Logistic Modeling of Population Data
2.3 Rocket Propulsion
2.4 Implementing Euler’s Method
2.5 Improved Euler Implementation
2.6 Runge-Kutta Implementation
3.2 Automated Row Operations
3.3 Automated Row Reduction
3.5 Automated Solution of Linear Systems
5.1 Plotting Second-Order Solution Families
5.2 Plotting Third-Order Solution Families
5.3 Approximate Solutions of Linear Equations
5.5 Automated Variation of Parameters
5.6 Forced Vibrations
7.1 Gravitation and Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
7.3 Automatic Calculation of Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors
7.4 Dynamic Phase Plane Graphics
7.5 Earthquake-Induced Vibrations of Multistory Buildings
7.6 Defective Eigenvalues and Generalized Eigenvectors
7.7 Comets and Spacecraft
8.1 Automated Matrix Exponential Solutions
8.2 Automated Variation of Parameters
9.1 Phase Plane Portraits and First-Order Equations
9.2 Phase Plane Portraits of Almost Linear Systems
9.3 Your Own Wildlife Conservation Preserve
9.4 The Rayleigh, van der Pol, and FitzHugh-Nagumo Equations

vi
 Application Modules vii

10.1 Computer Algebra Transforms and Inverse Transforms

10.2 Transforms of Initial Value Problems
10.3 Damping and Resonance Investigations
10.5 Engineering Functions
11.2 Automatic Computation of Series Coefficients
11.3 Automating the Frobenius Series Method
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PREFA C E

T he evolution of the present text is based on experience teaching introductory dif-

ferential equations and linear algebra with an emphasis on conceptual ideas and
the use of applications and projects to involve students in active problem-solving
experiences. Technical computing environments like Maple, Mathematica, MAT-
LAB , and Python are widely available and are now used extensively by practicing
engineers and scientists. This change in professional practice motivates a shift from
the traditional concentration on manual symbolic methods to coverage also of quali-
tative and computer-based methods that employ numerical computation and graphi-
cal visualization to develop greater conceptual understanding. A bonus of this more
comprehensive approach is accessibility to a wider range of more realistic applica-
tions of differential equations.
Both the conceptual and the computational aspects of such a course depend
heavily on the perspective and techniques of linear algebra. Consequently, the study
of differential equations and linear algebra in tandem reinforces the learning of both
subjects. In this book we therefore have combined core topics in elementary differ-
ential equations with those concepts and methods of elementary linear algebra that
are needed for a contemporary introduction to differential equations.

Principal Features of This Revision

This 4th edition is the most comprehensive and wide-ranging revision in the history
of this text.
We have enhanced the exposition, as well as added graphics, in numerous
sections throughout the book. We have also inserted new applications, including
biological. Moreover we have exploited throughout the new interactive computer
technology that is now available to students on devices ranging from desktop and
laptop computers to smartphones and graphing calculators. While the text contin-
ues to use standard computer algebra systems such as Mathematica, Maple, and
MATLAB, we have now added the Wolfram j Alpha website. In addition, this is the
first edition of this book to feature Python, a computer platform that is freely avail-
able on the internet and which is gaining in popularity as an all-purpose scientific
computing environment.
However, with a single exception of a new section inserted in Chapter 7 (noted
below), the class-tested table of contents of the book remains unchanged. Therefore,
instructors notes and syllabi will not require revision to continue teaching with this
new edition.
A conspicuous feature of this edition is the insertion of about 80 new computer-
generated figures, many of them illustrating interactive computer applications with
slider bars or touchpad controls that can be used to change initial values or parame-
ters in a differential equation, and immediately see in real time the resulting changes
in the structure of its solutions.

ix