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 Stephen Jones

CITIES RESPONDING
TO CLIMATE CHANGE
Copenhagen, Stockholm and Tokyo
Cities Responding to Climate Change
 Stephen Jones

Cities Responding to
Climate Change
Copenhagen, Stockholm and Tokyo
Stephen Jones
University of Queensland
Coorparoo, QLD, Australia

ISBN 978-3-319-64809-5    ISBN 978-3-319-64810-1 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-64810-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017955055

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover credit: marungaman/Getty

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Anna
 Acknowledgments

A book on climate change policy by city government must attempt to

capture the essence of context and its role in shaping responses, and this
is particularly so in a book with an international focus. I received help
from people along the way, and I owe a great debt of gratitude to specific
individuals who influenced my thinking with their perspectives and
experience.
A first acknowledgement must go to my home institution, the
University of Queensland’s Business School. Over the years it has sup-
ported my research efforts and, more specifically, enabled me to spend
time working on completing the book.
A second acknowledgment must go to my friend and colleague
Professor Geert Bouckaert, from the Institute for Public Governance at
KU Leuven. Our many discussions on the nature and pervasiveness of
performance management shaped my ideas on the topic and much of the
approach taken in the book.
Third, I must acknowledge Professor Brian Head, from the School
of Political Science and International Studies at the University of
Queeensland, for his friendship and guidance at those critical times when
I needed a wise and deeply analytical mind to show me the way through.
A fourth acknowledgment must go to Rachael Ballard, Head of Science
and Society at Palgrave Macmillan/Springer Nature, for her support. She

vii
viii Acknowledgments

immediately recognised the potential of the book and smoothed the path
for me throughout the process. I must also acknowledge Jack Redden,
Rachael’s Editorial Assistant, for easing me through the final stages toward
publication.
I have a great deal of respect for the senior managers from the city
governments in Copenhagen, Stockholm and Tokyo who face the polit-
ical and administrative challenges of responding to climate change.
They were generous with their time and their information in outlining
their experiences for me. I thank them heartily for their honesty and
commitment.
My deepest gratitude is for my partner and best friend Anna. She inspires
me and supports me in ways that continue to astound and amaze; this is
why the book is dedicated to her.
 Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 City Governments and Climate Change 27

3 City Governments, Climate Change,

and the Performance Agenda 57

4 Performance Management: An Analytical Framework 105

5 City of Stockholm 141

6 Copenhagen City Government 179

7 Tokyo Municipal Government 219

8 Synthesis and Conclusions 261

Index 287

ix
 List of Figures

Fig. 2.1 PhillyStat sustainability report 2015 47

Fig. 2.2 C40: Features of the Global Protocol for Community-Scale
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Inventories 49
Fig. 3.1 Completion of the five-stage implementation of climate
plans among 257 ICLEI members 78
Fig. 3.2 Sources and scopes covered by the GPC 81
Fig. 3.3 Promise of performance management and the
implementation of climate policy by city governments 95
Fig. 4.1 Incorporating performance in the policy cycle 119
Fig. 4.2 Single-, double-, and triple-loop learning
for climate adaptation 122
Fig. 4.3 Uses of performance information to incorporate
performance in policy and management of climate policy 124
Fig. 5.1 RUFS 2010 Stockholm County Council Regional Plan 147
Fig. 5.2 Emissions reductions in Stockholm 1990–2015 156
Fig. 5.3 Measures to improve attractiveness of public transport,
including expected reductions in emissions,
reporting from 2012 to 2014 167
Fig. 6.1 Revenue sources for local government in Denmark (2012) 187
Fig. 6.2 Planning arrangements in Denmark between national
and municipal levels 187
Fig. 6.3 Areas under EU’s political impact 194
Fig. 6.4 Estimated avoided external costs, shift from cars to bicycles 198

xi
xii List of Figures

Fig. 6.5 Targets and results for cycling in Copenhagen 2004–2014 199
Fig. 6.6 Why Copenhageners cycle 202
Fig. 6.7 Electric vehicle sales in Europe 2011–2013 205
Fig. 7.1 Predicted impact of climate change on Japan 223
Fig. 7.2 Structure of the Tokyo municipal government (2016b) 227
Fig. 7.3 TMG Green Building Programme 238
Fig. 7.4 Linking the Green Building Programme
and the Climate Strategy 239
Fig. 7.5 Suspended particulate matter (SPM) since 2001 in Tokyo 240
Fig. 7.6 Operation of the TMG cap-and-trade scheme 245
Fig. 8.1 Stockholm 2015 annual report on ‘climate neutral city’ 281
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Factors affecting utilisation of performance measurement

in public organisations 10
Table 2.1 Co-benefits of mitigation and adaptation policies
for city development 30
Table 2.2 Leading actors in climate change experiments 32
Table 2.3 Different types of transnational municipal networks 38
Table 2.4 Comparison of measures for attributing GHG emission
to cities considering spatial boundaries and the life-cycle
perspective 44
Table 2.5 Challenges in developing indicators 47
Table 2.6 Limitations of current GHG measurement schemes 50
Table 3.1 Motivations of local climate policy 62
Table 3.2 Climate governance in Quebec City and Genoa 63
Table 3.3 GHG-reducing activities of US cities 70
Table 3.4 Dimensions and strategies for mainstreaming
climate change 91
Table 3.5 Barriers and opportunities for mainstreaming 93
Table 4.1 Performance management doctrine 108
Table 4.2 Alternative uses of performance information 123
Table 4.3 Use of climate policy performance information
by city governments 127
Table 4.4 Observable evidence of performance management
for climate change 129

xiii
xiv List of Tables

Table 4.5 Proposed staged heuristic of performance management

for climate policy 132
Table 5.1 Predicted climate change impacts in Stockholm
County by 2100 144
Table 5.2 Guiding policies of the Stockholm city government
for climate change 152
Table 5.3 Action Plan initiatives for reducing emission:
heating, cycling, and public transport 162
Table 6.1 Municipal politicians and local administrators
following local government reforms 186
Table 6.2 Guiding policies of the Copenhagen city government
for climate change 193
Table 6.3 Mobility initiatives in CPH 2025 203
Table 7.1 Government ministries with climate change
responsibilities in Japan 230
Table 7.2 Guiding policies for climate change for
the Tokyo Municipal Government (TMG) 233
Table 7.3 Progress towards a mandated Tokyo municipal
government (TMG) cap-and-trade scheme 242
Table 8.1 Stages of performance management in city
governments for climate policy 264
 List of Boxes

Box 3.1 Brisbane City Council’s Clean, Green WaterSmart City 59

Box 3.2 Attempting to reduce emissions in London 64
Box 3.3 A bold experiment in Delhi 65
Box 3.4 Adelaide Energy Management Action Plan 2011–2014 67
Box 3.5 Stockholm: A fossil fuel–free city by 2050 76
Box 3.6 GreenNYC, public education for urban
environmental behaviour 88
Box 6.1 Short car trips in Copenhagen 201

xv
 1
Introduction

We build up the world’s great cities.

And out of a fabulous story
We fashion an empire’s glory:
One man with a dream, at pleasure….
—Ode, Arthur O’Shaughnessy
Though hundreds of thousands had done their very best to disfigure the small
piece of land on which they were crowded together, paving the ground with
stones, scraping away every sprouting blade of grass, lopping off trees, driving
away birds and beasts, filling the air with smoke of coal and oil,—still spring
was spring, even in the town.
It was not this spring morning that they thought sacred and important, not
the beauty of God’s world, given to benefit all creatures—a beauty which
inclines the heart to peace, harmony, and love—but their own devices for
getting the upper hand of each other.
—Leo Tolstoy, 1899. Resurrection, 1–2

Introduction
Jaccard (2016) claims ‘the thing about effective climate policy is that it is
never a political winner’. This simple statement summarises a complex
situation. In the policy literature, a successful policy is described as one

© The Author(s) 2018 1

S. Jones, Cities Responding to Climate Change,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-64810-1_1
2 1 Introduction

that achieves the policy-maker’s objectives. McConnell (2010) regards

policy success as the condition when a policy ‘achieves the goals that pro-
ponents set out to achieve and attracts no criticism of any significance
and/or support is virtually universal’ (p. 351). The health policy that
reduces the incidence of smoking in young people, the traffic manage-
ment policy that reduces congestion—these are common examples. One
could argue that climate mitigation policies are effective if they reduce
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in accordance with the targets set by
governments. Adaptation policies are successful and effective if they
p­rotect areas vulnerable to extreme weather events. On a broader, more
c­omplex level, climate policies are effective if they change damaging
unsustainable practices into safe sustainable ones. Effective policies show
demonstrable results, and policy-makers can provide the details on how
the policy has worked and how it achieved the government’s intentions.
There is accountability and transparency in a democratic political system,
where policy-makers demonstrate the effectiveness of their policies in
ways that are clear and understandable to citizens. The policy literature
also stresses that public policy is not always straightforward. The reality of
public policy success is far more nuanced and frustratingly less observ-
able; in fact, policy is a ‘complex phenomenon consisting of numerous
decisions and made by numerous individuals and organisations’ (Howlett
et al. 2009, 7). On this basis alone, it may be more difficult to identify
reasons why policies are effective. What is clear from the literature is that
public policy requires ongoing study and analysis in the hope that we can
continue to do it better (Wheelan 2011).
The second part of Jaccard’s statement hints at factors that may prevent
climate policy from being effective. Policies may be regarded as a failure
when they do not achieve the goals the proponents set out to achieve and
no longer receive support from them (McConnell 2010). The experiences
of governments developing and implementing climate policy have been
fraught with challenges that prevent success, so much so that it is regarded
as the ‘preeminent policy challenge of our time’ (Bransetter and Pizer
2012, 3). The policy implementation literature explains that policy-­
makers often do not foresee many of the barriers that will prevent their
policies from being successful and effective (Sabatier and Mazmanian
1979). The challenges highlight the complexity of public policy and the
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