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White Utopias
The Religious Exoticism of
Transformational Festivals

Amanda J. Lucia

university of california press

White Utopias
The publisher and the University of California Press
Foundation gratefully acknowledge the generous support
of the Ahmanson Foundation Endowment Fund in
Humanities.
White Utopias
The Religious Exoticism of
Transformational Festivals

Amanda J. Lucia

university of california press

University of California Press
Oakland, California

© 2020 by Amanda J. Lucia

Cataloging-in-Publication Data is on file at the

Library of Congress.

isbn 978–0-520–37694–6 (cloth : alk. paper)

isbn 978–0-520–37695–3 (pbk. : alk. paper)
isbn 978–0-520–97633–7 (ebook)

Manufactured in the United States of America

29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
For my mother
This has given me the greatest trouble and still does: to
realize that what things are called is incomparably more
important than what they are. The reputation, name, and
appearance, the usual measure and weight of a thing, what it
counts for—originally almost always wrong and arbitrary,
thrown over things like a dress and altogether foreign to their
nature and even to their skin—all this grows from generation
unto generation, merely because people believe in it, until it
gradually grows to be part of the thing and turns into its very
body. What at first was appearance becomes in the end,
almost invariably, the essence and is effective as such.
—Friedrich Nietzsche, The Gay Science
Contents

List of Illustrations xi
Acknowledgments xiii
Author Note xvii

Introduction 1

1. Romanticizing the Premodern: The Confluence of Indic

and Indigenous Spiritualities 34
Interlude: Cultural Possession and Whiteness 64

2. Anxieties over Authenticity: American Yoga and the

Problem of Whiteness 69
Interlude: “White People Are on the Journey of Evolution” 99

3. Deconstructing the Self: At the Limits of Asceticism 104

Interlude: Sculpting Bodies and Minds 137

4. Wonder, Awe, and Peak Experiences: Approaching

Mystical Territories 144
Interlude: Producing Wonder / Branding Freedom 175
5. The Cathartic Freedom of Transformational Festivals:
Neoliberal Escapes and Entrapments 184

Conclusion 214

Appendix 1: @Instagram Data for Public Figures Cited 227

Appendix 2: Methodology 229
Notes 239
References 273
Index 291
Illustrations

1. Top ten offerings at Shakti Fest, 2012 / 26

2. Top ten offerings at Bhakti Fest, 2013 / 26
3. Top ten offerings at Wanderlust, Oahu, HI, 2014 / 27
4. Top ten offerings at Lightning in a Bottle, 2016 / 27
5. Top ten offerings at Burning Man, 2017 / 28
6. Author portrait, Tea and Turbans tea ceremony, Burning Man,
2017 / 48
7. “From Your Culture to Ours” sign, Burning Man, 2017 / 50
8. Woman in Native headdress, Burning Man Temple, 2016 / 58
9. The Village at Lightning in a Bottle, 2014 / 59
10. Garage Mahal Ganesh Mobile, Burning Man, 2016 / 67
11. Communal altar at Bhakti Fest, 2014 / 79
12. Sunset yoga meditation, Lightning in a Bottle, 2016 / 113
13. Yogic discipline, Wanderlust, Stratton, VT, 2018 / 129
14. Nature church, Wanderlust, Squaw Valley, CA, 2019 / 151
15. Kīrtan artists at Prasada Festival, 2018 / 169
16. Jaguar at Shakti Fest, 2016 / 180
17. Dystopian tattoo, Bhakti Fest, 2013 / 192
18. Yoga retreat, Wanderlust, Mont Tremblant, 2018 / 198
19. Galaxia Temple burning, Burning Man, 2018 / 207
20. “HOME” sign, Lightning in a Bottle, 2016 / 216

xi
Acknowledgments

It is somewhat ironic that I write this book from the University of Cali-
fornia, Riverside, the home of the Highlanders, which imagines an
invented and borrowed Scottish identity based on the idea that the city of
Riverside is marginally higher above sea level than the neighboring city of
Los Angeles. Despite our student body being comprised of 85 percent
non-Anglo-European minorities, at games and graduations, audiences
sing songs of Highlander pride and don blue and yellow Scottish tartans.
This imagined Scottish Highland is actually the ancestral land of the
Cahuilla, Tongva, Luiseño, and Serrano peoples, and UCR is a result of
Rupert (Cahuilla) and Jeannette (Eastern Cherokee) Costo’s founding
vision. I respectfully acknowledge and recognize our responsibility to the
original caretakers of the land, water, and air where I live and work. I am
also writing as a white faculty member with a degree in the History of
Religions and a research specialty in Hinduism, itself a colonial construc-
tion. Like the study of Native traditions, the study of Hinduism is rife
with contested debates over representation that cannot be extricated
from racial power dynamics exacerbated by colonial histories.
I am deeply beholden to UCR as the place where the perspectives of
my students and colleagues led me to provincialize myself and my field
of study. I am hesitant to name those who challenged my thinking on
race and ethnicity in the United States lest I not live up to their high
standards, but Daisy Vargas, Josh Little, Leven Kali, Anthea Kraut,
Sarita See, Jacqueline Shea Murphy, Jennifer Najera, Michele Raheja,

xiii
xiv | Acknowledgments

and Dylan Rodriguez each shifted my perspective. Their seeds, even if

they didn’t know they planted them, altered my perspective and refor-
mulated the ways in which I had been trained to frame the study of
religion in the United States. Jonathan Walton once explained that his
time at UCR was like earning a second doctorate. Amen. I have been
privileged to be supported in such an environment and to learn from
and be challenged by students and colleagues alike.
I also recognize my privilege in that this is a post-tenure, second book.
This positionality enabled me to research academically marginalized
topics outside of the sanction of traditional forms of religion. As one
funder exclaimed to me after I presented an early report on my research,
“I didn’t realize we were paying people to go camping!” Routinely, at
least some members of scholarly audiences laughed at my informants
and dismissed their practices as New Age silliness. My positionality,
including my whiteness, enabled me to feel (mostly) confident in endur-
ing these slights and admonishments. In completing this book, I remain
convinced that these populations are more important than the tradition-
alists realize and that they are actively reshaping our conception of reli-
gion in modernity.
This was an expensive book, as it necessitating my keeping up (even
in a limited way) with the transformational festival circuit. Considera-
ble funding enabled me to access these networks in difficult but possible
ways. This research was supported by grants from UCR’s Academic
Senate Committee on Research, UCR’s Center for Ideas and Society
(CIS), a Hellman Fellowship, and a Religion in Diaspora and Global
Affairs (RIDAGA) Humanities Studio Award sponsored by the Univer-
sity of California Humanities Research Institute and the Henry Luce
Foundation. Two writing retreats, sponsored by the College of Human-
ities, Arts, and Social Sciences (CHASS) Mid-Career Research Initiative
and the Inequities in Health Faculty Commons group, respectively,
both funded by CIS, bookended the bulk of my writing. I am grateful to
Dana Simmons and Tanya Nieri for facilitating my participation. I
thank both CIS’s and UCR’s administrative staff, particularly Diana
Marroquin, for her undying patience and expertise in executing the
financial administration that made this book possible.
I thank conference audiences who responded to portions of this work
at the American Academy of Religion Annual Conference, South Asian
Studies Association Conference, the Race and Yoga Research Working
Group at UC Berkeley, the University of Wisconsin-Madison South Asia
Conference, and the Society for Pilgrimage Studies Conference. Early
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