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Concrete jungles urban pollution and the politics of
difference in the Caribbean 1st Edition Jaffe Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Jaffe, Rivke
ISBN(s): 9780190273590, 0190273593
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 4.56 MB
Year: 2016
Language: english
CONCRE TE JUNGLE S
 Recent Titles in

Global and Comparative Ethnography

Edited by Javier Auyero

Violence at the Urban Margins

Edited by Javier Auyero, Philippe Bourgois, and Nancy Scheper-​Hughes
CONCRETE JUNGLES
Urban Pollution and the Politics of
Difference in the Caribbean

Rivke Jaffe

1
1
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers
the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education
by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University
Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© Oxford University Press 2016

First Edition published in 2016

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Jaffe, Rivke, author.
Concrete jungles : urban pollution and the politics of difference in the Caribbean / Rivke Jaffe.
pages cm.—(Global and comparative ethnography)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978–0–19–027358–3 (hardcover: alk. paper)—ISBN 978–0–19–027359–0 (pbk.: alk. paper)
1. Urban pollution—Caribbean Area. 2. Environmental sociology—Caribbean Area.
3. Social classes—Caribbean Area. 4. Equality—Caribbean Area.
5. Urban ecology (Sociology)—Caribbean Area. 6. Human ecology—Caribbean Area. I. Title.
GE160.C27J34 2016
363.7309729—dc23
2015027018

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed by Webcom, Canada
CONTENT S

List of Figures vii

Acknowledgments ix

1. Introduction 1
2. Caribbean Cities in Comparative Perspective 21
3. Colonial Landscapes of Paradise and Pollution 46
4. Fragmented Cities 69
5. Urban Naturalisms 92
6. Uptown Environmentalism 108
7. Downtown Environmentalism 131
8. Coda 154

Notes 163
References 169
Index 185
LIS T OF FIGURES

1.1 Cleaning up the mondi in Curaçao 2

2.1 Map of Kingston, including location of Riverton
and Rae Town 31
2.2 Hog rummaging for food next to a zinc-​fenced yard
in Riverton 32
2.3 Rae Town’s polluted Paradise Street gully where it enters
Kingston Harbor 35
2.4 Barracks for refinery workers in Willemstad, 1951 37
2.5 Map of Willemstad, including location of Wishi/​Marchena
and Seru Fortuna 39
2.6 View of Wishi/​Marchena, with Isla refinery
in the background 40
2.7 Goats foraging in the polluted mondi near Seru Fortuna 43
3.1 The Torrid Zone, or Blessings of Jamaica 50
3.2 Trinity Estate, St. Mary, plate from James Hakewill’s
A Picturesque Tour of the Island of Jamaica, 1820–​1824 52
3.3 Dutch Minister of Water Management Jacob Kraus,
Willemstad Harbor, around 1906 63
4.1 Beautification efforts in Rae Town 83
5.1 Informal dwellings built on a gully, Kingston 99
8.1 Cartoon by Clovis, Jamaica Observer, February 17, 2012 155
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Completing this book has been a long journey; the final manuscript materi-
alized only gradually through a range of writing projects and extended con-
versations that developed as I traveled through various institutional settings.
I am indebted, first of all, to the many people in Curaçao and Jamaica who
shared their ideas on cities and environmental issues with me, both the resi-
dents of the four research neighborhoods and the environmental profession-
als in these countries. In Willemstad, I am very grateful to Lloyd Narain and
Yvette Raveneau for their long-​term friendship and support. Their desire to
work toward more inclusive, locally rooted forms of environmentalism has
been a source of inspiration. Rose Mary Allen’s anthropological work and
her friendship over the years have also meant a lot to me. Thanks also to
Ivan Cordero for being a great amigu. In Wishi/​Marchena, I am especially
grateful to Kenneth Valpoort, a great lider di bario, and to Jamel Gregorius,
Norvin Louisa, Eddy Zimmerman, and Shon Benchi. In Seru Fortuna,
many thanks to Migarda Wijngaarden, Ivy Cicilia, Veronica and Zieck at
the Sentro di Bario, Kenneth Girigori, Aretha, and Jacqueline Hortensia-​
Louisa and her children. Elsewhere on the island, thanks go out to the staff
of the Central Bureau of Statistics, the National Archives, Mongui Maduro
Library, and Selikor. In Jamaica, nothing would have been the same with-
out Miss Gwen Whittaker, her extended family, and the larger Red Light
community. In Riverton, my thanks go out to Miss Likkle, Kevron McKay,
Raymond, Sonny Dread, and Dean, Neville, Tony, and Brian Duncan. In
Rae Town, I am grateful to Vincent “Bones” Gordon, Fana, Elvis, Jamar,
Dwight and Stevie, Monique, Auntie Joy, Jackie, and Tamara. Thanks also
to the staff of the National Solid Waste Management Authority, the United
Nations Development Programme Local Initiative Facility for the (Urban)
Environment, the Jamaica Information Service, and the National Library of
Jamaica, and to Esther Figueroa for her critical engagement with my work.
x   • Acknowledgments

In writing this book, I have benefited immensely from the insights and
feedback offered by colleagues and friends along the way. The initial research
began at Leiden University and the Research School of Asian, African and
Amerindian Studies (CNWS), with my supervisor Peter Nas, whose support
and enthusiasm for urban environmental research were invaluable, and with
the friendship of Alex Geurds, Liza de Laat, and many others. A post-​doc posi-
tion at the Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean
Studies (KITLV) with Rosemarijn Höfte was the start of my engagement
with historical research and broadened my understanding of the Dutch
Caribbean. At the University of the West Indies, Mona, I learned much from
colleagues such as David Dodman, Mark Figueroa, Kevon Rhiney, Robert
Kinlocke, and the late Barry Chevannes. Returning to Leiden as a lecturer in
the anthropology department, my thoughts on how to develop this book proj-
ect were helped significantly by working and co-​teaching with inspiring col-
leagues such as Sabine Luning, Ratna Saptari, Marianne Maeckelbergh, Bart
Barendregt, Erik Bähre, Maarten Onneweer, Roos Gerritsen, and Annemarie
Samuels. At the University of Amsterdam, I am grateful to geographers such
as Fenne Pinkster and Wouter van Gent for sharpening my understanding of
the politics of place-​making, and to Marcel Heemskerk for creating maps of
Willemstad and Kingston. Working with Ph.D. students at the University
of Amsterdam, especially Alana Osbourne and Tracian Meikle, has shown
me new ways of understanding Kingston. Other colleagues whose comments
and feedback helped improve the manuscript include Deborah Thomas,
Mimi Sheller, Tim Barringer, and Rose Mary Allen. I am especially happy
to have been able to work together with Eveline Dürr for over a decade in
developing an anthropology of urban pollution.
Financially, the initial research was made possible by the support of
the Jacob Gelt Dekker Institute in Curaçao, the CNWS and the Leids
Universiteitsfonds at Leiden University, and the sponsoring of tickets by
KLM Royal Dutch Airlines. A Visiting Scholar Award from the Yale Center
for British Art allowed me to explore the historical and aesthetic dimensions
of the project more fully.
I am grateful to James Cook at Oxford University Press for his editorial
support for this project, and to the two anonymous reviewers whose construc-
tive comments helped me to refine and strengthen the arguments I make in
this book. Thanks as well to Javier Auyero for welcoming this contribution
to the Comparative and Global Ethnography series at OUP, and to Dennis
Rodgers for suggesting the possible fit between my manuscript and the series.
 Acknowledgments      •      xi

Parts of this book developed in the context of other publication projects.

Some of the text in Chapter Six, on Uptown environmentalism, has been
published as the book chapter “Unnatural Causes: Green Environmentalism,
Urban Pollution and Social Justice in the Caribbean,” in Environmental
Management in the Caribbean: Policy and Practice, edited by Elizabeth
Thomas-​Hope (Kingston: University of the West Indies Press, 2013). A
section of Chapter Three, on the Jamaican cholera epidemic, will appear as
part of the chapter “Dirt, Disease and Difference in Victorian Jamaica: The
Politics of Sanitary Reform in the 1852 Milroy Report” in Victorian Jamaica,
edited by Wayne Modest and Tim Barringer (Durham: Duke University
Press, forthcoming). Thanks are due the editors of these collections for their
encouragement in developing these texts.
I might never have completed this book without a group of dear friends,
with whom I shared countless hours typing away in libraries and cafés in
Amsterdam, The Hague, and Kingston, and on writing retreats in Groningen
and Limburg: Anouk de Koning, Hebe Verrest, Guiselle Martha, Petrina
Dacres, and Claudia Hucke. I am especially indebted to Anouk, whose
anthropological knowledge, sharp editorial eye, and patient encouragement
improved the manuscript immensely.
Finally, all my love to Wayne Modest—​husband, best friend, and astute
critic—​whose empathy, patience, and erudition have sustained me through-
out much of this project. Our continuing conversations about difference,
inequality, colonialism, and the Caribbean have inspired me intellectually
and personally, and there is no one with whom I would rather continue this
journey.
CONCRE TE JUNGLE S
1
INTRODUCTION

On my first trip to the Caribbean island of Curaçao, I joined a

nature hike to help clean up the mondi, as the island’s wild nature
is called in the local vernacular of Papiamentu. We left Willemstad,
the capital city where the vast majority of the population lives,
early in the morning and drove out to a meeting point. A volunteer
who was employed by the national Department of Environment
and Nature led our group of assembled hikers as we started off
into the mondi. As we walked through a landscape of small trees,
dry brush, and dadu and kadushi cacti, the volunteer regaled us
with stories about the different plants and their uses. One type of
cactus, for instance, is used to make Curaçao’s traditional sòpi di
kadushi, a soup that will congeal enough to make your spoon stand
up straight if you don’t eat it immediately. We continued until we
reached a big pile of garbage, mostly construction materials, in the
middle of the wilderness. Here, each of us was given a special pair
of thick gloves and a special white garbage bag with the name of
one of the island’s environmental nongovernmental organizations
(NGOs) printed in green (Figure 1.1). After only a few minutes
of hefting concrete blocks into these bags, we stopped our efforts
because the next group of hikers had almost reached the garbage
site, and we needed to move on. We continued our trek and ended
up at the main meeting point, where we stretched our legs and had
drinks and snacks.
Over the decade that followed, researching urban environmen-
tal problems in Curaçao and Jamaica, I came to see the significance
of this first nature hike. First of all, despite the ubiquity of gar-
bage and litter in Willemstad, we had traveled outside the city to
do our clean-​up. As I argue in this book, it is no coincidence that
to practice environmentalism we had to leave the city, polluted as
much of it was, to protect and purify nature and the non-​urban
2   • Introduc tion

Figure 1.1 Cleaning up the mondi in Curaçao.

Photograph by Irene Rolfes.

environment. The various environmental organizations that are active on

both islands largely saw urban pollution as a regrettable but also normal situ-
ation, whereas pollution in or of nature was perceived as an offensive phe-
nomenon that prompted collective environmentalist action. In addition,
it struck me that most of those participating in the hike to the mondi were
either White or light-​skinned (koló kla), and included many Dutch expatri-
ates as well as Curaçaoans. The language used was also Dutch, rather than
Papiamentu. The composition of this group, so different from the major-
ity of the island’s population, over time also proved indicative of the social
distance separating environmentalists from “ordinary people.” Finally, our
few minutes of stuffing construction waste into garbage bags seemed a rather
symbolic act unlikely to affect any of the issues underlying problems in solid
waste management. I came to wonder to what extent environmentalism not
only was a problem-​oriented ideology and social movement, but served as a
practice that marked social, and specifically class, distinction.
As I continued my research, I began to realize that even on these small
islands, there were distinct versions of environmentalism that articulated
with class, ethnicity, and urban space. Comparing the perceptions, behav-
iors, and organization of environmental professionals and “lay” citizens
in Willemstad, Curaçao, and Kingston, Jamaica, I began to distinguish
 Introduction      •      3

“Uptown environmentalism” from “Downtown environmentalism.”1

These two forms of environmentalism acted as analytical and normative
frameworks, outlining different definitions, causes, and consequences of
urban and environmental problems, as well as possible solutions to them.
These two socio-​ecological spheres were not completely opposite or entirely
separate, nor do I mean to suggest that these are the only two spheres or
positions possible. However, they were connected to urban divisions that
resonated broadly with the lived experience of residents of Kingston and
Willemstad.
In this book, I explore the ways in which urban inequalities and the socio-​
spatial fragmentation of Caribbean cities both reflect and reinforce diverg-
ing discourses and practices pertaining to the environment. I contend that
political economy approaches to environmental injustice are insufficient, and
that we must expand our focus to include the cultural politics that natural-
ize the unequal distribution of pollution. To do so, I examine the ways in
which pollution—​understood here as a phenomenon of entangled material
and symbolic components—​intersects with urban space in the construction
of social hierarchies and the unequal distribution of environmental burdens
and hazards. Connecting environmental anthropology and urban studies,
I attempt to understand how the politics of difference are played out through
environmentalism and urban space.
Throughout the book, I link analyses of discourses on the environment
and on the city to their material effects and contexts, most specifically by
focusing on urban space. What effects do specific environmental narratives
have—​that is, what forms of social power do they legitimate, where and for
whom do they create jobs, and whose activities do they constrain and stig-
matize? Who gets to define what constitutes an environmental problem and
what is the best way to solve it, and who benefits from those definitions?
How are the residential and professional spaces within which policymakers
circulate reflected in the focus of environmental policies, and what effects
do those policies have on urban spaces not considered to be environmental
priorities? Nature, the environment, and the city are produced socially and
discursively, and these discourses result in physical and economic changes
to urban and natural environments and the people who live in them. At
the same time, these discourses are not unchanging, nor do they emerge in
limbo. They are developed in specific material spaces of power and power-
lessness: the government ministry, the university, and the boardroom, as
well as the ghettoized neighborhood, the street, and “the gully.” Even as
these discourses—​and the stories, visual images, policies, and songs that
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 History - Book Review
Summer 2022 - Institute

Prepared by: Professor Brown

Date: July 28, 2025

Exercise 1: Assessment criteria and rubrics

Learning Objective 1: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 6: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Topic 2: Ethical considerations and implications
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Study tips and learning strategies
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Results 3: Case studies and real-world applications
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 21: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 24: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 4: Ethical considerations and implications
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 37: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 37: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Best practices and recommendations
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Exercise 5: Ethical considerations and implications
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 44: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 47: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 49: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Unit 6: Case studies and real-world applications
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 51: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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