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 Palgrave Frontiers in Philosophy
of Religion

Series Editors
Yujin Nagasawa
School of Philosophy
University of Birmingham
Birmingham, United Kingdom

Erik Wielenberg
Philosophy
DePauw University
Greencastle, Indiana, USA

“A judiciously selected, well-structured collection of excellent essays on

an eternal, and timely topic, by leading philosophers of religion as well as
younger philosophers and scholars in other disciplines. When it comes to
the afterlife, the possibilities (and impossibilities) are endless.
Contributors survey an extensive range of exotic post-mortem scenarios
as well as the more familiar accounts associated with Christianity and
Buddhism.”

–H.E. Baber, Professor of Philosophy, University of San Diego, USA

“Wow! I've been waiting for a book like this for a long time. The sheer
number of different beliefs about the afterlife that are examined is
impressive, as is the beautiful balance of religious, philosophical, theolo-
gical, and scientific perspectives. Students and scholars in a variety of
disciplines will find this book invaluable.”

–Paul Draper, Professor of Philosophy, Purdue University, USA

Editorial Board Members: Michael Almeida (University of Texas at San
Antonio), Lynne Rudder Baker (University of Massachusetts Amherst),
Jonathan Kvanvig (Baylor University), Robin Le Poidevin (University of
Leeds), Brian Leftow (University of Oxford), Graham Oppy (Monash
University), Michael C. Rea (University of Notre Dame), Edward Wierenga
(University of Rochester). Palgrave Frontiers in Philosophy of Religion is a long
overdue series which will provide a unique platform for the advancement of
research in this area. Each book in the series aims to progress a debate in the
philosophy of religion by (i) offering a novel argument to establish a strikingly
original thesis, or (ii) approaching an ongoing dispute from a radically new
point of view. Each title in the series contributes to this aim by utilising recent
developments in empirical sciences or cutting-edge research in foundational
areas of philosophy (such as metaphysics, epistemology and ethics). The series
does not publish books offering merely extensions of or subtle improvements
on existing arguments. Please contact Series Editors ([email protected] /
[email protected]) to discuss possible book projects for the series.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14700
 Yujin Nagasawa • Benjamin Matheson
Editors

The Palgrave
Handbook
of the Afterlife
Editors
Yujin Nagasawa Benjamin Matheson
School of Philosophy University of Gothenburg
University of Birmingham Göteborg, Sweden
Birmingham, United Kingdom

Palgrave Frontiers in Philosophy of Religion

ISBN 978-1-137-48608-0 ISBN 978-1-137-48609-7 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-48609-7

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017951196

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017

The author(s) has/have asserted their right(s) to be identified as the author(s) of this work in accordance with
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the
whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or
information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does
not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective
laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are
believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors
give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions
that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps
and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: Vintage engraving from the 1870 of a scene from the New Testament by Gustave Doré
showing The Last Judgement

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
The registered company address is: The Campus, 4 Crinan Street, London, N1 9XW, United Kingdom
 Acknowledgements

The idea for this edited volume arose as a result of our research cluster
initiative ‘Death, Immortality, and the Afterlife’ at the John Hick Centre for
Philosophy of Religion at the University of Birmingham. Our funding came
from the Analytic Theology Project at the University of Innsbruck, a project
funded by the John Templeton Foundation and led by Georg Gasser. The
cluster initiative aimed to bring together philosophers and theologians to
discuss an area of mutual interest. We are grateful to the funding bodies for
their generous support. We would also like to thank the participants in the
initiative: Paul Badham, Lynne Rudder Baker, Toby Betenson, John Bishop,
David Cheetham, Matthew Churchouse, Luke Fox, Matthew Fox, Gregory
Shushan, Eric Steinhart, Naomi Thompson, Khai Wager and Jerry Walls.

v
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
Benjamin Matheson

Part I The History of the Afterlife

2 The Afterlife in Early Civilizations 21

Gregory Shushan

3 Classical Mediterranean Conceptions of the Afterlife 41

Stephen R. L. Clark

Part II The Afterlife in World Religions

4 Hinduism 61
Ankur Barua

5 Buddhism 85
Peter Harvey

6 Judaism 107
Tyron Goldschmidt and Aaron Segal

7 Christianity 129
Joshua Farris

vii
viii Contents

8 Islam 153
Amir Dastmalchian

Part III Models of the Afterlife

9 Heaven 177
Luke Henderson

10 Divine Love and Hell 197

Andrei A. Buckareff and Allen Plug

11 Purgatory 215
David Hershenov and Rose Hershenov

12 Rebirth 235
Mikel Burley

13 Digital Afterlives 255

Eric Steinhart

Part IV The Metaphysics of the Afterlife

14 Substance Dualism 277

Uwe Meixner

15 Emergent Dualism 297

William Hasker

16 Resurrecting Material Persons 315

Lynne Rudder Baker

Part V The Meaning of the Afterlife

17 The Fear of Death 333

John Bishop
 Contents ix

18 Meaning in Life 353

Thaddeus Metz

19 The Problem of Evil 371

Stephen T. Davis

20 Practical Identity 391

Benjamin Matheson

Part VI The Science of the Afterlife

21 Do Near-Death Experiences Provide Evidence

of an Afterlife? 415
Mark Fox

22 How Psychological Dispositions Influence the Theology

of the Afterlife 435
Helen De Cruz and Johan De Smedt

Index 455
 List of Figures

Figure 8.1 A diagram illustrating the basic Muslim belief concerning

the afterlife 156

xi
 List of Tables

Table 8.1 The frequency of terms pertaining to the afterlife in the Quran 158
Table 8.2 The frequency of various terms in the Quran which do not
pertain to the afterlife 159

xiii
 1
Introduction
Benjamin Matheson

It seems uncontroversial that you currently exist. If you were to attempt to

doubt this then you would in fact prove your own existence, because a doubt
implies the existence of a doubter, as Descartes famously argued. Things are
not so uncontroversial, however, when it comes to the possibility of our non-
existence. Is it possible for us to cease to exist? Throughout much of human
history, there has been resistance to the idea that we cease to exist. Our
tendency to form beliefs about an afterlife is evidence of this.
This is a surprising tendency, in many respects. For one thing, we are
aware that human bodies deteriorate and eventually stop functioning. In
other words, we are aware that we will eventually die. So why do we
form beliefs about an afterlife? One possibility, at least in part, might be
related to the inconceivability of our current non-existence. Perhaps we
implicitly reason as follows: If it is inconceivable that we currently do
not exist, it is inconceivable that we will cease to exist at some point in
the future. If conceivability is a guide to possibility (as some philosophers
contend), then perhaps inconceivability is likewise a guide to impossi-
bility. There may be problems with this line of reasoning, but it remains

B. Matheson (*)
Department of Philosophy, Linguistics, and Theory of Science, University
of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2017 1

Y. Nagasawa, B. Matheson (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of the Afterlife,
Palgrave Frontiers in Philosophy of Religion,
DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-48609-7_1
2 B. Matheson

that something like this might underpin, or at least contribute to, the
human tendency to form beliefs about an afterlife.
In support of this hypothesis, we can point out that those who believe in
an afterlife typically presume that an afterlife guarantees immortality, in
some respect. For instance, Christian conceptions usually say that we shall
live forever (in heaven or in hell). However, the concept of ‘afterlife’ does not
logically entail an eternal post-mortem existence. It is possible that there is an
afterlife but that it is only for a limited time. For instance, it might be true
that we survive death in some sense, but at a later time we then go out of
existence. This might seem like a pointless afterlife, of course, but that’s not a
good reason to think that this is not what the afterlife (if there is one) is like.
Because it doesn’t alleviate the human worry about future non-existence – it,
at best, delays that worry for another day – this is perhaps why belief in such
an afterlife is not common.
Suppose we accept that there is an afterlife of some sort, as many people
currently do. There is a range of questions we might then ask about this
afterlife. We might first wonder: what is the afterlife like? This is a highly
important question for those who believe there is some sort of afterlife. If our
lives extend beyond the life of our bodies, then it is important to know what
our post-body lives will be like. For starters, it is important to know whether
the afterlife will be a positive experience or not. However, as we shall see,
positive conceptions of the afterlife are not ubiquitous. We might also
wonder: is it possible to survive the death of our bodies? Since we know
that our bodies will die, we need a story that explains how that does not
simply mean that we will also irreversibly cease to exist. After learning what
the afterlife might be like and whether it is possible to survive the death of
our bodies, we might then wonder whether the afterlife has any point. Even
if the afterlife is a positive experience (whether completely or on the whole),
we might question the need for this positive post-mortem existence. We
might also wonder whether there is any evidence of an afterlife. If there is no
evidence for our beliefs about the afterlife, we might wonder whether our
afterlife beliefs are in fact justified. We might also wonder what the source of
our afterlife beliefs is. Do they, for instance, have an evolutionary source?
This book is arranged around answers to these questions.
The first three parts of this book cover answers to the what is it like?
question. Part One covers ancient beliefs about the afterlife – in particular,
the afterlife in Early Civilizations and the Classical Mediterranean period.
Part Two covers the afterlife in the main contemporary world religions:
Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Part Three investi-
gates particular models of the afterlife: Heaven, Hell, Purgatory, Rebirth, and
 1 Introduction 3

Digitalism. These chapters do not just propose answers to the what is it like?
question, but it is one of the central themes in each of them.
In Chapter 2, Gregory Shushan kicks things off with an examination of
the conceptions of the afterlife in Early Civilizations – specifically, Old and
Middle Kingdom Egypt, Sumerian and Old Babylonian Mesopotamia,
Vedic India, pre-Buddhist China, and Maya and Aztec Mesoamerica.
Shushan observes that there are similar themes that emerge in their respective
afterlife beliefs, such as: some form of non-physical existence, journeys to
other realms, experiences of light and darkness, meeting deceased relatives,
judgment based on one’s pre-mortem life, encounters with other beings,
obstacles or barriers, some sort of ‘Ultimate Reality’, and a reconciliation of
opposites. Shushan also notes that the similarity between beliefs about the
afterlife in these civilizations has another interesting feature – namely that
there are no known mutual predecessors to these various cultures.
Some similar themes are found in Stephen R. L. Clark’s discussion of
conceptions of the afterlife in the Classical Mediterranean period (viz.,
between the seventh century BCE and the fifth century AD) in Chapter 3.
For example, we learn that some held that there was a form of non-physical
post-mortem existence in the form of our memories continuing to exist in
Hades. For some, however, this was not considered a form of survival. Even
though a person’s memories were thought to survive, the person herself did
not. Upon death, it was believed that the various aspects constituted that the
person leave her body – namely force (menos), will (thumos), guts (phrenes)
and breath (psyche). Some held that there was conscious experience in Hades
but it was regret – something that was later considered to be a form of eternal
damnation. For others, there was a notion of the ‘soul’ that could survive
death and travel to other realms. But only a select few – such as heroes –
could survive death in this way. These heroes were granted immortality and
then might go on journeys to different realms.
Clark discusses further conceptions of the afterlife from this period.
Among these are the eternal return, and no-self panpsychism. According to
the eternal return view, which was held by Stoics, once the world ends it
starts again and plays out exactly as it did this time. The idea was that we
would never truly die because the world will begin again and we will
effectively re-live our lives. According to no-self panpsychism, which was
held by Epicureans, there is in fact no afterlife because there is no self to
survive death. Death is really just the cessation of a type of awareness (or
perspective) that arises from a particular conglomeration of atoms, and each
atom itself has a type of awareness (or perspective). Epicureans argued that
just as we did not exist before we were born, we will not exist after we are
4 B. Matheson

dead. And just as we don’t expect life (or fear non-existence) before birth, we
shouldn’t expect life (or fear non-existence) after death. Of course, our
constituent atoms have a type of awareness (or perspective) and these
atoms may come to constitute another person. So, just as ‘we’ might have
been part of someone in the past, ‘we’ might be part of someone in the
future. As Clark notes, this makes Epicureanism remarkably like Theravadin
Buddhism, which may have been the result of contact with Buddhist mis-
sionaries, who believed in a form of rebirth.
In Part Two, we turn to the afterlife in world religions. While Part One
answered the what is it like? question from the perspective of ancient beliefs
about the afterlife, Part Two touches upon historical and contemporary
answers to that question from distinct religious perspectives. In Chapter 4,
Ankur Barua takes us through the complex and often misunderstood religion
known as ‘Hinduism’. As Barua points out, what is often referred to as
‘Hinduism’ is not one single religion or practice, but rather a cluster of
religions or practices adhered to by those in Indian subcontinent. To pro-
ceed, Barua takes a particular methodological starting point: he will not
worry whether or not a particular practice is ‘religious’ or not. He then
distinguishes between two things: the mythic imaginations of the afterlife
and the metaphysical conceptions of the afterlife. His essay proceeds by
displaying the interplay between these two things, and how that has pro-
duced a variety of ‘Hindu’ views about the afterlife. Barua describes the
variety of death rituals that inform what some people’s afterlife beliefs are, as
well as a variety of conceptions of the various levels of the afterlife, such as
encounters with ancestors and heavens (svarga) and hells (naraka) – though
these heavens and hells, unlike on most Abrahamic conceptions, are not
permanent locations for the dead, but rather places that they pass through.
He also describes the role of karma in certain of these conceptions for
establishing post-mortem treatment of individuals. Sometimes karma deter-
mines what afterlife realm, such as the aforementioned heavens and hells, a
person will have to experience. Sometimes it determines what a person will
be reborn as – e.g. as a human or a different animal. Barua also outlines
several conceptions of the self throughout the Hindu traditions. What
becomes apparent is that there are tensions between mythical narratives
about the afterlife and metaphysical conceptions of the self. Barua ends his
essay by discussing how Hindus try to live with these tensions in everyday
life, and effects it has on them.
In Chapter 5, Peter Harvey addresses Buddhism. Just as there is a range of
conceptions of the afterlife in Hinduism, there is also a range of conceptions
of the afterlife in Buddhism. Harvey’s contribution focuses on beliefs shared
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