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 THE UYGHUR
COMMUNITY
Diaspora, Identity
and Geopolitics

EDITED BY
GÜLJANAT KURMANGALIYEVA ERCILASUN
AND KONURALP ERCILASUN

POLITICS
AND HISTORY
IN CENTRAL ASIA
Politics and History in Central Asia

Series editor
Timur Dadabaev
University of Tsukuba
Tsukuba, Japan
In the past few decades, Central Asia has drawn the attention of academic
and business communities as well as policy professionals because of its
geostrategic importance (being located between Russia and China and in
close proximity to Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, and India), its
international stability, and its rich energy resources. The region also faces
challenges, such as post-conflict peacebuilding, impacts of the Afghan
conflict, a number of recent inter-ethnic conflicts, and post-Socialist devel-
opment paradigms. Approaching the problems and issues related to this
region requires a multi-disciplinary perspective that takes into account
political science, international relations, political economy, anthropology,
geography, and security studies. The Politics and History in Central Asia
series serves as a platform for emerging scholarship on this understudied
region.

More information about this series at

http://www.springer.com/series/14540
Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun
Konuralp Ercilasun
Editors

The Uyghur
Community
Diaspora, Identity and Geopolitics
Editors
Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun Konuralp Ercilasun
Gazi University Gazi University
Ankara, Turkey Ankara, Turkey

Politics and History in Central Asia

ISBN 978-1-137-53144-5    ISBN 978-1-137-52297-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52297-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017955048

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information
in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the pub-
lisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The
publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institu-
tional affiliations.

Cover illustration: TAO Images Limited / Alamy Stock Photo

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Nature America Inc.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A.
 Foreword

In recent years, studies on the Uyghurs of China have become more popu-
lar globally. Consequently, the Western world is becoming more familiar
with China’s remote western region. This popularization is related to vari-
ous factors. One of these factors is the rise of China as a global economic
power, which results in increased popular interest from the rest of the
world. Another factor is the potential for tensions in the region after the
Urumqi clashes of 2009. In fact, the Urumqi incident seemed to be an
important turning point in the region’s recent history. The Chinese state
tightened its rules after this incident, which in turn created a counter-­
effect in the region. China has been facing more and more incidents in the
region since the “strike-hard” operations that were conducted after the
Urumqi incident. The third factor may be defined as the new, stricter
regulations of the government, such as restrictions on fasting and the pro-
hibition of entrance to mosques for some groups of the native population.
These restrictions attracted attention toward the region.
A boom in interest has also occurred in English-language scholarly
publications. Although there was already an increasing number of studies
on the region and its people since 1990, this trend accelerated tremen-
dously after the Urumqi incident.1 In fact, an early edited book by
S. Frederick Starr is a crucial academic work that underlined the impor-
tance of the topic and popularized it in the Western world. The 2009
incidents further popularized the field. It seems that this interest is going
to continue and more publications (both scholarly and fiction) are likely to
appear in the future.

v
vi FOREWORD

This book aims to analyze the Uyghur issue with its traditional, histori-
cal, geopolitical, and religious roots. The book starts with an introductory
chapter that summarizes the region’s geographical features and historical
discourse. By concentrating on identity and diaspora studies, the book
gives a comprehensive and updated view of the relations between the
Uyghur community and Chinese state. Furthermore, the book presents
research dealing with Chinese-Uyghur relations and their impacts on
geopolitics.
The second chapter which is written by Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva
Ercilasun focuses on the early stages of Eastern Turkestanese-Chinese rela-
tions according to the travelogue of a nineteenth-­century scholar-official
and analyses the formation and development of identity in the region.
Nabijan Tursun contributed a chapter that describes the internal and
external factors of Uyghur identity development, especially during the first
half of the twentieth century. Colin Mackerras e­ laborates on the religious
angle of the identity of the Uyghurs from the twentieth century through
the contemporary period.
The next chapters present diaspora studies. Işık Kuşçu Bonnenfant
deals with the theoretical foundation of diaspora politics. Suchandana
Chatterjee focuses on the formation of the Uyghur community in
Kazakhstan; her chapter constitutes an example of local history of the
Uyghur issue. Another chapter on this topic was written by Yitzhak
Shichor, who makes a profound analysis of the possibility of dialogue
between the Uyghur diaspora and the Chinese state.
The final chapters of the book focus on geopolitics. Erkin Emet pres-
ents a narrative report of the Urumqi incidents and the official and unof-
ficial reactions. Erkin Ekrem’s chapter focuses on the relations between
China and Turkey, which have experienced ups and downs during the last
few years.
Since the topic is very sensitive, it has reflected on the terms.
Therefore, authors’ terminology was maintained, and unity of the terms
was not obliged. Thus, different variations of the terms are all indicated
in the Index. By focusing on identity, diaspora, and geopolitics, we
believe that this volume will contribute greatly to Uyghur and Chinese
studies.
 Foreword 
   vii

Notes
1. There have been a number of publications on Uyghurs and Xinjiang in the
beginning of the century through 2009. The most prominent ones include
the following: Michael Dillon, Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Far Northwest,
London, New York: Routledge, 2004; S. Frederick Starr (ed.), Xinjiang:
China’s Muslim Borderland, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2004; Arienne
M. Dwyer, The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and
Political Discourse, Washington D.C.: East-West Center Washington, 2005;
James Millward, Eurasian Crossroads: A history of Xinjiang, New York:
Columbia University Press, 2007; Colin Mackerras and Michael Clarke
(eds.), China, Xinjiang and Central Asia: History, Transition and
Crossborder Interaction into the 21st Century, London: Routledge, 2009.
The boom can be traced after 2009 by the publications such as Gardner
Bovingdon, The Uyghurs: Strangers in Their Own Land, New York:
Columbia University Press, 2010; Michael Clarke, Xinjiang and China’s
Rise in Central Asia—A History, London: Routledge, 2011; Nick
Holdstock, The Tree That Bleeds: A Uighur Town on the Edge, Edinburgh:
Luath Press Ltd., 2011; Rian Thum, The Sacred Routes of Uyghur History,
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2014; Michael Dillon,
Xinjiang and the Expansion of Chinese Communist Power: Kashgar in the
Early Twentieth Century, London: Routledge, 2014; Yu-Wen Chen, The
Uyghur Lobby: Global Networks, Coalitions and Strategies of World Uyghur
Congress, New York: Routledge, 2014; Shaoying Zhang and Derek McGhee,
Social Policies and Ethnic Conflict in China: Lessons from Xinjiang, London:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2014; Nick Holdstock, China’s Forgotten People:
Xinjiang, Terror and the Chinese State, London, New York: I.B. Tauris,
2015; Joanne Smith Finley and Xiaowei Zhang (eds.), Language, Education
and Uyghur Identity in Urban Xinjiang, New York: Routledge, 2015;
Rongxing Guo, China’s Spatial (Dis)integration: Political Economy of the
Interethnic Unrest in Xinjiang, Boston: Elsevier, 2015; Ondrej Klime,
Struggle By the Pen: The Uyghur Discourse of Nation and National Interest c.
1900-1949, Leiden: Brill, 2015. It seems that this interest will continue to
increase in the future.
 Contents

Introduction: The Land, the People, and the Politics

in a Historical Context   1
Konuralp Ercilasun

A View from the Nineteenth Century: Eastern

Turkistanese-Chinese Cultural Relations
in Chokan Valikhanov’s Works  17
Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun

Factors and Challenges of Uyghur Nationalism

in the Early Twentieth Century  27
Nabijan Tursun

Religion and the Uyghurs: A Contemporary Overview  59

Colin Mackerras

Constructing the Uyghur Diaspora: Identity

Politics and the Transnational Uyghur Community  85
Işık Kuşçu Bonnenfant

Bordered Conscience: Uyghurs of Central Asia 105

Suchandana Chatterjee

ix
x CONTENTS

Dialogue of the Deaf: The Role of Uyghur

Diaspora Organizations Versus Beijing 121
Yitzhak Shichor

Urumqi Clashes: The Reactions and the Aftermath 137

Erkin Emet

The Uyghur Factor in Turkish-Chinese Relations

After the Urumqi Events 153
Erkin Ekrem

Index 179
 Notes on Contributors

Suchandana Chatterjee is Senior Academic Fellow of Indian Council of

Historical Research, New Delhi, India. Her research topic is “Revisiting the role
of Indians in Central Asia: A Reappraisal of Eurasia’s Regional Dynamics.” She is
also Honorary Associate, China Centre, University of Calcutta. Her research inter-
ests include connected spaces, shared histories, and shifting identities of Eurasia.
During 1993–2015, as Research Associate and Fellow of Maulana Abul Kalam
Azad Institute of Asian Studies, Kolkata, India, she worked on projects sponsored
by the Ministry of Culture, Government of India related to Central Asia, Eurasia,
and Buddhism in Asia. Her latest publication is Images of Post-Soviet Kazakhstan:
A Cosmopolitan Space with Borderland Anxieties (Delhi: KWP, 2017). She was
awarded a doctorate degree in 2002 by the Department of Arts (History),
University of Calcutta for her thesis Emirate of Bukhara, 1868–1924: Encounters
with Transition. She is based in Kolkata.
Erkin Ekrem is Associate Professor in the Department of History, Hacettepe
University, Ankara, Turkey. He was born in the Chinese city of Lanzhou and stud-
ied there until the end of high school. Between 1981 and 1986, he got his BA
from Xinjiang Chinese Medical Faculty (today’s Xinjiang Medical University) and
worked as an orthopedist in Xinjiang City Hospital between 1986 and 1991. He
received his MA and PhD from the History Department of Hacettepe University.
He has written many articles on the ancient history of Turks and published many
analyses on China and Chinese-Turkish relationships.
Erkin Emet is Associate Professor at the Department of Modern Turkic Studies
at Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey. He holds a BA in Uyghur Language and
Literature from Beijing University, China. He earned his PhD from Ankara
University with a dissertation titled East Turkistan Uyghur Dialects (Kashgar,
Lopnor, Kumul and Hoten Dialects). He has published many articles and books on

xi
xii Notes on Contributors

Uyghur culture, language, and literature. He has also many publications on the
current situation of Uyghurs and the policies of the People’s Republic of China.
Konuralp Ercilasun is a Professor in the History Department at Gazi University,
in Ankara, Turkey. He holds a BA in History from Ankara University and an MA
from the National Cheng-chi University, Taipei. He earned his PhD from Ankara
University. Ercilasun has worked and lectured in Kyrgyzstan, Turkey and the
Republic of Korea. He published several articles on the steppe regions, Xiongnu,
Chinese historical documents, and the modern era of Mongols. Ercilasun co-
authored the Turkish annotated edition of the Xiongnu chapter in Han Shu. He
also wrote a book on Kashgar from the ancient times through the nineteenth
century.
Güljanat Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun is an Associate Professor at the Department
of Modern Turkic Studies at Gazi University, Ankara. She holds a BA in History
and an MS in Political Science from the Middle East Technical University, Turkey.
She earned her PhD in History from the Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University,
Kyrgyzstan. Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun’s publications are mainly on various aspects
of the political and social history of the Kazakhs and Kyrgyzs, especially the Soviet
period, intelligentsia, collectivization, religion, women, and family institutions.
Her current research focuses on the Kazakh and Kyrgyz societies in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries, as well as oral history and memory studies.
Işık Kuşçu Bonnenfant is an Associate Professor at the International Relations
Department of Middle East Technical University in Ankara, Turkey. She received
her PhD in December 2008 from the Department of Central Eurasian Studies at
Indiana University. She was a visiting scholar at the Davis Center, Harvard
University for the 2016–2017 academic year. She received the British Academy
Newton International Fellowship for 2016–2018. Her research interests cover the
former Soviet region (FSU), migration, diaspora politics, ethnic migration, and
peace and conflict studies. She has published in journals such as International
Migration, Central Asian Survey, and Nationalities Papers.
Colin Mackerras is Professor Emeritus at Griffith University, Australia, and a
Fellow of the Academy of Humanities of Australia. A Sinologist, he has visited and
worked in China numerous times, and researched many aspects of China’s past and
present. He has published widely, including on the Uyghurs and China’s other
ethnic minorities. His many authored books include China’s Ethnic Minorities and
Globalisation (RoutledgeCurzon, 2003). In addition, he has carried out primary
research on Uyghur history in The Uighur Empire According to the T’ang Dynastic
Histories, A Study in Sino-Uighur Relations 744–840 (Australian National
University Press, 1972).
 Notes on Contributors 
   xiii

Yitzhak Shichor PhD (the London School of Economics), is Professor Emeritus

of Political Science and Asian Studies at the University of Haifa, and Michael
William Lipson Chair Professor Emeritus at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
He was Dean of Students at the Hebrew University and Head of Tel-Hai Academic
College. His main research interests include China’s arms transactions and defense
conversion, Middle East policy, international energy relations, labor export, Sino-
Uyghur relations, and Xinjiang. Recently, he published “Crackdown: Insurgency
and Counterinsurgency in China,” in Insurgencies and Counterinsurgencies:
National Styles and Strategic Cultures (Beatrice Heuser et al., Eds. London:
Cambridge University Press, 2016, pp. 95–112).
Nabijan Tursun is a senior editor at the Uyghur Service of Radio Free Asia,
Washington DC. He is an expert on Sino-Russian relations and Uyghurs with a
PhD from the Oriental Studies Institute at the Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow. He received his BA from Central University for Nationalities, Beijing.
Dr. Tursun is one of the co-authors of Xinjiang: China’s Muslim Borderland. He
is the author of The Uyghur Reader, The Issues of Uyghur Ethnogenesis in the Chinese
Historiography (Russian), and The Issues of Uyghur Political History in the Chinese
Historiography (Russian). He presented papers in many international conferences
relating to Central Eurasia. He has also taught for many years and provided pre-
sentations at institutions in the United States, post-Soviet Russia, China, and
Turkey.
 List of Figures

Fig. 1 Clothes of the Uyghurs of Eastern Turkistan 20

Fig. 2 Uyghurs of Eastern Turkistan 21
Fig. 3 Hairstyles and hats of Uyghur women of Eastern Turkistan 22

xv
 Introduction: The Land, the People,
and the Politics in a Historical Context

Konuralp Ercilasun

The Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region—or Eastern Turkistan, as the

Uyghurs call it1—is one of the ancient points of civilization. Remnants of
this ancient civilization show themselves in archaeological finds and popular
mummies from four thousand years ago. The region was home to a great
variety of people who mostly belonged to or were influenced by the steppe
culture. Lattimore characterized the region as the pivot of Asia2 because it
was the main region affecting all of its surroundings during a long course of
history. Thus, the geographic location and landscape characteristics of the
region are summarized in this introductory chapter. The People’s Republic
of China has claimed that China had contact with Xinjiang since ancient
times by hinting that the word “contact” means “governing.” Conversely,
the Uyghur diaspora and other scholars have argued that Eastern Turkistan
was a distant and distinct region from China throughout history. Taking this
debate into consideration, the history of the region with a special emphasis
on governing powers are also summarized in this chapter.
Eastern Turkistan is one of the most distant lands from the sea. This
situation led to the claim that the geographical center of Asia is located near
Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang. Whether it is the real geographical center

K. Ercilasun (*)
History Department, Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey

© The Author(s) 2018 1

G. Kurmangaliyeva Ercilasun, K. Ercilasun (eds.),
The Uyghur Community, Politics and History in Central Asia,
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-52297-9_1
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