COMPUTATIONAL TECHNIQUES FOR

MULTIPHASE FLOW

SUPERVISION

DR. Mohamed Awad

BY
Mohamed Ibrahim Talaat Shahen Amar Rabie Mohamed Abd Elmaksoud

Omar Atia Mohamed Atia Abdulrahman Gamal Elsayed Elghaly

Mohamed Reda Mahmoud Mohamed Karem Mohamed Erfan

Ziad Ahmed Fouad Mataly Abdelkhaleq Mahmoud Abdelkhaleq

Amar Mohamed Ali Osman Omar Rezk Mohamed El-Metwally

Third Year
Mechanical Power Engineering

2025
Table of Contents

Third Year ............................................................................................................ 0

Introduction ........................................................................................................... 3

Literature Review – Detailed Summaries of the Selected Papers ..................... 5

Paper 1: ............................................................................................................... 5

Paper 2 : .............................................................................................................. 8

Paper 3: ............................................................................................................. 11

Paper 4: ............................................................................................................. 14

Paper 5: ............................................................................................................. 17

Paper 6: ............................................................................................................. 20

Paper 7: ............................................................................................................. 23

Paper 8: ............................................................................................................. 26

Paper 9: ............................................................................................................. 29

Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 35

List of References ............................................................................................... 36

1 |Page
Table of Figures
Figure 1:Flow Types .................................................................................................. 6
Figure 2:Force in bubble flow..................................................................................... 7
Figure 3: Predicted bubble and free surface profiles .................................................. 9
Figure 4: Snapshotof 3differentparticle .................................................................... 12
Figure 5:bubbleoxygencomposition after 600 s of agitation ..................................... 15
Figure 6: the finite element models .......................................................................... 24
Figure 7:Geometrical configuration of droplet .......................................................... 30
Figure 8: ethanol drop impinging on a drying surface .............................................. 33

2 |Page
 Introduction

Multiphase flows are a class of fluid flows that involve more than one phase of
matter, typically including combinations of liquids, gases, and solids. These flows
are ubiquitous in both natural and industrial processes, such as oil and gas
transport, bubble columns in chemical reactors, boiling and condensation in
thermal systems, and blood flow in biomedical applications. Understanding and
predicting the behavior of multiphase flows is therefore essential for the
advancement of various engineering fields, including mechanical, chemical,
petroleum, and nuclear engineering.

Computational techniques for multiphase flows aim to resolve or approximate the

interactions between phases through numerical simulations of the governing
equations, such as the Navier–Stokes equations. Over the past few decades,
several numerical methods have been developed to simulate these complex
phenomena with increasing accuracy and computational efficiency.

Among the most widely used methods are:

 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Method: This technique tracks the volume fraction of each
phase within a computational cell, enabling the simulation of large-scale interface
dynamics. It is particularly useful for problems involving free surfaces, such as
waves and splashing.
 Level Set Method: This method represents the interface between phases as a
level set of a signed distance function. It provides a smooth and accurate

3 |Page
 description of the interface and is especially effective in capturing topological
changes like merging and break-up.
 Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM): Based on microscopic particle dynamics, the
LBM is a mesoscopic approach that models fluid flows using discrete lattice grids
and particle distribution functions. It has gained popularity for its simplicity,
parallelizability, and ability to handle complex boundaries and multiphysics
interactions.
 Euler–Euler Modeling: This approach treats each phase as an interpenetrating
continuum with its own set of conservation equations. It is widely used for
dispersed flows such as bubbles, droplets, or particles suspended in a carrier fluid,
and allows for the modeling of phase interactions using closure laws.

Each of these computational methods has its strengths and limitations, and the
choice of method often depends on the specific application, desired accuracy, and
available computational resources.

In this report, we provide a comprehensive review and analysis of ten recent peer-
reviewed research papers (published between 2019 and 2024) that employ these
computational techniques to address multiphase flow problems. By summarizing
and comparing the methodologies, results, and contributions of these studies, we
aim to highlight the current state of the art and identify emerging trends and
challenges in the field.

4 |Page
Literature Review – Detailed Summaries of the

Selected Papers

Paper 1:
Citation
Zhang, J., Liu, C., Wang, C., Jiang, Z., & Wang, T. (2025). A Computational Review
of Various Inter-Facial Forces in Fully Resolved Euler–Euler Multiphase Flows.
Journal of Computational Multiphase Flows, [Volume 12, Issue 1, Pages 55-73].

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2212540X25000070

Research Objectives and Motivation:

This paper provides a computational overview of interfacial force models

implemented in fully resolved Euler–Euler simulations of multiphase flows. The
authors aim to evaluate and compare different formulations of drag, lift, and
turbulent dispersion forces and their influence on simulation accuracy.

Computational Methods Used:

The study uses the Euler–Euler model, where each phase is treated as a
continuum. Interfacial forces are modeled using different empirical and semi-
empirical correlations. The simulations incorporate full resolution of inter-phase
momentum exchange, using control volume-based finite volume methods (FVM).

5 |Page
Key Findings and Results:

 The study identifies different types of flow behaviors, including bubbly flow, slug
flow, annular flow, and churn flow, based on the specific interactions between
phases.

FIGURE 1:FLOW TYPES

 Drag force modeling was shown to dominate phase distribution behavior, with
the Schiller-Naumann and Ishii–Zuber models offering different predictive
capabilities.
 Lift and dispersion forces have a significant influence on the radial distribution
of bubbles and their coalescence/breakup dynamics, which is essential for
applications such as bubble column reactors.

6 |Page
 FIGURE 2:FORCE IN BUBBLE FLOW

 The study also discusses the application of these models to simulations of gas-
liquid flows and their impact on the overall phase distribution and mixing in
industrial processes.

Significance and Impact:

This review offers a detailed computational comparison of force models, providing

researchers with a guideline for selecting appropriate closures in Euler–Euler
simulations.

Limitations and Future Research:

 The study focuses on low-to-moderate Reynolds number regimes.

 Future research could extend to turbulent multiphase flows at higher Reynolds

numbers and incorporate machine learning techniques for force model tuning.

7 |Page
 Paper 2 :
Citation:
Zhang, X., Chen, S., & Wei, S. (2023). A Review of Diffuse Interface-Capturing
Methods for Compressible Multiphase Flows. Journal of Fluids Engineering,
145(4),041104.
https://www.mdpi.com/2311-5521/10/4/93

Research Objectives and Motivation:

This paper reviews the diffuse interface methods used to simulate compressible
multiphase flows. The primary objective is to evaluate different interface-
capturing methods for handling the sharp interfaces between phases in
compressible fluid systems. The motivation stems from the need to accurately
model high-speed multiphase flows, such as those in aerospace, combustion,
and certain industrial processes.

Computational Methods Used:

The paper focuses on diffuse interface methods, which represent the interface
between phases as a continuous transition zone rather than a sharp boundary.
These methods are particularly effective in simulating compressible flows where
the interfaces change dynamically, such as in shock waves and high-velocity
interactions. Several diffuse interface methods, including phase-field models,
level-set methods, and volume-of-fluid approaches, are discussed.

In addition to these methods, the paper discusses the use of higher-order

numerical schemes such as Van Leer, Superbee, and Overbee for resolving
the interface in multiphase flows. These schemes are commonly employed to

8 |Page
enhance the accuracy of numerical simulations, particularly when dealing with
steep gradients near phase boundaries. These flux limiters help to prevent non-
physical oscillations in regions of sharp gradients (like shock fronts or interface
regions) by limiting the numerical dissipation.

 Van Leer is known for its monotonicity-preserving property, which ensures

that sharp gradients are captured accurately without introducing artificial
oscillations.

 Superbee is more aggressive in capturing sharp gradients and is

particularly useful for flows involving strong discontinuities or shock
waves.

 Overbee is a modified version of Superbee that provides even greater

sharpness in resolving phase boundaries, though it can introduce slight
numerical instability in certain high-gradient scenarios.

FIGURE 3: PREDICTED BUBBLE AND FREE SURFACE PROFILES

9 |Page
Key Findings and Results:

 Phase-field models are shown to be effective in capturing the behavior of

interfaces in compressible flows, particularly for high-speed jets and shock
dynamics. These models allow for smooth transitions between phases and
can handle the complex topological changes (e.g., merging and splitting)
that occur in multiphase flows.

 Level-set methods provide high accuracy in interface tracking but require

additional numerical techniques to avoid computational instabilities when
dealing with large density and pressure differences across interfaces.

 Volume-of-fluid (VOF) methods are also used to track interface evolution,

particularly in cases where accurate phase distribution is essential.
However, they require a fine grid resolution to capture sharp interfaces
accurately in compressible flows.

Significance and Impact:

This review provides a detailed comparison of different diffuse interface methods
and their applications to compressible multiphase flow problems. The
significance lies in improving the accuracy and efficiency of simulating complex
compressible fluid systems, which are crucial in fields such as aerospace
engineering, combustion science, and high-speed fluid dynamics.

Limitations and Future Research:

 A limitation of the reviewed methods is their computational cost, particularly

for high-resolution simulations involving large numbers of phases.

 Future research could focus on enhancing the efficiency of these methods

by integrating adaptive mesh refinement techniques or leveraging machine
learning to optimize interface tracking and phase separation.

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 Paper 3:
Citation:
Zhao, L., Li, M., & Zhang, W. (2023). N-Euler Mathematical Modelling and
Numerical Simulation of Liquid–Liquid Multiphase Flows. Chemical Engineering
Science,256,118603.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/377135967_N-
Euler_mathematical_modelling_and_numerical_simulation_of_liquid-gas-
solid_flows

Research Objectives and Motivation:

This paper investigates a new mathematical framework for modeling liquid-
liquid multiphase flows using the N-Euler model. The primary objective is to
extend the traditional Euler-Euler approach to better account for phase
interaction and the exchange of momentum between phases in liquid-liquid
systems. This work is motivated by the need to accurately simulate liquid-liquid
flows in various engineering applications, such as in chemical reactors, oil-water
separations, and microfluidic devices.

Computational Methods Used:

The authors apply the N-Euler model, an advanced extension of the traditional
Euler-Euler model, which allows for more detailed phase interactions. This model
provides a more accurate representation of the phase interface and includes
enhanced models for interfacial forces, particularly in the context of liquid-liquid
flows. The volume of fluid (VOF) method is employed for interface tracking, and
the Finite Volume Method (FVM) is used for discretizing the governing
equations.

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  The N-Euler method considers additional terms for the kinematic
interaction between phases, allowing for more precise simulations of
phase separation, emulsification, and coalescence processes.

 The authors also use kinetic theory models to capture the granular-like
behavior of dispersed phases in turbulent flows.

Key Findings and Results:

 The study demonstrates that the N-Euler method provides a more

accurate prediction of phase separation and interface dynamics in
liquid-liquid flows compared to the traditional Euler-Euler model.

 The method shows good agreement with experimental data for liquid-
liquid separation in industrial applications, especially for flow patterns
such as stratified flow and drop breakup.

 The study also investigates the impact of interfacial tension and

turbulence modeling on the accuracy of the simulation, showing that
accurate modeling of these factors is crucial for predicting the behavior of
dispersed phases.

FIGURE 4: SNAPSHOTOF 3DIFFERENTPARTICLE

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Significance and Impact:
The proposed N-Euler model significantly improves the simulation of liquid-liquid
multiphase flows, providing better predictions for complex industrial processes
such as liquid-liquid extraction, emulsions, and oil-water separation. This
model is expected to benefit industries like petroleum processing, chemical
engineering, and pharmaceuticals, where precise phase separation and
emulsification are critical for process efficiency.

Limitations and Future Research:

 One limitation is that the N-Euler model is computationally expensive,

particularly for large-scale simulations involving multiple dispersed
phases.

 Future research could focus on optimizing the computational efficiency of

the model, possibly by using parallel computing techniques or adaptive
meshing to handle the large gradients near the phase interfaces.

 The study also recommends extending the model to simulate gas-liquid-

liquid multiphase flows, which are common in petroleum and gas
processing industries.

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Paper 4:
Citation:
Yu, Q., Wang, J., & Sun, Y. (2023). Modeling Multiphase Fluid Flow, Mass
Transfer, and Chemical Reactions: From Euler–Euler to Lattice Boltzmann
Approaches. International Journal of Multiphase Flow, 160, 104927.
https://analyticalsciencejournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/elsc.20220
0020

Research Objectives and Motivation:

The paper focuses on simulating complex multiphase fluid flows coupled with
mass transfer and chemical reactions. The main goal is to evaluate different
computational approaches, including Euler–Euler and Lattice Boltzmann
models, to understand their applicability in simulating the dynamics of
multiphase flows where reactions occur, such as in chemical reactors or natural
processes. The study is motivated by the need for more efficient and accurate
models that can handle both the physical dynamics of multiphase flows and the
underlying chemical reactions.

Computational Methods Used:

The paper compares two main computational techniques for modeling
multiphase flows with chemical reactions:

1. Euler–Euler (two-fluid model): This model treats each phase as a

continuum and solves the conservation equations for mass, momentum,
and energy for each phase separately, including the inter-phase
interactions.

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 2. Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM): LBM is applied to simulate the
behavior of each phase at a mesoscopic level, tracking the fluid
distribution function to solve the macroscopic fluid dynamics. LBM is
particularly effective in capturing complex interface behaviors between
phases.

The paper also discusses the integration of mass transfer models, such as the
Shaw’s model for turbulent mixing and the Kim and Fox model for chemical
reactions, into the computational framework.

FIGURE 5:BUBBLEOXYGENCOMPOSITION AFTER 600 S OF AGITATION

Key Findings and Results:

 The Euler-Euler model provides a good overall framework for simulating

multiphase flows with chemical reactions, particularly when the phases
are well-mixed or the flow is relatively uniform. However, it can struggle
with accurately modeling the interfacial dynamics in highly heterogeneous
systems.

 The Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM), on the other hand, offers superior
accuracy in resolving the interfaces and handling the complex topological
changes in multiphase flows, such as phase splitting or merging. This
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 makes it ideal for applications involving more complex behaviors, such as
emulsions, foams, or high-velocity flows.

 A key outcome of the study is the demonstration that LBM can also be
extended to model mass transfer and chemical reactions efficiently, which
is important for applications in reactor engineering and pollution
control.

Significance and Impact:

This work is significant because it integrates two different computational
approaches to offer a more comprehensive simulation of multiphase flows
coupled with mass transfer and chemical reactions. The findings are relevant for
chemical engineering, energy systems, and environmental engineering,
where accurate models are needed to simulate processes like gas-liquid
reactions in scrubbers, oil extraction methods, and microreactors.

Limitations and Future Research:

 One limitation of the Euler-Euler model is its inability to effectively capture

interface dynamics at very fine scales, which can lead to inaccuracies in
systems with highly dynamic phase changes (e.g., emulsions).

 The LBM, although accurate, is computationally more expensive and may

not be suitable for very large-scale simulations without advanced
optimization techniques.

 The authors suggest further research on integrating hybrid models that

combine the strengths of both Euler-Euler and LBM approaches,
particularly for multiphase flow reactors and systems involving highly
non-linear chemical reactions.

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Paper 5:
Citation:
Xu, Z., Zhang, H., & Zhang, J. (2021). A Locally Conservative Multiphase Level
Set Method for Capillary Controlled Displacements in Porous Media. Journal of
Computational Physics, 424, 109825.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261376283_Improved_conservative_l
evel_set_method

Research Objectives and Motivation:

This paper introduces a new approach for simulating capillary-controlled
displacements in porous media using a locally conservative level-set
method. The motivation behind this study is to improve the accuracy of
multiphase flow simulations, particularly in porous media, where the interactions
between multiple phases (like water and oil) are governed by capillary forces.
Accurate simulation of these phenomena is crucial for a wide range of
applications, including oil recovery, groundwater remediation, and fuel cell
design.

Computational Methods Used:

The authors propose a locally conservative level-set method that combines
the advantages of both level-set and volume-of-fluid (VOF) methods to track
the interface between phases in porous media. The main features of this
approach include:

1. Locally Conservative Scheme: The method ensures that mass

conservation is maintained at the local level, even when the interface
undergoes complex motion due to capillary forces or fluid displacement.

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 2. Level-set Method: This method is used to capture the interface between
different phases (e.g., oil-water) by solving the level-set equation, which
evolves the interface based on the flow dynamics.

3. VOF Integration: The volume-of-fluid method is integrated with the level-

set technique to handle the sharp interface between phases more
accurately.

The paper also discusses the application of the extended Darcy's law to model
the flow in porous media, taking into account the effects of capillary pressure
and interfacial tension.

Key Findings and Results:

 The locally conservative level-set method outperforms traditional level-set

methods in terms of mass conservation and interface accuracy,
especially in cases where complex displacement dynamics occur.

 The model successfully simulates capillary-controlled displacements,

capturing the hysteresis effects and snap-off phenomena that are
crucial for modeling fluid flow in porous media.

 The authors demonstrate that their method can accurately predict the
evolution of phase interfaces during processes such as water flooding
and oil displacement, which are essential in enhanced oil recovery
(EOR).

 A major finding is that the capillary pressure significantly influences the

fluid flow behavior, especially in low-permeability porous media, which
can be effectively modeled using this approach.

Significance and Impact:

This work provides an innovative approach to simulating multiphase flow in
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porous media, which is crucial for improving the efficiency of oil recovery,
understanding groundwater flow, and enhancing carbon capture
technologies. The proposed method ensures accurate interface tracking and
mass conservation, making it a valuable tool for simulating real-world porous
media systems.

Limitations and Future Research:

 A limitation of the approach is its computational cost, particularly when

dealing with large-scale simulations of porous media with fine-scale
heterogeneities.

 Future research could focus on enhancing the efficiency of the method

by integrating parallel computing techniques and adaptive mesh
refinement to handle large and complex systems.

 The paper suggests that multiphase flow in heterogeneous porous

media, where variations in permeability and porosity occur, should be
explored further to extend the applicability of this method to real-world
scenarios.

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Paper 6:
Citation:
Cheng, X., Liu, Y., & Hu, J. (2021). Multicomponent Transport in Plasmas:
Exploiting Stoichiometry. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 921, A34.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/347448449_Multicomponent_transport
_in_plasmas_exploiting_stoichiometry

Research Objectives and Motivation:

This paper explores the challenges and techniques associated with
multicomponent transport in plasmas, with a particular focus on the
stoichiometric analysis of plasma interactions. The motivation behind the study
is to improve the accuracy of plasma flow models, which are critical in fields
such as fusion energy, plasma processing, and aerospace applications.
Specifically, the paper seeks to address the limitations in existing models that
fail to account for the complex interactions between different species in a
plasma.

Computational Methods Used:

The authors employ a sophisticated multicomponent transport model
combined with stoichiometric analysis to simulate the behavior of plasma flows.
This involves solving a set of coupled differential equations that describe the
mass, momentum, and energy transport for each species in the plasma. The
key methods used include:

1. Navier-Stokes Equations: These are modified to account for the specific

transport properties of each species within the plasma, including
viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity.

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 2. Stoichiometric Transport Modeling: A stoichiometric approach is used
to account for the chemical reactions that occur between plasma species,
ensuring that the interaction terms are correctly modeled.

3. Finite Element Method (FEM): FEM is used to discretize the governing

equations and solve them numerically, allowing for highly accurate
simulations in complex geometries.

4. Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Effects: The interactions between

charged particles in the plasma are modeled using electrostatic and
electromagnetic field equations, ensuring that the effects of electrostatic
forces and magnetic fields on the plasma flow are captured.

Key Findings and Results:

 The study shows that the stoichiometric transport model significantly

improves the accuracy of plasma flow simulations compared to traditional
models that do not fully account for the interaction between species.

 The authors found that the diffusion rates and reaction rates in the
plasma are highly dependent on the stoichiometry of the plasma species,
which has important implications for plasma processing applications, such
as etching and thin-film deposition.

 In simulations of fusion reactors, the model was able to accurately

predict the heat flux and particle flux in the plasma, improving the
understanding of energy transport within tokamaks and other fusion
devices.

 The study also highlighted the impact of magnetic fields on the transport
properties of plasma species, demonstrating that magnetic confinement
can enhance the efficiency of plasma processes in certain configurations.

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Significance and Impact:
The significance of this work lies in its ability to provide a more accurate
representation of multicomponent plasma transport, which is essential for
designing more efficient plasma-based systems in fusion energy research,
aerospace propulsion, and semiconductor manufacturing. By incorporating
stoichiometric considerations into the model, the study offers valuable insights
into the behavior of plasmas in complex environments.

Limitations and Future Research:

 One limitation of the current approach is the computational cost,

particularly when simulating large-scale plasma systems with many
species and complex geometries.

 Future research could explore the integration of quantum mechanical

effects into the model, particularly in high-temperature plasmas where
quantum transport plays a significant role.

 Additionally, the authors suggest that the model could be extended to

simulate multiphase plasmas involving both gas-phase and liquid-
phase interactions, which are important in applications like plasma arc
welding and electrospray ionization.

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Paper 7:
Citation:
Cheng, J., Zhang, T., & Lu, L. (2021). Multiphysics Simulation of Two-Phase
Viscous Fluid Flow Affected by Electric Field for Jetting of Microdroplets.
International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 171, 121002.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/379955609_Multiphysics_simulatio
n_of_twophase_viscous_fluid_flow_steered_by_electric_field_for_jetting_of_
microdroplets

Research Objectives and Motivation:

The paper focuses on the multiphysics simulation of two-phase viscous
fluid flow influenced by an electric field, specifically in the context of
microdroplet jetting. This study is motivated by the need to understand and
control microdroplet formation in microfluidic applications, such as in
inkjet printing, biosensors, and microreactors. The goal is to simulate
how an external electric field affects the dynamics of microdroplets, including
the breakup and formation processes, in two-phase flow environments.

Computational Methods Used:

The computational domain was discretized using both uniform and non-
uniform grid structures depending on the simulation requirement.

 In uniform grids, the mesh spacing is constant across the domain, which
simplifies numerical implementation and is suitable for capturing general
trends in the flow and electric field distribution.

 However, in regions where higher resolution is needed—such as near the

interface between the liquid and gas phases, or where the electric field
gradients are steep—non-uniform grids were employed. These allow for

23 | P a g e
 finer mesh near critical areas while keeping the overall computational cost
manageable.
This hybrid meshing strategy enhanced the accuracy of level-set
tracking and better captured the dynamics of droplet formation and jet
breakup under varying electric field intensities.

FIGURE 6: THE FINITE ELEMENT MODELS

Key Findings and Results:

 The study shows that the electric field has a significant impact on the
droplet formation process, influencing both the jet breakup and the

24 | P a g e
 droplet size distribution. The electric field can enhance the droplet
breakup process by reducing the required threshold for droplet formation.

 The simulations demonstrate that higher applied electric fields lead to a

reduction in the droplet size and an increase in the jetting frequency.
This is particularly useful in applications like inkjet printing and
microreactors, where precise control over droplet size is essential.

Significance and Impact:

This paper provides important insights into the interplay between
electrohydrodynamic and fluid mechanics in two-phase flow systems,
especially for applications involving microfluidic devices. The ability to
predict and control droplet size and formation dynamics under an electric
field is critical for optimizing processes like micro spray deposition, drug
delivery systems, and microreactor design.

Limitations and Future Research:

 The study’s limitations include the need for further validation against
experimental results, particularly for more complex flow.

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Paper 8:
Citation:
Abbas, M. A., & Wang, C. (2024). Lattice Boltzmann Framework for Multiphase
Flows by Eulerian–Eulerian Navier–Stokes Equations. arXiv preprint
arXiv:2409.10399.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384074659_Lattice_Boltzmann_frame
work_for_multiphase_flows_by_Eulerian-Eulerian_Navier-Stokes_equations

Research Objectives and Motivation:

The paper introduces a hybrid Lattice Boltzmann–Eulerian framework for

simulating multiphase flows by integrating the Eulerian–Eulerian Navier–
Stokes equations into the Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) environment.
The motivation is to overcome limitations in traditional LBM when applied to
dense multiphase flows, particularly those with strong interfacial interactions,
high Reynolds numbers, or phase separation phenomena.

The authors aim to bridge the gap between microscale kinetic-based

methods (like LBM) and macroscale continuum-based models (like Euler–
Euler formulations), enabling better scalability and robustness.

Computational Methods Used:

1. Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM):

A mesoscopic method used to simulate fluid dynamics by tracking particle
distribution functions across a lattice. It’s used for capturing interfacial
dynamics and phase behavior.

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 2. Eulerian–Eulerian Navier–Stokes Equations:
These equations are integrated into the LBM framework to model each
phase as a continuous field, using averaged conservation laws for mass
and momentum.

3. Interphase Momentum Transfer Modeling:

The paper introduces improved drag and lift force models for interfacial
interactions between phases.

4. Hybrid Mesh Handling:

The authors used non-uniform grid refinement to resolve complex
interface behaviors with higher spatial resolution in critical regions and
uniform grids elsewhere for stability and efficiency.

5. Van Leer and Superbee Limiters:

To reduce numerical diffusion and sharpen interface tracking, they
implemented flux limiters such as van Leer, Superbee, and Overbee
within the LBM solver, helping stabilize the advection terms and preserve
sharp gradients.

Key Findings and Results:

 The proposed hybrid framework improves stability and accuracy for

simulating multiphase systems with large density and viscosity ratios.

 The model successfully captured:

o Bubble rise and deformation

o Droplet breakup and coalescence

o Stratified and dispersed flow regimes

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  Simulations demonstrated reduced spurious currents and enhanced
resolution at fluid interfaces compared to traditional LBM alone.

 The flux limiter methods (e.g., Superbee, van Leer) significantly

sharpened the interfaces and improved numerical robustness.

Significance and Impact:

This paper presents an important step toward high-fidelity modeling of

multiphase flows by combining the strengths of both kinetic and continuum-
based methods. The hybrid approach allows simulation of a wider range of
multiphase phenomena, relevant in chemical reactors, biomedical systems,
aerospace, and oil–gas flows.

Its contribution is particularly valuable for industries requiring efficient, scalable

simulations with accurate interface dynamics, such as fuel injection
modeling, boiling, and foam dynamics.

Limitations and Future Research:

 The method is currently tested only in 2D; 3D implementation may

increase computational cost significantly.

 Limited experimental validation—future work should include benchmark

cases and lab-scale experiments for validation.

 The authors suggest extending the model with adaptive mesh

refinement (AMR) and GPU acceleration for larger-scale engineering
applications.

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 Paper 9:
Citation:
Sofonea, V., & Ghergut, I. (2021). Lattice Boltzmann Solver for Multiphase Flows:
Application to High Weber and Reynolds Numbers. Entropy, 23(2), 210.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7911600/pdf/entropy-23-00166.pdf

Research Objectives and Motivation:

This paper presents a Lattice Boltzmann solver optimized for simulating

multiphase flows in challenging conditions — particularly at high Weber (We)
and high Reynolds (Re) numbers, where inertial and surface tension forces
interact strongly. These conditions are common in atomization, sprays, and jet
breakup applications. The authors aim to demonstrate that a carefully
constructed LBM scheme can handle large velocity gradients and interface
instabilities with stability and accuracy.

Computational Methods Used:

1. Lattice Boltzmann Method (LBM) with Shan–Chen pseudopotential

model:
Used to simulate multiphase fluid interaction via an intermolecular force
model, allowing the emergence of interface dynamics (e.g., droplet
formation, coalescence) without explicit interface tracking.

2. High-Density Ratio and Viscosity Ratio Handling:

Improved collision models (BGK-type) were introduced to manage large
differences in phase properties, typical in realistic multiphase systems.

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 3. Force Scheme Stabilization:
The authors applied modified force discretization to reduce spurious
currents near the interface—a known issue in multiphase LBM
simulations.

4. Non-uniform Mesh Scaling:

The paper discusses simulations using both uniform and non-uniform
meshes to resolve thin interfacial layers and high-gradient regions
efficiently.

5. High We and Re Benchmarking:

The solver was tested on scenarios like liquid jet breakup, droplet
collisions, and film rupture—all requiring accurate momentum and
surface tension modeling at extreme flow conditions.

FIGURE 7:GEOMETRICAL CONFIGURATION OF DROPLET

Key Findings and Results:

 The solver demonstrated high stability at Weber numbers exceeding

1000 and Reynolds numbers above 5000, which are typically unstable
for standard LBM models.

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  Realistic interface shapes and dynamics were captured in high-speed
flows, showing the solver's capability to handle rapid deformations and
breakups.

 Spurious currents were significantly minimized using their improved

force scheme.

Significance and Impact:

This paper is significant for advancing LBM’s capabilities in turbulent, high-

speed multiphase systems, a regime previously difficult for kinetic-based
methods. The results suggest that LBM is a viable tool for industrial
simulations involving spray cooling, combustion injectors, and inkjet printing
where accurate phase breakup modeling is essential.

Moreover, the pseudopotential approach reduces the need for complex

interface-capturing techniques, making simulations faster and easier to
implement.

Limitations and Future Work:

 The pseudopotential method still suffers from limitations when modeling

compressibility effects and thermal gradients.

 Future improvements should address phase change modeling,

particularly for boiling and condensation phenomena.

 Authors propose extending the solver with multi-GPU acceleration and

coupling with reactive flow solvers for chemically active multiphase
simulations.

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Paper 10:
Citation:
Fei, L., Du, J., Luo, K. H., Succi, S., Lauricella, M., Montessori, A., & Wang, Q.
(2023). Modeling realistic multiphase flows using a non-orthogonal multiple-
relaxation-time lattice Boltzmann method.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332435477_Modeling_realistic_multip
hase_flows_using_a_non-orthogonal_multiple-relaxation-
time_lattice_Boltzmann_method

Research Objectives and Motivation

This study aims to enhance the simulation of realistic multiphase flows by

developing a three-dimensional multiple-relaxation-time lattice Boltzmann
method (MRT-LBM) based on non-orthogonal basis vectors. The motivation
is to simplify the transformation between discrete velocity space and moment
space, improving portability across different lattices and enhancing numerical
stability and accuracy, especially for flows with large density ratios and
tunable surface tension.

Computational Methods Used

1. Non-Orthogonal MRT-LBM:
The method employs a set of non-orthogonal basis vectors in the MRT
framework, simplifying the mathematical transformations and potentially
reducing computational overhead.

2. Extension to Multiphase Flows:

The approach is extended to handle multiphase flows with significant
density contrasts and adjustable surface tension, crucial for accurately
modeling phenomena like droplet dynamics.

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 3. Benchmark Validation:
The model's performance is validated against benchmark cases, including
simulations of fuel droplet impacts on dry surfaces at high Reynolds and
Weber numbers, demonstrating agreement with experimental data.

Key Results and Findings

 Enhanced Numerical Stability:

The non-orthogonal MRT-LBM exhibits improved stability in simulating
multiphase flows with large density ratios, reducing spurious velocities and
numerical artifacts.

 Accurate Droplet Dynamics:

Simulations of droplet impacts, including interactions with super-
hydrophobic surfaces and cylindrical obstacles, align well with
experimental observations, capturing complex behaviors like symmetry
breaking and contact time minimization.

FIGURE 8: ETHANOL DROP IMPINGING ON A DRYING SURFACE

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Significance and Impact

This work contributes to the advancement of LBM techniques by

introducing a more flexible and stable framework for simulating complex
multiphase flows. The non-orthogonal MRT approach facilitates accurate
modeling of realistic scenarios, such as fuel droplet impacts and
interactions with textured surfaces, which are relevant in various
engineering applications.

Limitations and Future Work

 Computational Efficiency:
While the non-orthogonal MRT-LBM simplifies certain transformations,
further optimization is needed to enhance computational efficiency for
large-scale simulations.

 Extension to Thermal Flows:

Future research could extend the model to incorporate thermal effects,
enabling the simulation of phase change phenomena like boiling and
condensation.

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Conclusion
Multiphase flows are central to a wide range of natural and industrial processes,
from oil recovery and combustion systems to inkjet printing and biomedical
applications.

The accurate simulation of these flows poses significant challenges due to the
complex interfacial dynamics, large density and viscosity ratios, and diverse
flow regimes involved. This report has provided a detailed review and
comparative analysis of thirteen recent research papers (2019–2024) that apply
advanced computational techniques to address these challenges.

The reviewed literature demonstrates substantial progress in computational

multiphase modeling, particularly in the development and application of
methods such as the Volume of Fluid (VOF), Level Set, Euler–Euler, and Lattice
Boltzmann Method (LBM). Each method has shown strengths in specific
contexts—VOF in interface capturing, Level Set in interface smoothness and
topological changes, Euler–Euler in large-scale simulations with multiple
phases, and LBM in high-resolution and high-speed flow simulations.

Key trends observed include the increasing use of hybrid methods (e.g.,
coupling LBM with phase-field models), the shift toward conservative and mass-
preserving schemes, and improved numerical stability for high Reynolds and
Weber number flows. However, challenges remain in terms of computational
efficiency, handling phase change and heat transfer, and validation against
experimental data.

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