Module – 2

Reviewing the Literature and

Research Design
 LITERATURE REVIEW
• A literature review is a comprehensive survey of existing research
and scholarly publications related to a particular topic. It involves
gathering, evaluating, and synthesizing relevant studies to
understand the current state of knowledge and to establish a
theoretical foundation for the research being conducted.
• Identify key theories, concepts, and findings in the
subject area.
• Establish the research gap or unexplored areas.
• Justify the need for the research and how it adds value to
the existing body of knowledge.
• Help in formulating research questions or hypotheses.
 SEARCHING LR
• Contextualizing the Research: Understanding STEPS
what has already been studied
• Identifying Research Gaps: By reviewing the • Define Your Research Topic/Problem
literature, students can identify areas where • Identify Relevant Databases and Sources
previous studies are lacking • Use Specific Keywords and Search
• Building Theoretical Framework: The Strategies
literature review provides the theoretical and • Review and Analyze the Literature
conceptual framework for the study, guiding • Organize the Literature
the methodology and analysis • Critically Evaluate the Literature
• Avoiding Duplication: Literature reviews help • Synthesize and Draw Conclusions
ensure that the researcher’s topic has not
already been extensively studied
• Strengthening the Argument: By citing
authoritative sources and findings from past
studies, the researcher can strengthen the
arguments and conclusions
• Supporting Methodology: Reviewing
methodologies used in previous research can
inform the choice of appropriate research
methods
STEPS IN WRITING A LITERATURE REVIEW

• Introduction: Briefly introduce the topic and its relevance to your

research. State the objective of the literature review and the questions
you aim to answer.

• Body: This is the main part of the review. Discuss the literature you've
reviewed in a logical, coherent manner. Group studies under different
themes or categories and highlight their contributions, findings, and
limitations.

• Methodology

• Findings and Discussion

• Conclusion

• Citation and References

Theoretical V/s Conceptual Framework
• A theoretical framework provides a broad, established
explanation for a research problem, often drawing on existing
theories to understand and interpret the phenomenon under
investigation. Therefore, A theoretical framework is a
foundational review of existing theories that serves as a
roadmap for developing the arguments you will use in your
own work.

• A conceptual framework, on the other hand, is a more

specific, visual representation of the relationships between
key concepts and variables within the research study itself,
acting as a guide for data collection and analysis.
 THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
A theoretical framework is a systematic structure of concepts, theories, and propositions that a researcher uses
to explain the relationships between variables or phenomena in their study.

Steps to Develop a Theoretical Framework

• Identify the Research Problem and

Objectives
• Review the Literature
• Define Key Variables and Concepts
• Establish Relationships Between Variables
• Develop a Conceptual Model
• Hypothesize the Relationships
• Test the Framework
• Revise the Framework (if necessary)
 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
A conceptual framework is a systematic structure of concepts, variables, and their
relationships that guide the research process. It is a visual model or theoretical construct
that shows the path through which the researcher will analyze the problem, including the
independent and dependent variables, and possibly moderating or mediating factors.

Steps to Develop a Conceptual

Framework
1. Identify the Research Problem
2. Conduct a Literature Review
3. Identify the Key Variables
4. Define the Relationships Between Variables
5. Create a Visual Representation (Framework
Diagram)
6. Justify the Framework with Theory
Steps to Writing a Literature Review
1. Define Your Research Topic/Problem
2. Identify Relevant Databases and Sources
3. Use Specific Keywords and Search Strategies
4. Review and Analyze the Literature
5. Organize the Literature
6. Critically Evaluate the Literature
7. Synthesize and Draw Conclusions
8. Write the Review
⚬ Introduction
⚬ Body
⚬ Conclusion
9. Cite the Literature Properly
10.Revise and Edit the Review
 Step 1
Search for relevant literature
Where to search
● Your university’s library catalogue
● Google Scholar
● JSTOR
● EBSCO
● Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
● Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
● EconLit (economics)
● Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)
 Step 2
Evaluate and select sources
Questions to ask about sources
✓ What question is addressed?
✓ What are the key concepts?
✓ What are the key theories and methods?
✓ What are the results and conclusions?
✓ How does it relate to other studies?
✓ What are the key insights and arguments?
✓ What are the strengths and weaknesses of
the research?
 Step 3
Identify themes, debates, and gaps
What to look for

● Trends in the literature over time

● Key themes
● Debates and disagreements
● Pivotal publications
● Research gaps
 Step 4
Outline your structure

Common structures

● Chronological: Organize by time

● Thematic: Organize by theme
● Methodological: Organize by methodology
● Theoretical: Organize by theoretical
approach
 Step 5
Write your literature review

• Introduction
• Body
• Methodology
• Findings and Discussion
• Conclusion
• Citation and References
RESEARCH
DESIGN
 RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure

A research design is a structured framework or blueprint for conducting a research study. It outlines
how data will be collected, measured, and analyzed to answer specific research questions or test
hypotheses. It ensures that the research is systematic, consistent, and valid, reducing biases and
maximizing reliability.

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various research operations,
thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal information with minimal
expenditure of effort, time and money.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD
DESIGN
A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure

• Flexible FAMME X2 OR

• Appropriate
• Efficient
• Economical
• Minimis bias
• Maximize the reliability of the data collected
• Yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for considering many different aspects of a
problem
• Related to the purpose or objective of the research problem
 Research Design answers…..
• (i) What is the study about?
• (ii) Why is the study being made?
• (iii) Where will the study be carried out?
• (iv) What type of data is required?
• (v) Where can the required data be found?
• (vi) What periods of time will the study include?
• (vii) What will be the sample design?
• (viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
• (ix) How will the data be analysed?
• (x) In what style will the report be prepared?
 Research design must contain
1. A clear statement of the research problem;
2. Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering
information;
3. The population to be studied;
4. Methods to be used in processing and analysing data.
 A research design appropriate for a
particular research problem:
• A Research Design is usually involves the consideration of the
following factors:
1. The means of obtaining information;
2. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if
any;
3. The objective of the problem to be studied;
4. The nature of the problem to be studied; and
5. The availability of time and money for the research work.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Related to research Design
 Types of Variables
• Variable is anything that can vary. For e.g. Age, income etc.
• Types of variables:
a) Independent variable- which are manipulated or
controlled or changed. It is what the researcher studies to
see its relationship or effects (trust, satisfaction, No. of
hour)
b) Dependent variables – these are the outcome variables
and are the variables for which we calculate statistics. The
variable which changes on account of independent
variable. It is influenced or affected by the independent
variable (Buying Intentions, exam score).
 Types of Variables
c) Moderating variable- Moderating variable (or moderators)
alter the effect that an independent variable has on a dependent
variable. In other words, moderators change the “effect”
component of the cause-and-effect relationship (Student’s IQ)
d) Mediating variables – Mediating variables link the
independent and dependent variables, allowing the relationship
between them to be better explained (Buying Intentions, exam
score).
e) Controlled variable- These are variables that are held
constant so that they don’t interfere with the results. Even
though you aren’t interested in measuring them for your study,
it’s crucial to be aware of as many of them as you can be.
(Student’s health)
 IQ

No. of Hours Exam Score

Student’s Health
MOCK-Test
 Quantitative & Qualitative variables
• Qualitative variables: Data that cannot be measured or
counted, but describes something in terms of feelings,
opinions, attitudes, behaviours.
• Quantitative variables: expressed in numbers and graphs. It is
used to test or confirm theories and assumptions. This type of
research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a
topic.
 Measurement Scale

Qualitative Quantitative

Nominal Interval

Ordinal Ratio
 Measurement scales
• Nominal scale- also known as categorical scale. It is defined
as a scale used for labeling variables into distinct
classifications and doesn’t involve a quantitative value or
order. This is the simplest scale among four measurement
scale.
• Examples: gender: (Male or Female)
• Place of residence: (Rural, Urban or Metropolitan City)
 Ordinal scale
• It is defined as a variable measurement scale used to simply
depict the order of variables and not the difference between
the variables.
• These are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like
• Satisfaction
• Happiness
 Interval scale
• Interval scale is measured along a numerical scale
that has equal distances between adjacent values.
These distances are called “intervals.”
• There is no true zero on an interval scale
 Ratio scale
• A ratio scale is a quantitative scale where there is a
true zero and equal intervals between neighbouring
points.
More Variables
 Continuous variables
 If the value of a variable can be divided into
fractions then we call it a continuous variable.
 Such a variable can take infinite number of values.
Such as age, temperature etc.
 These variables may take on values within a given
range or in some cases an infinite set.
 Example: Age, Weight, Height
 Discontinuous variables
 Any variable that has a limited number of distinct
values and which cannot be divided into fractions is a
discontinuous variable.
 It is also known as categorical or classificatory or
discrete variable.
 Example: Gender, Blood Group
 Dichotomous, Trichotomous,
Multiple variables
 Only two  Only Three  Multiple values
values
values Example:
Example: Example:  Blood Group – A,B,
 Residence – Urban AB, O+, O- etc.
 Gender – / Semi-Urban, Rural  Marital Status:
Male / Single, Married,
Female Separated, Widow
 Pregnant -
Yes / No
 Demographic variables
 These are the characteristics or attributes of
subjects that are collected to describe the sample.
 Although these variables cannot be manipulated.
 Examples- age, marital status, occupation etc.
 Extraneous variable
 Independent variables
 Not related to the purpose of the study
 may affect the dependent variable
 An ‘experimental error’: Effect of extraneous
variable(s) on dependent variable
 A study must always be so designed that the effect
upon the dependent variable is attributed entirely to
the independent variable(s), and not to some
extraneous variable or variables
 Control
 To avoid An ‘experimental error’.
 To minimise the influence or effect of extraneous
variable(s), i.e., An ‘experimental error’, A technical
term ‘control’ is used when we design the study.
 Confound variables (confounded
relationship)
 When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship
between the dependent and independent variables
is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable(s).
 Research hypothesis:
 When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be
tested by scientific methods, it is termed as research
hypothesis.
 The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates
an independent variable to a dependent variable.
 Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one
independent and one dependent variable.
 Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified
or the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested, are
not termed research hypotheses.
 Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research:
 Hypothesis-testing Research: When the purpose of research
is to test a research hypothesis.
 It can be of the experimental design or of the non-
experimental design.
 ‘Experimental Hypothesis-testing Research’: Research in
which the independent variable is manipulated.
 ‘Non-experimental Hypothesis-testing Research’: Research
in which the independent variable is not manipulated.
 A Classification of Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Research
Design Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross- Longitudinal
Sectional Design
Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Sectional
Design Design
 Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences

Table 3.1 Exploratory Conclusive

Objective: To provide insights and To test specific hypotheses and
understanding examine relationships

Character- Information needed is defined Information needed is clearly

istics: only loosely. Research process is defined. Research process is formal
flexible and unstructured. and structured. Sample is large and
Sample is small and non- representative. Data analysis is
representative. Analysis of quantitative
primary data is qualitative

Findings/ Tentative Conclusive

Results:

Outcome: Generally followed by further Findings used as input into decision

exploratory or conclusive making
research
 A Comparison of Basic Research Designs
Table 3.2
Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective: Discovery of ideas Describe market Determine cause
and insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships

Characteristics: Flexible, versatile. Manipulation of

Often the front end Marked by the prior independent
of total research formulation of specific variables, effect
design hypotheses on dependent
variables

Expert surveys Preplanned and Control

Pilot surveys structured design mediating
Case studies variables
Methods:
Secondary data: Secondary data:
qualitative analysis quantitative analysis Experiments
qualitative research Surveys
Panels
Observation and other
data
Methods used for exploratory research
 Secondary resource analysis- Secondary source of data contain the
details of previously collected findings and can be represented in a
relatively easier and inexpensive way. It is fast, less expensive way of
collecting data. Based on the research constraints and the level of
accuracy required, the researcher might decide to make use of them.
 Comprehensive Case Method- Comprehensive case method is intricately
designed and reveals a complete presentation of facts as they occur in a
single entity. It is focused on a single unit of analysis. This unit could be
an individual, employee or customer, an organization or a country analysis
might also be the case of interest.
 Contd.
• Expert Opinion Method – When no previous information or data is
available on a topic of research. It is formal and structured in general. Thus
methodology might be formal and structured and might be useful when
being authenticated or supported by a secondary or primary research or it
might be fluid and unstructured and might require an in-depth
interviewing of the expert.
• Focus group discussions- In a typical focus group, there is a small carefully
selected set of individuals representatives of the larger respondent
population under the study.
• Two-tiered research design- the two tiered research design involves the
formulation of the research question and the design framework.
 Descriptive research designs
 Comprehensive and detailed explanation of the phenomenon under
study.
 Lacks the precision and accuracy of experimental designs.
• Objectives :
 Give a detailed sketch or profile of the respondent population being
studied.
 To measure the simultaneous occurrence of certain phenomena or
variables.
 There might be a temporal component to this design, that is, the
description might be in a stagnant time period or be stretched across
collecting the relevant information in different stages in a stipulated time
period.
 Use of Descriptive Research
 To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as
consumers, salespeople, organizations, or market areas
 To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population
exhibiting a certain behavior
 To determine the perceptions of product characteristics
 To make specific predictions
 Contd.
Descriptive research is further divided into
two categories:
1. Cross-sectional studies
2. Longitudinal studies
 Cross-sectional studies
Cross sectional study investigates a specific chunk of the
population under study. It is scientific in its approach.
There are two essential characteristics of cross-sectional studies:
1. It is carried out at a single moment in time and thus the
applicability is most relevant for a specific period.
2. secondly, these studies are carried out on a section of
respondents from the population units under study .
 Contd.
• Involve the collection of information from any given sample of population
elements only once

• In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of respondents

and information is obtained from this sample only once.

• In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of

respondents, and information from each sample is obtained only once.

• Cohort analysis method of breaking down data into related groups

(cohorts) to identify trends and patterns in user behavior over time. A
cohort is a group of respondents who experience the same event within
the same time interval.
 Longitudinal studies
• A single sample of the identified population that is studied over a
stretched period of time is termed as a longitudinal study designs.
• Longitudinal studies are often referred to as time series design due to the
repeated measurements taken over time.
• Features:
a. The study involves the selection of a representative panel, or a group of
individuals that typically represent the population under the study.
b. The second feature involves the replaced measurement of the group over
fixed intervals of time. This measurement is specifically made for the
variables under the study.
c. If once the sample is selected, it needs to stay constant over the period of
the study.
 Survey research
 Survey research is a type of research to collect the data and
facts about some certain situation or issue from the target
population existing in surroundings having relevance to the
nature of the study.
 Survey research is the research strategy to study the
relationships and characteristics.
 Surveys are method of data collection in which information is
gathered through oral or writing questioning.
 Interview
• An interview is a conversation between two people (the interviewer and
the interviewee ) where questions are asked by the interviewer to obtain
information from the interviewee.
• Types of interview:
a) Face-to-face interview
b) Behavioral interview
c) Phone interview
d) Panel interview
e) Exit interview
f) Stress interview
g) Technical interview
 Observation method
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7SR0_rhMSo
• Observation is a skill that most of us use consciously and
unconsciously in our everyday life as well. It might be carried
out in a naturalistic environment where there are no control
elements
• Or
• it might be carried out in a stimulated environment under
certain controlled conditions.
 Experimental Research
• Experiment- An experiment is generally used to infer a causality. In a
experiment, a researcher actively manipulates one or more causal
variables and measures their effects on the dependent variables of
interest. Since any changes in the dependent variables may be caused by a
number of other variables, the relationship between cause and effect
often tends to be probabilistic in nature.
• An experiment is a set of observations conducted under controlled
circumstances in which the investigator manipulates conditions to
ascertain what effects such manipulation has on the outcome.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1.The Principle of Replication: the experiment should be repeated more than once. Thus,
each treatment is applied in many experimental units instead of one. ensuring that the results of
an experiment are reliable and not due to random chance or variability. It involves repeating
the experiment multiple times or having multiple units.

2.The Principle of Randomization: when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of

extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should
design or plan the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors
can all be combined under the general heading of “chance.” Used to ensure the validity and
reliability of research findings. It refers to the process of assigning subjects, treatments, or
experimental units to different groups in a completely random manner. This principle helps
eliminate bias and ensures that the groups are comparable.

3. Principle of Local Control: Aimed at minimizing the variability of experimental results

caused by external or confounding factors. This principle is particularly important when
researchers are interested in isolating the effect of one or more independent variables on a
dependent variable.
IMPORTANT EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGNS
 1. Pre-experimental Research Design
• A preliminary approach where groups are observed after implementing
cause and effect factors to determine the need for further investigation. It
is often employed when limited information is available or when
researchers seek to gain initial insights into a topic. Pre-experimental
designs lack random assignment and control groups, making it difficult to
establish causal relationships.
Classifications:
• One-Shot Case Study
• One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
• Static-Group Comparison
 Classification
1. Case Study Research Design in a Single Session:
• Only one dependent group or variable is investigated in this experimental
study. It’s post-test research since it’s done after some treatment that’s
supposed to induce change.
2. One-group Pre- and post-testing was used in the research:
• By administering a test to a single group before and after treatment, this
research design incorporates post-test and pretest studies. The former is
given at the start of treatment, while the latter is given at the end.
3. Comparison of static groups:
• In a static-group comparison study, two or more groups are observed, with
only one of the groups receiving treatment while the other groups remain
unchanged. All groups are retested after the therapy, and the observed
differences between them are presumed to be due to the treatment.
2. True-experimental Research Design
• The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to
approve or disprove a hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of
experimental design and may be carried out with or without a pretest on
at least 2 randomly assigned dependent subjects.
• The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a
variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution
must be random. True experimental design
 Classification
1. Pre-test post-test only design
• In these experiment the researcher conducts experimental group and
control group.
• The effect of the dependent variable on both the groups is seen before the
treatment (pretest).
• Later, the treatment is carried out on experimental group only, & after-
treatment observation of dependent variable is made on both the groups
to examine the effect of the manipulation of independent variable on
dependent variable.
• For example, such a design could be used for ‘an experimental study to
assess the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy interventions for
patients with breast cancer.
 Contd..

2. Post-test only group design

• Composed of two randomly assigned group, i.e. experimental and control,
but neither of which is pretested before the implementation of treatment
on the experimental group.
• In addition, while the treatment is implement on the experimental group
only, post-test observation is carried out on both the group to assess the
effect of manipulation.
 Contd..
3. Solomon four group design
• There are two experimental groups (experimental group1 & experimental
group2) & two control groups (control group1 & control group2).
• Initially, the investigator randomly assigns subjects to the four groups.
• Out of the four groups, only experimental group1 & control group1
receives the pretest, followed by the treatment to the experimental
group1 & experimental group2.
• Finally, all the four groups receive post-test, where the effects of the
dependent variables of the study are observed & comparison is made of
the four groups to assess the effect of independent variable (experimental
treatment) on the dependent variable.
 3. Quasi-Experimental Design
• A quasi-experimental design is an alternative to the true-experimental
design when the random assignment of participants to the groups is not
possible or desirable. It allows for comparisons between groups without
random assignment, providing valuable insights into causal relationships in
real-world settings.
• Quasi-experimental designs are used typically in conditions wherein the
random assignment of the participants cannot be done or it may not be
ethical, for example, an educational or community-based intervention.
 Classification
1. Time series design
• This design is useful when the experimenter wants to measure the effects
of a treatment over a long period of time.
• The experimenter would continue to administer the treatment & measure
the effects a number of times during the course of the experiment.
• Generally it is a single-subject research, in which the researcher carries
out an experiment on an individual or on a small number of individuals, by
alternating between administering & then withdrawing the treatment to
determine the effectiveness of the intervention.
 Contd..
2. Multiple Time Series
• It refers to a collection of several time-series variables that are
used together to forecast future outcomes. These series are
chosen based on empirical experience and economic theories,
such as the term structure of interest rates, to improve
forecasting accuracy in multivariate time-series models.
 4. Statistical Experimental Design
• Statistical experimental design, also known as design of experiments
(DOE), is a branch of statistics that focuses on planning, conducting,
analyzing, and interpreting controlled tests to evaluate the factors that
may influence a particular outcome or process. The primary goal is to
determine cause-and-effect relationships and to identify the optimal
conditions for achieving desired results.
 Contd..
1. Randomized block design
• Control of inherent differences between experimental subjects &
differences in experimental conditions is one of the difficult problems
faced by researcher in biological sciences.
• When there are a large number of experimental comparison groups, the
randomized block design is used to bring homogeneity among selected
different groups.
• For example, a researcher wants to examine the effects of three different
antihypertensive drugs on patients with hypertension.
 Contd..
2. Latin Square Design
• A latin square design is ideal for any experiment in which it is possible to measure
each subject under every treatment and, in addition, it is necessary to control for
changing conditions over the course of the experiment.
• A latin square is a design in which each treatment is assigned to each time period
the same number of times and to each subject the same number of times (see
Dean and Voss 1999, chap. 12).
• If there are t treatments, t time periods, and mt subjects then m latin squares
(each with t treatment sequences) would be used.
 Contd..
3. Factorial design
• In factorial design, researcher manipulates two or more independent
variables simultaneously to observe their effects on the dependent
variables. This design is useful when there are more than two independent
variables, called factors to be tested.
• This design also facilitates the testing of several hypothesis at a single
time.
• Typical factorial design incorporates 2*2 or 2*3 factorial, but it can be in
any combination.