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Essential Quantum Optics From Quantum Measurements
to Black Holes 1st Edition Leonhardt U. Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Leonhardt U.
ISBN(s): 9780521869782, 0521869781
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 5.95 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
more information – www.cambridge.org/9780521869782
Essential Quantum Optics

From Quantum Measurements to Black Holes

Covering some of the most exciting trends in quantum optics – quantum

entanglement, teleportation, and levitation – this textbook is ideal for
advanced undergraduate and graduate students. The book journeys through
the vast field of quantum optics following a single theme: light in media.
A wide range of subjects are covered, from the force of the quantum vacuum
to astrophysics, from quantum measurements to black holes.
Ideas are explained in detail and formulated so that students with
little prior knowledge of the subject can follow them. Each chapter
ends with several short questions followed by a more detailed home-
work problem, designed to test the reader and show how the ideas dis-
cussed can be applied. Solutions to homework problems are available at
www.cambridge.org / 9780521145043.

ULF LEONHARDT is Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University

of St Andrews. His research interests include quantum electrodynamics in
media and state reconstruction in quantum mechanics. He is one of the
inventors of invisibility devices and artificial black holes.
Essential Quantum Optics
From Quantum Measurements to
Black Holes
Ulf Leonhardt
University of St. Andrews
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK

Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521145053


c U. Leonhardt 2010

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2010

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

ISBN 978-0-521-86978-2 Hardback

ISBN 978-0-521-14505-3 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or

accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
For Irina
Contents

Acknowledgements xi

1 Introduction 1
1.1 A note to the reader 1
1.2 Quantum theory 3
1.2.1 Axioms 3
1.2.2 Quantum statistics 7
1.2.3 Schrödinger and Heisenberg
pictures 10
1.3 On the questions and homework problems 12
1.4 Further reading 13

2 Quantum field theory of light 14

2.1 Light in media 14
2.1.1 Maxwell’s equations 14
2.1.2 Quantum commutator 16
2.2 Light modes 19
2.2.1 Modes and their scalar product 20
2.2.2 Bose commutation relations 22
2.2.3 Interference 23
2.2.4 Monochromatic modes 25
2.3 Zero-point energy and Casimir force 27
2.3.1 An attractive cavity 27
2.3.2 Reflections 30
2.4 Questions 32
2.5 Homework problem 33
2.6 Further reading 35

3 Simple quantum states of light 37

3.1 The electromagnetic oscillator 37
3.2 Single-mode states 40
3.2.1 Quadrature states 40
3.2.2 Fock states 41

vii
viii Contents

3.2.3 Thermal states 45

3.2.4 Coherent states 48
3.3 Uncertainty and squeezing 53
3.4 Questions 60
3.5 Homework problem 61
3.6 Further reading 62

4 Quasiprobability distributions 63
4.1 Wigner representation 63
4.1.1 Wigner’s formula 64
4.1.2 Basic properties 68
4.1.3 Examples 73
4.2 Other quasiprobability distributions 79
4.2.1 Q function 80
4.2.2 P function 81
4.2.3 s-parameterized quasiprobability
distributions 82
4.3 Examples 85
4.4 Questions 89
4.5 Homework problem 90
4.6 Further reading 91

5 Simple optical instruments 92

5.1 Beam splitter 92
5.1.1 Heisenberg picture 92
5.1.2 Schrödinger picture 96
5.1.3 Fock representation and wave–particle
dualism 103
5.2 Detection 106
5.2.1 Photodetector 107
5.2.2 Balanced homodyne detection 110
5.2.3 Quantum tomography 113
5.2.4 Simultaneous measurement of conjugate
variables 119
5.3 Questions 131
5.4 Homework problem 133
5.5 Further reading 134

6 Irreversible processes 135

6.1 Lindblad’s theorem 135
6.1.1 Irreversibility 135
6.1.2 Reversible dynamics 137
6.1.3 Irreversible dynamics 137
 Contents ix

6.2 Loss and gain 140

6.2.1 Absorption and amplification 140
6.2.2 Absorber 144
6.2.3 Amplifier 147
6.2.4 Eavesdropper 150
6.3 Continuous quantum measurements 151
6.4 Questions 155
6.5 Homework problem 156
6.6 Further reading 158

7 Entanglement 159
7.1 Parametric amplifier 159
7.1.1 Heisenberg picture 160
7.1.2 Schrödinger picture 164
7.1.3 Einstein–Podolski–Rosen
state 167
7.1.4 Quantum teleportation 171
7.2 Polarization correlations 175
7.2.1 Singlet state 175
7.2.2 Polarization 178
7.2.3 Bell’s theorem 182
7.3 Questions 185
7.4 Homework problem 187
7.5 Further reading 188

8 Horizons 189
8.1 Minkowski space 189
8.1.1 Locality and relativity 191
8.1.2 Space–time geometry 195
8.1.3 Light 197
8.2 Accelerated observers 199
8.2.1 Rindler coordinates 200
8.2.2 Accelerated modes 203
8.2.3 Unruh effect 205
8.3 Moving media 209
8.3.1 Motivation 211
8.3.2 Trans-Planckian problem 214
8.3.3 Light in moving media 217
8.3.4 Geometry of light 219
8.3.5 Hawking radiation 221
8.4 Questions 227
8.5 Homework problem 229
8.6 Further reading 229
x Contents

Appendix A Stress of the quantum vacuum 231

Appendix B State reconstruction in quantum
mechanics 250
References 262
Index 274
Acknowledgements

Most of this book was written during a wonderful few months in

Singapore. I am very grateful to the National University at Singapore
for the privilege of having lived and worked there. I would like to thank
Marco Bellini, Akira Furusawa, Awatif Hindi, Zdenek Hradil, Natalia
Korolkova, Irina Leonhardt, Alexander Lvovsky, Renaud Parentani,
Thomas Philbin, Michael Raymer, Tomáš Tyc, Hidehiro Yonezawa
and Chun Xiong for their advice and assistance. My work has been
supported by a Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award, the
University of St Andrews and National University of Singapore.
Many people have contributed to awakening my interest in quantum
optics and to begin the research expedition from quantum measure-
ments to black holes which I have tried to describe in this book. As
a student in Jena I became fascinated by quantum mechanics listening
to Dirk-Gunnar Welsch’s lectures on quantum theory. I did not mind
the mathematics raining down on the audience, but enjoyed his clear
thoughts that I tried to formulate in my own way from the sketchy notes
I took. At that time I felt I understood quantum mechanics. The quantum
theory of light was already the subject of my Diploma thesis in Jena. I
learned the craft of quantum optics from Ludwig Knöll who always
understood my questions and was most kind and helpful. I learned the
art of quantum optics from Harry Paul in Berlin, during my PhD. I am
very grateful for the many conversations that led me to appreciate that
quantum mechanics happens in reality and not in Hilbert space, and how
astonishing and mysterious it is. Since then I know that I don’t under-
stand quantum mechanics. This book is an attempt to convey both the
clarity of quantum theory and the sense of profoundly not understand-
ing quantum physics. I was deeply impressed by Harry Paul’s style of
doing physics in conversations, without focusing on technicalities, and
I hope that some of this shines through the technicalities of this book. I
also learned to appreciate experiments and to discuss them, to the extent
that I joined Michael Raymer’s experimental group in Eugene as theo-
rist in the laboratory. From him I learned to respect the dedication and
patience it takes to turn ideas into reality. Wolfgang Schleich in Ulm
gave me the freedom to give the lecture course that made me fall in love

xi
xii Acknowledgements

with general relativity. I never learned general relativity from attend-

ing lectures, I learned it from giving lectures, fittingly in Ulm, Albert
Einstein’s place of birth. Since then I have been trying to invent optical
applications of the ideas of general relativity, from optical black holes
to invisibility. Stig Stenholm was most generous in giving me a haven
in Stockholm where I benefited from his broad mind and wide research
interests that, I hope, have broadened my horizons. I learned the quan-
tum physics of horizons from Renaud Parentani in many conversations
where I enjoyed his wit and clarity, and also from making many errors
of my own – according to the classic definition of the expert: an expert
is someone who made all possible errors (and learned from them). In
this book, I hope to have conveyed some of the lessons learned.
Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 A note to the reader

Quantum optics has grown from a sub-discipline in atomic, molecular,
and optical physics to a broad research area that bridges several
branches of physics and that captures the imagination of the public.
Quantum information science has put quantum optics into the spot-
light of modern physics, as has the physics of ultracold quantum gases
with its many spectacular connections to condensed-matter physics.
Yet through all these exciting developments quantum optics has main-
tained a characteristic core of ideas that I try to explain in this slim
volume.
Quantum optics focuses on the simplest quantum objects, usu-
ally light and few-level atoms, where quantum mechanics appears in
its purest form without the complications of more complex systems,
often demonstrating in the laboratory the thought experiments that the
founders of quantum mechanics dreamed of. Quantum optics has been,
and will be for the foreseeable future, quintessential quantum mechan-
ics, the quantum mechanics of simple systems, based on a core of simple
yet subtle ideas and experiments.
One of the strengths of quantum optics is the close connec-
tion between theory and experiment. Although this book necessarily
is theoretical, many of the theoretical ideas I describe are guided
by experiments or, in turn, have inspired experiments themselves.
Another strength of quantum optics is that it is done by individuals or
small teams. One single person or a small group can build and per-
form an entire experiment. One theorist can do all the calculations

1
2 Introduction

for an important problem, often with just pencil and paper. As

John A. Wheeler said, “It is nice to know that the computer understands
the problem, but I want to understand it, too.”
This book does not attempt to cover the entire field of quantum
optics. The book is focused and selective in the material it applies and
expounds, for three good reasons. One of these clearly is that students or
other readers do not need to know much in advance to understand this
book. You should have experience in working with quantum mechan-
ics at the level of British senior honours students or American junior
postgraduate students, and you should know the basics of classical elec-
tromagnetism – that is all. Everything else follows and is deduced and
explained without any need of further reference. But you should have
an inquisitive mind and be able to do mathematics. I use mathematics
as a tool, but I have tried to derive the main results with as little tech-
nical effort as possible. Most of the eight chapters of this book make a
one semester course, the senior honours course on quantum optics that
I have taught at St Andrews.
Another reason for being focused is that understanding is more
valuable than knowledge. It is better to study one subject in depth than
many on the surface. Understanding one subject well gives you confi-
dence to tackle many more and to anticipate their workings by analogy
and using your imagination. As Albert Einstein put it, “Imagination is
more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited to all we now
know and understand, while imagination embraces the entire world, and
all there ever will be to know and understand.”
The third reason is the subject this book focuses on: light in media.
Media are transparent materials like glass, water or air, but space itself
may be regarded a medium for light, in particular the curved space of
gravity. Quantum electrodynamics in media has been the backbone of
quantum optics for the last 50 years and is likely to remain so for the
next. Another vital ingredient of quantum optics is the theory of irre-
versible quantum processes that has been highly developed in the theory
of the laser or in models of the quantum measurement process. A his-
torically important inspiration came from astronomy in the 1950s when
quantum fluctuations were used to measure the size of stars, whereupon
quantum fluctuations of light became a research subject in its own right.
Thinking about quantum fluctuations eventually led to experimental
tests of quantum nonlocality – testing the nature of reality itself – and
applications in quantum cryptography. These days, when cosmologists
no longer are “often in error but seldom in doubt” (Lev D. Landau)
quantum optics is beginning to play a serious role in cosmology, as
the observed fluctuations of the cosmic microwave background show.
Ideas from astrophysics also inspired applications of quantum optics
 1.2 Quantum theory 3

in laboratory analogues of the event horizon. Quantum optics returns

to one of its roots. The quantum features of light in media even have
technological implications, they appear as vacuum forces in micro- and
nano machines. As I will describe, the subject of light in media contains
all these themes, from quantum measurements to black holes.1
So although this book focuses on the “light side” of quantum
optics, you will be amazed to see how many topics such a modest
subject contains. Here is an alphabet of samples: Aspect’s experiment,
Bell’s Theorem, Casimir Forces, Dielectric Media, Einstein’s Relativ-
ity, Fluctuations, Gibbs Ensembles, Hawking Radiation, Irreversibility,
Joint Measurements of Position and Momentum, Katzen (in German
Cats, here Schrödinger Cats), Lindblad’s Theorem, Models of the Mea-
surement Process, Non-Classical Light, Optical Homodyne Tomogra-
phy, Polarization Correlations, Quantum Communication, Reversible
Dynamics, Squeezed Light, Teleportation, Unruh Effect, Vacuum
Noise, Wave–Particle Dualism, x and y Coordinates, and Zero Point
Energy. I hope the story of this journey through quantum optics is told
with sufficient clarity and occasional amusement for the reader. I also
hope to have captured not only the sights and insights on the way, but
also the sense of excitement and adventure.

1.2 Quantum theory

Let us recall the basic axioms of quantum theory, and let us try to moti-
vate them. This book is of course not the place for a comprehensive
development of the theory. We assume that the reader is already famil-
iar with the basic formalism of quantum mechanics. However, because
some of the ideas touched on in this book illustrate fundamental issues
of quantum physics, we would find it appropriate to turn “back to the
roots of quantum mechanics” in a brief and certainly incomplete sur-
vey. Moreover, not all readers may have mastered quantum statistics –
the formalism of density matrices – and so it is worthwhile to explain
this theory here, with apologies to those who know it already. Let us first
sketch, in a couple of lines, one possible way of motivating the principal
ideas of quantum theory.

1.2.1 Axioms
“At the heart of quantum mechanics lies the superposition principle” –
to quote from the first chapter of Dirac’s classic treatise (Dirac, 1984);

1 This book evolved from my monograph Measuring the Quantum State of Light

(Leonhardt, 1997a). Hopefully it turned into a fully fledged textbook of Quantum

Optics.
4 Introduction

“... any two or more states may be superposed to give a new state”
(Schleich et al., 1991). We denote the state of a perfectly prepared
quantum object by |ψ. Then, according to this principle, the com-
plex superposition c1 |ψ1  + c2 |ψ2  of two states |ψ1  and |ψ2  is a
possible state as well. In other words, perfectly prepared states, called
pure states, are vectors in a complex space. The superposition principle
alone does not make physical predictions, it only prepares the ground
for quantum mechanics. Nevertheless, the principle is highly nontriv-
ial and can hardly be derived or taken for granted. In the history of
quantum mechanics the superposition principle was motivated by the
wavelike interference of material particles. Note, however, that this sim-
ple principle experienced a dramatic generalization such that we cannot
consider its historical origin as a physical motivation any more.
Let us now turn to more physical assumptions. When we observe a
physical quantity of an ensemble of equally prepared states, we obtain
certain measurement values a (real numbers) with probabilities pa .
Given a result a, we assume that we would obtain the same result if we
repeated the experiment immediately after the first measurement (pro-
vided, of course, that the physical object has not been destroyed). This
assumption is certainly plausible. As a consequence, the object must
have jumped into a state |a, called an eigenstate, which gives the mea-
surement result with certainty, an event called the collapse of the state
vector. Or, if we prefer to assign states only to ensembles of objects,
a measurement produces a statistical ensemble of states |a with prob-
ability pa . According to the superposition principle we can expand the
state vector |ψ before the measurement in terms of the eigenstates |a,

written as |ψ = a a|ψ|a, with some complex numbers denoted by
the symbol a|ψ. What is the probability for the transition from |ψ to
a particular |a? Clearly, the larger the a|ψ component is (compared to
all other components) the larger should be pa . However, this component
is a complex number in general. So the simplest possible expression for
the transition probability is the ratio
 
a|ψ2
pa = . (1.1)
ψ|ψ

Here ψ|ψ abbreviates simply the sum of all |a|ψ|2 values. It is a

special case of the more general symbol

ψ  |ψ = ψ  |aa|ψ (1.2)
a

with the convention

ψ|a = a|ψ∗ . (1.3)

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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 48: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 6: Experimental procedures and results
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 53: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 53: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 54: Literature review and discussion
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Quiz 7: Historical development and evolution
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 61: Key terms and definitions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 62: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 65: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 67: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 8: Literature review and discussion
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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