UNIT II DATA LINK LAYER

Data link control – Error Detection – VRC

– LRC – CRC – Checksum – Error
Correction – Hamming Codes – MAC –
Ethernet, Token ring , Token Bus –
Wireless LAN - Bluetooth – Bridges.
 UNIT – II

DATA LINK LAYER

 OVERVIEW
• Data Link Control
• Error Detection
• VRC
• LRC
• CRC
• Checksum
• Error Correction
• Hamming Codes
• MAC
• Ethernet
• Token ring
• Token Bus
• Wireless LAN
• Bluetooth
• Bridges
 Data Link Control
Communication
Minimum 2 devices are needed for data
communication. So line discipline is necessary
for co-operation b/w2 devices.
The 2 important functions of data link layer
is flow control and error control.This
functions are otherwise called as Data link
control.
 Line Discipline
It coordinates the link system
It is done in 2 ways
◦ ENQ (Enquiry)
❖ Used in peer – peer communication
❖ Enquire whether there is a required link b/w
two devices
❖ Check whether the intended device is capable to receive

◦ ACK (Acknowledgment)

❖ Used in Primary secondary communication

❖ The intended device will acknowledge about its status to the
receiver
There are 2 categories in line
discipline
ENQ/ACK Line Discipline
 Select
It is a line discipline used in topologies
with primary secondary relationship.
Select
It is uses whenever the primary device
has something to send.ie)Primary
controls the link.
Select
Select
 Poll

The polling function is used by the

primary device to Select transmissions
from the secondary devices.
If the primary device is ready to receive
data , It ask each device in turn if it has
anything to send.
Poll
 Flow Control
It is a set of procedures to tell the sender
how much data it can transmit before it must
wait for an acknowledgement from the
receiver.
Two categories of flow control:
◦ Stop-and-wait
Send one frame at a time.
◦ Sliding window
Send several frames at a time.
 Stop-and-wait
Sender sends one frame and waits for an
acknowledgement before sending the next frame.
 Stop-and-wait
Advantages:
◦ Simplicity.
◦ Each frame is checked and acknowledged
before the next frame is sent.
Disadvantages:
◦ Slow.
Can add significantly to the total transmission time
if the distance between devices is long.
◦ Inefficiency
Each frame is alone on the line.
 SlidingWindow
Sender can send several frames before
needing an acknowledgement.
Advantages:
◦ The link can carry several frames at once.
◦ Its capacity can be used efficiently.
Error Control
Error Detection
Error Detection
Even number of ones
–add 0
Odd number of ones
– add 1
Error Correction
Redundancy Bits
Hamming Codes-Error correction
Hamming codes, like polynomial codes,
are appended to the transmitted message

Hamming codes, unlike polynomial codes,

contain the information necessary to
locate a single bit error
 Calculating the Hamming Code
The key to the Hamming Code is the use of extra parity bits to allow the
identification of a single error. Create the code word as follows:
◦ Mark all bit positions that are powers of two as parity bits. (positions 1, 2, 4, 8, 16,
32, 64,etc.)
◦ All other bit positions are for the data to be encoded. (positions 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10,
11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17, etc.)
◦ Each parity bit calculates the parity for some of the bits in the code word.The
position of the parity bit determines the sequence of bits that it alternately
checks and skips.
Position 1: check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, check 1 bit, skip 1 bit, etc.(1,3,5,7,9,11,13,15,...)
Position 2: check 2 bits, skip 2 bits, check 2 bits, skip 2 bits,etc.
(2,3,6,7,10,11,14,15,...)
Position 4: check 4 bits, skip 4 bits, check 4 bits, skip 4 bits,etc.
(4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15,20,21,22,23,...)
Position 8: check 8 bits, skip 8 bits, check 8 bits, skip 8bits, etc. (8-15,24-31,40-
47,...)
Position 16: check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,check 16 bits,skip 16 bits,etc.(16-31,48-
63,80-95,...)
Position 32: check 32 bits,skip 32 bits,check 32 bits,skip 32 bits,etc.(32-63,96-
127,160-191,...)
etc.
◦ Set a parity bit to 1 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is odd.
Set a parity bit to 0 if the total number of ones in the positions it checks is even.
Position of Redundancy bit in
Hamming code
Error
Error Control
Stop-and-Wait A R Q
Sliding window A R Q
 MAC
IEEE has subdivided(Project 802) the data
link layer into two sub layers:
◦ Logical Link Control
◦ Medium access control
Functions of MAC
It resolves the contention of shared media
It contains all information to move information
from one place to another
It contains the physical address of next station
to route packet.
MAC protocol are specific to LAN
 The project 802 which governs internet working. Here each
subdivision is identified by a number
802.1(internetworking)
802.2(LLC)
and MAC modules
802.3(CSMA/CD)
802.4(Tokenbus)
802.5(Tokenring)
Figure 13.1 IEEE standard for LANs
MAC protocol are specific to LAN
LAN is a Local Area Network used for
communication inside building
Protocols for LAN are,
◦ Ethernet
◦ Token Ring
◦ Token bus
◦ FDDI
 IEEE STANDARDS

Ethernet: It is a LAN protocol that is used in Bus and Star topologiesand

implements CSMA/CD as the medium access method

▪ Original (traditional) Ethernet developed in 1980 by

three companies: Digital, Intel, Xerox (DIX).

▪ In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a

project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers.
▪ Current version is called IEEE Ethernet
◦ IEEE 802.3 supports LAN standard Ethernet
◦ IEEE802.3 defines two categories
Baseband
Broadband
◦ Base band has five different category
10Base5
10Base2
10BaseT
1Base5 etc.,
◦ Broad band has a category
10Broad36
Access Method:CSMA/CD
When multiple user access the single line ,there is a
danger of signals overlapping and destroying each
other(Traffic) .such an overlap is called Collisions.
To avoid this the access method used in Ethernet is
carrier sense multiple access/collision detection
In CSMA any workstation wishing to transmit must
listen to existing traffic on the line
If no voltage is detected ,line is considered idle
CSMA cuts down the number of collisions, but cant
eliminate. Collisions still occur if both station try to
listen at a time.
Figure 13.4 802.3 MAC frame
 IEEE Ethernet
In IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Data link layer is split into two sublayers:
◦ Bottom part: MAC
The frame is called IEEE 802.3
Handles framing, MAC addressing, MediumAccess control
Specific implementation for each LAN protocol
Defines CSMA/CD as the access method for Ethernet LANs
and Token passing method for Token Ring.

Implemented in hardware
◦ Top part: LLC (Logical Link Control)
The subframe is called IEEE 802.2
Provides error and flow control if needed
It makes the MAC sublayer transparent
Allows interconnectivity between different LANs data link layers
Used to multiplex multiple network layer protocols in the data link
layer
frame
Implemented in software
Ethernet Provides Unreliable, connectionless Service
◦ Ethernet data link layer protocol provides
connectionless service to the network layer
No handshaking between sending and receiving
adapter.
◦ Ethernet protocol provides Unreliable service to the
network layer :
Receiving adapter doesn’t send ACK or NAK to
sending adapter
This means stream of datagrams passed to network
layer can have gaps (missing data)
Gaps will be filled if application is using reliable transport layer
protocol
Otherwise, application will see the gaps
 Ethernet

▪ Ethernet Frame format

FCS

FCS

Frame formats. (a) DIX Ethernet ,(b) IEEE

802.3.
Ethernet Frame
PREAMBLE
◦ 8 bytes with pattern 10101010 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates.
◦ In IEEE 802.3, eighth byte is start of frame (10101011)
Addresses: 6 bytes (explained latter)
Type (DIX)
◦ Indicates the type of the Network layer protocol being carried in the payload
(data) field, mostly IP but others may be supported such as IP (0800), Novell IPX
(8137) and AppleTalk (809B), ARP (0806) )
◦ Allow multiple network layer protocols to be supported on a single machine
(multiplexing)
◦ Its value starts at 0600h (=1536 in decimal)
Length (IEEE 802.3): number of bytes in the data field.

◦ Maximum 1500 bytes (= 05DCh)

CRC: checked at receiver, if error is detected, the frame is discarded
◦ CRC-32
Data: carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols
Pad: Zeros are added to the data field to make the minimum data length = 46 bytes
Ethernet address
▪ Six bytes = 48 bits
▪ Flat address not hierarchical
▪ Burned into the NIC ROM
▪ First three bytes from left specify the vendor. Cisco 00-00-
0C, 3Com 02-60-8C and the last 24 bit should be created
uniquely by the company
▪ Destination Address can be:
▪ Unicast: second digit from left is even (one recipient)
▪ Multicast: Second digit from left is odd (group of stations
to receive the frame – conferencing applications)
▪ Broadcast (ALL ones) (all stations receive the frame)
▪ Source address is always Unicast
Figure 13.3 Ethernet evolution through four generations
 Categories of traditional Ethernet

• <data rate><Signaling method><Max segment length or cable type>

 IEEE 802.3 Cable Types
Name Cable Max. Max Cable Nodes
Toplogy
Segment /segment
Length
10Base5 thick coax 500 meters 100
Bus

10Base2 thin coax 185 meters 30

Bus

10BaseT twisted pair 100 meters 1 Star

10BaseF Fiber Optic 2Km 1

Star
Figure 13.10 10Base5 implementation
Connection of stations to the medium using 10Base2
 10BaseT
• Uses twisted pair Cat3 cable
◼ Star-wire topology

• A hub functions as a repeater with additional functions

• Fewer cable problems, easier to troubleshoot than coax
• Cable length at most 100 meters
Figure 13.12 10Base-T implementation
Figure 13.13 10Base-F implementation
 Fast Ethernet

100 Mbps transmission rate

same frame format, media access, and collision
detection rules as 10 Mbps Ethernet
can combine 10 Mbps Ethernet and Fast Ethernet
on same network using a switch
media: twisted pair (CAT 5) or fiber optic cable
(no coax)
Star-wire topology
◦ Similar to 10BASE-T

CAT 3
CAT 5
Figure 13.19 Fast Ethernet topology
Figure 13.20 Fast Ethernet implementations
 Gigabit Ethernet

Speed 1Gpbs
Minimum frame length is 512 bytes
Operates in ful/half duplex modes mostly
full duplex
In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet,
there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable.
Figure 13.23 Gigabit Ethernet implementations
10Gbps Ethernet
◼ Maximum link distances cover 300 m to 40 km
◼ Full-duplex mode only
◼ No CSMA/CD
◼ Uses optical fiber only
◼ IEEE 802.3ae
 Token Ring
It allows each station to sent one frame
The access control mechanism used by
Ethernet is inefficient sometimes because
of collision.
It solves the collision problem by passing
token
Initially a station waits for token, if a
token is free the station may send a data
frame
 Cont..,
This frame proceeds around the ring ,being
regenerated by each station .Each station
examines the destination address finds the
frame is addressed to another station and relays
it to its neighbor.
The intended recipient recognizes its own
address and copies the message and set the
address bit
The token finally reach the sender and it
recognizes that the data is delivered through
address bit
Token is passed from NIC to NIC
Token Ring
 Token Bus
It combines the feature of token ring and
Ethernet
 FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface
• local area network protocol standardized by ANSI
• 100-Mbps token passing
• Dual-ring LAN
• A high-speed backbone technology
• High bandwidth
• Optical fiber transmission
• Allows up to 1000 stations
FDDI Architecture
 Components of FDDI
• Fiber optic cable
• A concentrator (ring)
• Stations: 2 types
• DAS (Dual Attachment Station) or Class
A:
• Connected to both the rings
• SAS (Single Attachment Station) or Class
B:
• Connected to primary ring
 FDDI Frame Format

Similar to token ring

frame
Networking and internetworking
devices:
An internet is a interconnection of
individual network. So to create a internet
we need a internetworking devices. ie)
Linking a number of LAN’s
Internet - WWW
internet-Interconnection of LAN
Why Interconnect?
• To separate / connect one corporate division with another.
• To connect two LANs with different protocols.
• To connect a LAN to the Internet.
• To break a LAN into segments to relieve traffic congestion.
• To provide a security wall between two different types ofusers.
 Connecting Devices

Internetworking
Networking Devices
Devices

Repeaters Bridges Routers Gateways

Introduction
• Many times it is necessary to connect a local area network to another local
area network or to a wide area network.
• Local area network to local area network connections are usually performed
with a bridge.
• Local area network to wide area network connections are usually performed
with a router.
• A third device, the switch, can be used to interconnect segments of a local
area network.
Connecting Devices

Hub

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25
 Repeater:
A repeater is a regenerator, not an
amplifier
A repeater installed on a link receives the
signal before it becomes too weak or
corrupted ,regenerates the original bit
pattern, and put the refreshed copy back
onto the link.
 Gateways:

A gateway is a protocol convertor.

It accepts a packet format for one
protocol(e.g., Apple Talk) and convertsi t
into a packet format for another
protocol(e.g.,TCP/IP).
A gateway

SNA network (IBM)

Netware network (Novell)

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 Bridges
Divide a large network into smaller segment
It filters the traffic . It contains logic(Bridge
table) that allows them to keep the traffic for
each segment separate.
Ie) Isolating and controlling the link problems
(e.g.congestion)
Bridges have look-up table that contains physical
address of every station connected to it.

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Bridge

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When aframe enters abridge ,itchecks the address of
the destination and forward the new copy only to the
segment to which the address which belongs
 Types
Simple
Multiport
Transparent
Remote
Source routing
 Simple Bridge
It is a less expensive type of bridge
It links 2 segments (LANS) and lists the
address of all the stations in table
included in each of them.
Here address must be entered manually.
The table is modified when stations are
added and removed.
 Multiport Bridge
It is used to connect more than two LANS.
So the bridge has 3 tables.
Here address must be entered manually
Transparent Bridge:
• A transparent or learning bridge builds its table of
station on its own (automatically).
• The table is empty when it is installed, it builds its table
when it encounters the packet for transmission. It
uses the source address for building table.
• It identifies the changes and update the table when
system moved from one station to another
Multiport bridge

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 Cont.,
Bridges are normally installed
redundantly,that is two LANS may be
connected by more than one bridge.in
this cases they may create a loop.
So packet may go round and round,It can
be avoided by algorithms like
◦ Spannig tree algorithm
◦ Source routing
Function of a bridge

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 Data Communications and Computer Networks

Remote Bridges
• A remote bridge is capable of passing a data frame
from one local area network to another when the two
LANs are separated by a long distance and there is a
wide area network connecting the two LANs.
• A remote bridge takes the frame before it leaves the
first LAN and encapsulates the WAN headers and
trailers.
• When the packet arrives at the destination remote
bridge, that bridge removes the WAN headers and
trailers leaving the original frame.
 Data Communications and Computer Networks

Switches
• A switch is a combination of a hub and a bridge (multi-
port bridge).
• It can interconnect two or more workstations, but like a
bridge, it observes traffic flow and learns.
• When a frame arrives at a switch, the switch examines the
destination address and forwards the frame out the one
necessary connection.
• Workstations that connect to a hub are on a shared
segment.
• Workstations that connect to a switch are on a switched
segment.
Wireless LANs
 LAN/WLAN World

❖ LANs provide connectivity for interconnecting

computing resources at the local levels of an
organization
❖ Wired LANs
Limitations because of physical,hard-
wired infrastructure
❖ Wireless LANs provide
Flexibility
Portability
Mobility
Ease of Installation
Wireless LAN Applications
❖ Medical Professionals
❖ Education
❖ Temporary Situations
❖ Airlines
❖ Security Staff
❖ Emergency Centers
 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
Standard
❖ Inresponse to lacking standards, IEEE
developed the first internationally
recognized wireless LAN standard – IEEE
802.11
❖ IEEE published 802.11 in 1997, after seven
years of work
❖ Scope of IEEE 802.11 is limited to Physical
and Data Link Layers.
Benefits of 802.11 Standard
❖ Appliance Interoperability
❖ Fast Product Development
❖ Stable Future Migration
❖ Price Reductions
❖ The 802.11 standard takes into account the
following significant differences between
wireless and wired LANs:
Power Management
Security
Bandwidth
 WLAN Topology
Ad-Hoc Network

The BSS without an AP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs.
they can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS.
 WLAN Topology
Infrastructure

EX: cellular network if we consider each BSS to be a cell and

each AP to be a basestation.
Basic service sets (BSSs)
 StationTypes
IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations
based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:
◦ no-transition
A station is either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS

◦ BSS-transition
station can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined
inside one ESS.

◦ and ESS-transition mobility.

A station can move from one ESS to another
collisionavoidanceCSMAICA
network allocation vector (NAV) used to
avoid collision.
◦ RTS frame includes the duration of time that it needs to occupy
the channel.
◦ stations affected by this transmission create a timer called (NAV)
◦ the network allocation vector (NAV) shows the time must pass
before these stations allowed to check the channel for idleness.
there is no mechanism for collision detection, if the
sender has not received a CTS frame from the receiver,
assumes there has been a collision ,the sender tries
again.
 BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology
designed to connect devices of different functions
such as telephones, notebooks, computers,
cameras, printers, coffee makers, and so on. A
Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which
means that the network is formed spontaneously.

Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

piconet and scatternet.
Piconet
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet, or a small net.
It can have up to eight stations, one of which is called the master; the rest
are called slaves.
Maximum of seven slaves. Only one master.
Slaves synchronize their clocks and hopping sequence with the master.
But an additional eight slaves can stay in parked state, which means they
can be synchronized with the master but cannot take part in
communication until it is moved from the parked state.
 Scatternet
Piconets can be combined to form what is called a
scatternet.
A slave station in one piconet can become the
master in another piconet.
Bluetooth devices has a built-in short-range radio
transmitter.
Bluetooth layers
Radio Layer: Roughly equivalent to physical layer of the Internet model.
Physical links can be synchronous or asynchronous.
◦ Uses Frequency-hopping spread spectrum [Changing frequency of usage].
Changes it modulation frequency 1600 times per second.
◦ Uses frequency shift keying (FSK )with Gaussian bandwidth filtering to
transform bits to a signal.
Baseband layer: Roughly equivalent to MAC sublayer in LANs. Access is
using Time Division (Time slots).
◦ Length of time slot = dwell time = 625 microsec. So, during one frequency,a
sender sends a frame to a slave,or a slave sends a frame to the master.
Time division duplexing TDMA (TDD-TDMA) is a kind of half-duplex
communication in which the slave and receiver send and receive data,but
not at the same time (half-duplex). However, the communication for each
direction uses different hops, like walkie-talkies.
Bluetooth layers
 Physical Links
Synchronous connection-oriented (SCO)
◦ Latency is important than integrity.
◦ Transmission using slots.
◦ No retransmission.
Asynchronous connectionless link (ACL)
◦ Integrity is important than latency.
◦ Does like multiple-slave communication.
◦ Retransmission is done.
L2CAP (Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol)
◦ Equivalent to LLC sublayer in LANs.
◦ Used for data exchange on ACL Link. SCO channels do not use L2CAP.
◦ Frame format has 16-bit length [Size of data coming from upper layer in bytes],
channel ID, data and control.
◦ Can do Multiplexing, segmentation and Reassembly, QoS [with no QoS, best-
effort delivery is provided] and Group mangement [Can do like multicast group,
using some kind of logical addresses].
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