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Poverty in the Midst of Affluence How Hong Kong
Mismanaged Its Prosperity Leo F. Goodstadt Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Leo F. Goodstadt
ISBN(s): 9789888208227, 9888208225
Edition: Revised Edition
File Details: PDF, 4.51 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
 Poverty 繁
in the 華
香
Midst 港
施
底
of 政 下
Affluence 失
誤
的
，
How Hong Kong 修 貧
Mismanaged Its Prosperity 訂
版 窮

REVISED EDITION

Leo F. Goodstadt
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Poverty in the Midst
of Affluence

How Hong Kong Mismanaged

Its Prosperity

Revised Edition

Leo F. Goodstadt

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Hong Kong University Press
The University of Hong Kong
Pokfulam Road
Hong Kong
www.hkupress.org

© 2013 Leo F. Goodstadt

Revised edition © 2014 Leo F. Goodstadt

ISBN 978-988-8208-22-7

All rights reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or trans-

mitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photo­
copy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the publisher.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Printed and bound by Goodrich Int’l Printing Co., Ltd. in Hong Kong, China

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Contents

Preface vii

Introduction: Pain, Panic and Poverty 1

Chapter 1 Crisis Economics: Private Profits, Public Pain 29
Chapter 2 The Business of Government: Less Politics, No Welfare 59
Chapter 3 Housing: Unending Crisis 91
Chapter 4 Social Reforms: Too Little, Too Late 115
Chapter 5 Social Reforms: The New Poverty 143
Chapter 6 The Undeserving Poor 173
Chapter 7 An Absence of Advocates: How the ‘Welfare’ 197
Lobby Lost Its Voice
Conclusions: History Repeats Itself 221

Bibliography 241
Index 267

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Preface

This book is the last of a trilogy which I have written in gratitude to the
people of Hong Kong with whom I have spent my life since 1962. The
first book, Uneasy Partners: The Conflict Between Public Interest and Private
Profit in Hong Kong, investigated the collusion and cooperation between
government and the business and professional elite. It described how
the community defeated the rampant corruption within both the public
and the private sectors. It traced the development of a political maturity
and social discipline which made Hong Kong the most stable society not
only within China but by comparison with the whole of Asia. It charted
the rise of a manufacturing sector that dominated the world’s textile
market despite decades of global protectionism. At the same time, Hong
Kong overcame ‘Cold War’ embargoes and worldwide currency controls
to provide China with an outstanding international financial centre.
The second book told a similar story of Hong Kong’s triumph over its
political and economic handicaps. Profits, Politics and Panics: Hong Kong’s
Banks and the Making of a Miracle Economy, 1935–1985 recounted how a
city ruined first by the Japanese invasion and then by the Korean War
blockade of China managed to replace its lost Mainland markets almost
overnight as its factories boosted their exports by 136 per cent a year in
the 1950s. High-speed economic growth continued in the decades that
followed, financed almost entirely by the local banking system despite
repeated bank failures, market collapses, corporate scandals, currency
crises and government mismanagement. By the end of the last century,
this talented community had won for itself a new lease of life because of
what China’s Prime Ministers in this century have described as its ‘irre-
placeable’ role in the nation’s modernisation.
Hong Kong had also emerged from the global financial crisis of
2007–09 with an enhanced reputation for financial stability and well-
regulated financial institutions. So much so that I felt obliged to inter-
rupt the trilogy to write Reluctant Regulators: How the West Created and China
Survived the Global Financial Crisis, which highlighted how impressive
Hong Kong’s recent performance has been by world banking standards.

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viii Preface

This, the final book in the trilogy, presents a very different experi-
ence of Hong Kong’s prosperity. Research into housing conditions
was what brought me to the University of Hong Kong. When I first
arrived in 1962, most families had to make their homes in housing that
was barely fit for human habitation in both the public and the private
sectors. I quickly discovered that despite the squalor and lack of ameni-
ties, people were unfailingly positive, pleasant and helpful, even in the
worst tenement slums. Streets were safe and crime was low. Adults were
clean and healthy, and schoolchildren were immaculate. There was a
confidence among ordinary men and women about finding new jobs as
old industries failed and giving their children a decent chance in life,
no matter what the shortfalls in educational and other social services.
Most striking of all was the robust confidence that political uncertainties
and economic setbacks would not halt the rise of prosperity and that the
future would be even better for the next generation.
The grounds for such optimism were highlighted by the first
Legislative Council proceedings that caught my attention that summer.
The government declared that Hong Kong had eradicated hunger
among its largely refugee population and, as a result, welfare agencies
should tell their foreign donors that food relief was no longer needed.
In 2008, history was reversed when the second Chief Executive asked the
public to support food relief programmes.
In 1962, the government was insisting that standards of public
hygiene and fire safety should be kept at the lowest possible levels for
the 580,000 people living in squatter huts in order to deter families from
leaving their filthy, overcrowded tenements and building shanties for
themselves on the hillsides. In 2011, a senior minister adopted a similar
strategy. She announced that individuals living in dangerous, dirty and
usually illegally subdivided buildings would have to put up with these
dreadful conditions: to relocate them would be to create an incentive
for other families to move into such accommodation in the hope of
being rehoused by the government.
In this century, poverty has reappeared in new forms. The supply of
public housing has shrunk, and private property prices have soared.
Access to social services has become more expensive, and their supply
has fallen far below the community’s needs. The labour force has become
even more efficient than in previous decades but earnings have failed to
match the improved productivity; and for the lower-paid workers, wages
have declined. Instead of ‘trickle down’ to the community at large from
the sustained economic growth, inequality of incomes (as measured by
the Gini Coefficient) has increased and is now among the worst in the
world.

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 Preface ix

This reversal in the fortunes of the average family demands explana-

tion. When I first came to Hong Kong, it was a model of high-speed,
sustained industrial takeoff which was unsupported by international
aid and confronted by determined efforts overseas to block the expan-
sion of Hong Kong’s exports. Half a century later, life in this world-class
economy has become harsher for the deprived, the disadvantaged and
the disabled. Destitution has reappeared, and ordinary families have
been left struggling to pay for reasonable accommodation, decent educa-
tion and proper treatment for serious illnesses. The origin of these new
hardships is to be found in the pursuit of fiscal austerity, the adoption
of business models and other misguided and misinformed government
policies and the dominant role played by business interests, this book
will show.
The investigation of Hong Kong’s ‘new poverty’ has not been com-
pletely disheartening. This book highlights how the ‘economic miracle’
that was formerly Hong Kong’s boast has been matched by a contem-
porary ‘social miracle’. The community is more stable and self-reliant
than in the previous century despite the erosion of living standards, mis-
treatment of the workforce and the government’s retreat from respon-
sibility for the community’s social wellbeing. Doctors, nurses, teachers
and social workers have managed to raise standards even after their
budgets have been squeezed and working conditions have deteriorated.
The quality of public services as a whole improved significantly in this
century despite the strains caused by the poor performance of so much
of the government’s leadership and its denigration of the civil service
and its efficiency.
‘Of all things in the world, people are the most precious,’ said Mao
Zedong in 1949, ‘as long as there are people, every kind of miracle can
be performed.’ Hong Kong’s 7 million people are very special, and they
have not yet run out of miracles. They have kept their city a haven of
hope today not just by comparison with the rest of Asia — as was the case
50 years ago — but when measured against the quality of life in most of
the world’s leading cities.
Hong Kong has been made all the more pleasant for me in the 21st
century by the kindness and hospitality which my friends and former
colleagues at the Central Policy Unit so generously offer me. Among
those I can acknowledge here with gratitude are Barry Cheung, Helen
Cheng, T. L. Tsim, Dr Rikkie Yeung, Professor Cecilia Chan and their
families who take such good care of me.
It is a pleasure to renew my thanks to Dr Christopher Munn of Hong
Kong University Press. Once again, he has been the best kind of editor:
patient, pleasant and with all the academic expertise that a book on
Hong Kong public affairs needs most.

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x Preface

Acknowledgments

In the course of writing this book, I was fortunate enough to be selected

for a substantial award from the WYNG Foundation Ltd, for which I
am most grateful. The Trustees and their team have been a constant
source of encouragement and support throughout the last two years,
which I found invaluable. I deeply appreciate the commitment which
the Foundation has shown to the needy and the vulnerable of Hong
Kong. Its ‘Poverty Project’ has been both innovative and inspirational in
raising awareness of social responsibility within the community, and I am
proud to be associated with it.
I am indebted to the Hong Kong Institute for the Humanities and
Social Sciences at the University of Hong Kong which has provided me
with generous use of its facilities. The Institute is the ideal environment
in which to do research, which enabled me to complete this volume
between October 2011 and March 2013. My special thanks are due to
the Director, Professor Angela Leung Ki Che, for all her help and for
her personal interest and kindness. I must also thank the Institute’s staff
for looking after me so patiently.
My research on the historical development of Hong Kong’s housing
programmes and its social services would have been impossible without
the assistance of the Government Records Service. The professionalism
and efficiency of Mr Bernard Hui Sung-tak and his colleagues in the
Public Records Office have provided me with an outstanding quality of
research support over many years.
I am, as always, indebted to the School of Business Studies, Trinity
College, University of Dublin, and in particular to my friend, Professor
Gerard McHugh, for their interest and encouragement, as well as for
their facilities, throughout my stays in Ireland.
None of the institutions or individuals referred to in these acknowl-
edgments has any responsibility for any part of the contents of this book
or the views which it expresses.

Hong Kong
November 2014

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Introduction: Pain, Panic and Poverty

Nothing had prepared the people of Hong Kong for the abrupt reversal
in their fortunes that was to overtake them in this century. Adversity
began with the 1997–98 Asian financial crisis but the economic
downturn did not create the calamity that followed. The worst damage
was social, where disaster was to be deep and prolonged. For the first
time in decades, poverty became widespread. The numbers of workers
who ‘despite working hard’, the government admitted, ‘consistently
cannot earn reasonable salaries to satisfy the basic needs of themselves
and their families’ was to reach almost 200,000.1
Panic and helplessness paralysed policy-makers, who were convinced
that budget austerity was the appropriate remedy despite the protracted
and unparalleled deflation that was shrinking the economy.2 By 2005,
the government reluctantly conceded that more than a million individu-
als (15 per cent of the population) were living in poverty.3 The business
and professional elite was convinced that the new poor had had only
themselves to blame. Past prosperity had ‘spoiled’ Hong Kong people
and made them unwilling to help themselves, claimed one prominent
business spokesperson.4
The average family had no escape from distress. From the 1960s, the
people of Hong Kong had been conditioned to expect that their living
standards would steadily advance, while the government — however
grudgingly, as later chapters will explain — undertook to provide public
housing, schooling, more and better medical services and a basic social
welfare programme. Above all, there were ample work opportunities,
and employment was indeed the best form of welfare. Even the older
worker and individuals with disabilities had a reasonable chance of
finding paid employment, such was the chronic labour shortage.
There had seemed every chance that this happy state of affairs would
continue, especially since China’s leaders had promised to leave Hong
Kong’s systems unchanged after 1997. With its long record of prosperity
and abundant jobs, there seemed no reason to complain that the Basic
Law — China’s constitutional blueprint for the new Special Administrative

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2 Poverty in the Midst of Affluence

Region — had made the welfare of society so subordinate to business

interests. Of the Basic Law’s 159 articles, 34 were devoted to entrenching
the pro-business, laissez-faire policies of the colonial era, together with its
financial and commercial structures. The social rights set out in the Basic
Law were far vaguer and less comprehensive than its economic prescrip-
tions. On even the most generous interpretation of the document, only
seven articles could be described as relating to the provision of social
services, while workers’ rights were referred to in another three.5 The
government-business nexus which had long ensured that official policies
did not encumber business profits remained in control. Hong Kong, it
seemed, was to be a world with little regard for welfare.
The absence of welfare suddenly began to matter in 1998. Now, for
the first time since the Japanese Occupation ended in 1945, parents
could not take it for granted that their children would enjoy better job
prospects, rising wages and more secure and rewarding careers. Younger
citizens — the ‘80s generation’ — were the best-educated in Hong
Kong’s history, according to a government-sponsored study. But they
faced worse employment opportunities, lower earnings and grimmer
lifetime prospects than any previous generation.6
There was to be no relief from the distress caused by inadequate
social services which the most vulnerable groups had to endure. By
2009, for example, some 2,700 individuals with severe physical or mental
disabilities faced an average delay of almost five years for admission to
the residential facilities which they urgently needed. The government
declined to set a target for ending these distressing waiting times.7

Government Blunders, Past and Present

The collapse of the general prosperity that the community had previ-
ously been able to take for granted had not been the inevitable conse-
quence of the Asian financial crisis. On the eve of the crisis, the economy
was not dependent on the rest of the region (excluding Japan and the
Mainland).8 Hong Kong’s economy was driven by two external trade
cycles: the North American/European Union and the Chinese Mainland.
Both were still positive, with China’s growth particularly healthy. In the
past, furthermore, Hong Kong had emerged unscathed from far worse
turmoil in the region. What made the events that followed 1997 so trau-
matic was an unhappy conjunction of adverse circumstances. As inter-
national business sentiment and investor confidence in Asia slumped,
misjudgements by the new Special Administrative Region’s government
and business leaders aggravated the liabilities accumulated through
reluctance under colonialism to finance the modernisation of Hong
Kong’s social services.

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 Introduction: Pain, Panic and Poverty 3

Business leadership
Leadership failed during the initial crisis and the decade that followed.
The first Chief Executive, Tung Chee Hwa, claimed that ruling Hong
Kong had become more difficult after colonialism ended in 1997. He
had not foreseen, he stated, that ‘social and political behaviour’ would
alter so much. The media were more difficult to manage, he went on,
while the government faced a more demanding community. He and his
team were taken by surprise and did not ‘have the necessary experience
to respond appropriately’, he confessed.9
Inexperience of public affairs was his own, crucial weakness. Tung
was a businessman whose principal achievement had been the rescue of
the family shipping firm from bankruptcy in 1986. Once owner of the
world’s biggest fleet, its debts had reached an estimated US$2.5 billion.
He saved the company through brutal cost-cutting and asset disposal,
together with substantial Mainland help.10
Tung frequently referred to his business experience as a guide to the
management of Hong Kong’s recession.11 He seemed blind to the differ-
ence between corporate and public finance. For corporations, respon-
sibility is first and foremost to the shareholders, which usually means
slashing payroll and negotiating write-offs with debtors when liquidation
threatens. Governments are different. Their duty is to protect the com-
munity, including its workers. Tung chose financial stringency, never-
theless, which matched the mindset of the entire government-business
nexus. Unfortunately, austerity budgets, civil service redundancies and
wage cuts, all aggravate deflation when an economy goes into recession,
as do constraints on social security and on the supply of social services.

Business models
Tung and the upper ranks of the civil service also believed that the
‘business model’ was the best guide to managing the public sector. From
at least 1989, senior officials in Hong Kong had been impressed by the
‘New Public Management’ philosophy which had become fashionable
worldwide.12 Posts were deleted, and an attempt was made to freeze the
overall size of the civil service.13 Despite media and business commu-
nity approbation, the colonial administration realised that there must
be limits to the concept of ‘zero growth’ for public sector employment,
which it described as ‘a severe discipline’. ‘New schools, new housing
estates, and new hospitals’ would need new staff, the Chief Secretary
pointed out, and they could only be made available under a ‘zero
growth policy’ by ‘cutting back on existing services’.14 As the drive to
adopt business values and practices within the civil service gathered

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4 Poverty in the Midst of Affluence

momentum, however, the potential constraints on the supply and the

quality of social services were increasingly disregarded. The colonial
administration became convinced that the civil service should follow the
international trend and adopt business values and practices. Consultants
were hired from the private sector in the 1990s, and their recommen-
dations on trimming staff and cutting wage costs through outsourcing
and privatisation were warmly embraced by the Housing and the Social
Welfare Departments, among others.15 These initiatives were endorsed by
Christopher (later Lord) Patten, the last colonial Governor, despite his
reputation as a welfare populist. He was, after all, a former Conservative
Cabinet Minister under Margaret Thatcher who had been a leading
proponent of public sector reform through learning from business. The
measures taken to promote a business-based culture at the end of the
colonial era laid the foundations for the drastic changes in policy which
Tung and his senior officials imposed on public housing and the social
services at the beginning of this century.
Financial savings achieved through cutting staff were seen as the
acid test of the new efficiency. The social services were to suffer heavily
because health, education and welfare are all labour-intensive. Once
staff were laid off, social services programmes lost momentum because
government departments were now operating with the minimum per-
sonnel to maintain existing services. They had little scope for expan-
sion, although social services were the government programmes most
needed by the community during the economic turndown. There was
a constant temptation, too, to cut back on staff not directly involved
in delivering current services — quality control and forward planning,
for example — with damaging consequences for the future. Long-term
targets to end shortfalls in existing programmes were no longer set.
Potential gaps between the supply of services and current and future
needs were not quantified. Finance was allocated on a short-term basis,
which disrupted the organisation of programmes to build new premises,
train more professional staff and modernise existing facilities.16
Little attention was paid to evidence that the business model was no
panacea. For example, in 1995, the Housing Authority had switched
from using a professional fee scale in negotiating contracts to a form of
competitive tendering. Henceforward, contracts were approved ‘even if
the tender prices were considered too low for the works required’. The
justification offered by officials was that ‘tenderers might have their own
way to make their tenders financially viable’. In reality, there was no way
to make an honest profit, and malpractice mushroomed as a result.17
No part of the administrative machine seemed safe, not even its statis-
tics, the raw material of policy-making. Allegations surfaced in 2013 that
over the previous ten years, Census and Statistics Department personnel

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 Introduction: Pain, Panic and Poverty 5

had been fabricating survey data.18 A subsequent investigation revealed

that as the government’s demand for more economic and social data
increased in this century, staff resources did not rise in tandem. In
2003, the dedicated fieldwork team for a key survey programme had
been disbanded as part of a campaign to increase management flex-
ibility and enhance productivity. Statistical staff stated that this and
similar ‘efficiency’ measures had jeopardised the quality of the informa-
tion collected. Increased workloads and the employment of temporary
personnel were identified as other threats to maintaining professional
statistical standards.19

Past neglect
The crisis faced by Tung and his team was worsened by past complacency
on the part of the colonial administration and its collaborators among the
business and professional elite before 1997. During the previous decades
of unbroken economic growth and a constant shortage of workers,
Hong Kong had deliberately delayed investment in social development.
Immigrants, reared and educated on the Mainland, had finished their
schooling before they arrived. These young people needed little medical
care and could tolerate miserable living quarters. As for Hong Kong’s
own youngsters, unqualified teachers and inferior school facilities had
seemed no great handicap. Demand for workers remained intense,
and labour productivity rose year after year. Employers themselves were
opposed to free, compulsory education, Chapter 4 will explain.
Before the ‘one-child’ family became the Hong Kong norm in this
century, households were big enough to be able to operate as largely
self-sufficient economic units. They could pool incomes and savings to
start small enterprises, to raise a mortgage or to cover the medical and
other costs of life’s accidents. The sort of social insurance common in
other advanced economies to provide retirement, unemployment and
sickness benefits seemed unnecessary. The average household size has
now fallen to below three, and life spans have grown longer. The family’s
traditional self-reliance has gone. The people of Hong Kong now face
the bills for social insurance that have been long postponed.
The unemployment created by the recession that began in 1997 dras-
tically reduced the jobs available for the older and the poorly educated
worker. Claims on the non-contributory, tax-financed social security
system rose sharply. At the same time, Hong Kong’s ageing population
became a challenge that could no longer be ignored. Facilities for the
elderly and the disabled were already inadequate, and the government
took fright at the potential costs of making good the past under-spend-
ing on medical and welfare facilities. The caring professions were left

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6 Poverty in the Midst of Affluence

to struggle to overcome the shortfalls, while the government rationed

access to services through waiting lists and increased charges.

A New Poverty
A new era had started, and with it came a new kind of poverty. Earnings
and incomes were no longer buoyant, in contrast to the 1980s and 1990s,
which have been depicted as a golden era for the workforce.20 In 2010,
the average household income of HK$18,000 a month was no higher
than it had been in 2000. The lowest-income groups fared worst, and
the number of households with less than HK$6,000 a month rose from
13 per cent to 17 per cent of the total. Employees did not deserve this
treatment. Their efficiency had continued to improve despite the lack of
monetary incentives. Between 2002 and 2011, labour productivity rose
by 3.4 per cent a year, faster than Singapore (2.4 per cent), the United
States (1.4 per cent) and Germany (0.8 per cent).21
The new poverty brought unfamiliar hardships for the average house-
hold. The wellbeing of families that hitherto had been financially secure
was now in jeopardy. Earnings stagnated, hours of work grew longer and
job prospects were uncertain. The supply of public housing was slashed,
and private sector prices surged. The pressures on the typical family’s
budget intensified as hospital charges and school and university fees
were increased. For most families, the situation was uncomfortable but
not unbearable if they scrimped and saved.
Some, however, were in imminent danger of impoverishment (as
Chapter 5 will explain in detail). The government’s efforts to limit
Hospital Authority spending and to push patients towards the private
sector meant that for families with a seriously ill relative, there was an
agonising dilemma. Even a comfortably-off family could be driven heavily
into debt in a bid to ensure immediate diagnosis and care for a relative
in a private hospital rather than queuing in the public sector when a life-
threatening illness was suspected. A family could also impoverish itself
through buying the drugs of choice for cancer and other illnesses when
these were rationed by price in the public sector. Less heart-breaking
but still distressing were the choices to be made about education by
families with limited incomes. How could parents afford the fees for the
better schools or for university or other post-secondary courses when
the annual charges per student could amount to the equivalent of four
months’ earnings for the average employee? Government loans were
available, but the worsening career prospects of new graduates and
school-leavers made their repayment an intimidating burden.
There was another category of victim whose financial and physical
distress was intensified by official policies. In the drive to imitate business

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 Introduction: Pain, Panic and Poverty 7

and to achieve ‘value for money’, programmes for the most vulnerable
groups lagged well behind demand for their facilities. Waiting times
remained scandalously long in almost every sector, no matter how small
the numbers to be cared for or how difficult it was for them to survive
without residential or other essential facilities. Age made no difference:
pre-school children with disabilities and elderly people with dementia
waited and suffered, as this book later explains in detail.
The distress for the families affected was aggravated in this century
because it became an article of faith that ‘welfare’ was unaffordable. The
government refused to make specific commitments for the solution of
shortfalls and the improvement of facilities. And there was no escape
from the government’s demeaning message: only the destitute should
have any right to public services. Everyone else should be self-support-
ing, both as an individual and as a member of a ‘Confucian’ family unit.

Blaming the Victims

Life was made harsher for the average family principally because of
policy decisions made by officials who closed their eyes to the grim con-
sequences for the community at large. Tung Chee Hwa suggested that
Hong Kong had brought financial disaster on itself. For many years, he
declared, Hong Kong had lived in ‘a bubble economy’. His government
started to preach financial stringency, which intensified the deflation.
‘The bubble needed correction and it’s now being corrected,’ was his
standard message, ‘[o]f course there is government sympathy for those
people who will be unemployed in the near future, and of course it’s
all part of the fortunes we have to go through,’ he said.22 He had little
practical comfort to offer. ‘What we had to do,’ the Chief Executive later
explained, ‘was make our people accept the inevitability of the need for
the adjustment, however painful it might be.’23
As his government failed to halt the decline in the community’s
wellbeing, he pleaded his helplessness in the face of external forces.
‘Globalisation has aggravated poverty generally in many places around
the world and we are no exception,’ Tung complained in 2004. His
remedy was a suggestion that those in need could rescue themselves
from poverty.24 His social policy innovations sounded remote from the
painful realities of everyday life. He was determined, for example, to
resurrect elitism long ‘trodden down in thoughtless media vilification’,
he complained. He chose as a major goal of his education plans at the
height of the recession the establishment of ‘more private schools to
meet the diverse quality needs of different parents and students’.25
The second Chief Executive, Donald Tsang Yam-kuen, was also
ready to leave those in need to solve their own problems because he

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8 Poverty in the Midst of Affluence

was opposed to ‘assisting the poor by giving them financial assistance’.26

While Tsang was emphatically denying the government’s ability to relieve
poverty, the unequal distribution of wealth in Hong Kong was described
as ‘the worst among developed nations’. Its extraordinary record of
economic growth had not eradicated poverty but, rather, appeared to
have widened the gap between rich and poor.27
Those in power were reluctant to accept that in Hong Kong, poverty
was not a social failing which could be remedied by moral encourage-
ment or by learning to be enterprising. ‘The idea of “aid for the poor”
is not relevant to Hong Kong, which is an affluent society whose annual
GDP per head is US$24,000,’ a leading business daily declared.28
The community at large was discouraged from regarding the poor as
‘deserving’ in any way. Poverty was depicted as an imported contagion
and an almost genetic condition. Hong Kong could not expect to be
any different from other international financial centres like New York,
London and Tokyo, Tsang insisted, where the gaps between rich and
poor are also large. ‘The wealthiest people are gathered in such cities,’
he asserted, ‘but the poorest people also make their way to such cities.’
Tsang was adamant that attempts to close the gap were bound to do
more harm than good.29
The third Chief Executive, Leung Chun-ying, attempted to redirect
this debate over the gap between rich and poor and focus it, instead,
on the hardships inflicted by poverty. The wealth gap itself was not the
issue, he stated, and his concern was with ‘the living conditions of the
lower strata of society’.30 Despite the rhetoric, he did not break with his
predecessors’ misgivings about spending on social services. Leung took
care to allay potential anxiety among the business community about
social expenditure. The wealth gap had widened dramatically in the 12
years from 1997, he pointed out to a business forum.
. . . the income of the group having the highest 10 per cent per
capita household income increased by 64.7 per cent, while the
income of the group having the lowest 10 per cent per capita house-
hold income dropped by 22 per cent.

Nevertheless, his administration would not adopt radical remedies to

reverse this trend, he promised his business audience. ‘Many see redis-
tribution and not economic growth as the only way to move forward,’ he
said. His own conviction, he frankly stated, was that redistribution ‘could
be the major obstacle to our pro-growth policies’.31 The traditional gov-
ernment-business nexus remained intact. As a result, when faced with
official statistics that showed how many ‘grass-roots workers’ and their
families could barely survive on the wages they earned, Leung’s solution
was to provide an indirect subsidy for employers. A statutory minimum

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 Introduction: Pain, Panic and Poverty 9

wage law had been introduced in 2011. Leung chose not to use this prac-
tical solution to protect the earnings of the lowest paid workers. It was
important, he said, to avoid ‘distorting the labour market’. Instead, he
allocated HK$3 billion for a ‘Low-Income Working Family Allowance’
scheme to encourage workers to stay in their jobs even when employers
did not pay a living wage. The average cash benefit which each of the
710,000 members of these low-income families would receive was the
unimpressive monthly sum of HK$352.32
A peculiarity of contemporary Hong Kong is the narrow view which
Hong Kong’s rulers have taken of poverty. The poor have been seen,
almost entirely, as an economic problem: unemployment or low-paid
jobs prevented them from being financially self-supporting.33 A 2013
Commission on Poverty summit was told that ‘providing work incen-
tives should be the principal policy direction for poverty alleviation’.34
The government, therefore, almost always made ‘economic growth’ ‘the
key to tackling poverty’ through creating more work opportunities.35
Leung bracketed a fall in the number of Comprehensive Social Security
Assistance (CSSA) recipients with a rise in GDP as a leading indicator of
economic wellbeing.36 Yet, the jobless have represented only a small pro-
portion of those in financial need. For them, the CSSA scheme provided
subsistence support until their employment situation improved (as
Chapter 6 will show). Far more numerous were the elderly and those
with disabilities. These could never become self-supporting, so there was
no ‘cure’ for their poverty. The government ignored the fact that their
lives could not be made tolerable by social security benefits alone. They
needed healthcare, special housing and, often, residential services in
order to live as free as possible from mental and physical distress. But
these were programmes to which the government, this book will demon-
strate, was reluctant to commit adequate resources.37
The refusal of those in power to recognise how a new poverty was
being created through service shortfalls was highlighted by the third
Chief Executive’s decision to revive his predecessor’s Commission on
Poverty. Its members were advised to accept ‘the findings of local aca-
demics’ who had produced a vaguely worded definition of the primary
causes of poverty: ‘structure, system, culture, and personal and socio-
economic status’. The Commission’s agenda would be ‘to mitigate
causes of poverty and promote upward social mobility of the grass
roots’ even though, this book will show, the inadequate supply of
government services is the primary cause of poverty in contemporary
Hong Kong.38

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10 Poverty in the Midst of Affluence

A Siege Mentality
The retreat from social responsibilities and the pursuit of budget cuts
were not forced on Hong Kong by falling tax revenues and fiscal crises.
The public sector’s finances were more than adequate. By 2011, the gov-
ernment had accumulated net assets that totalled HK$1.4 trillion. Yet,
in the government’s long-standing campaign to reject all but a minimal
obligation to those in need, it did not shrink from fomenting public
prejudice against social expenditure. To alarm the better-off, officials
claimed that a commitment to improved social security benefits would
be beyond the Hong Kong’s financial resources and could lead to
budget deficits.39 ‘Welfare-based relief measures on a long-term basis’, it
was alleged, would lead to changes in Hong Kong’s low-tax regime.40 All
governments, the second Chief Executive declared, face unaffordable
‘public pressure to spend more, on welfare, on spending on education, a
whole range of services’ which must be resisted. As evidence, he invoked
the fiscal challenges of ‘Western Europe’.41 These, in fact, were the
outcome of a failure to regulate financial markets effectively. (Canada
and Australia provide generous social services but had escaped finan-
cial disaster in the 2007–09 global financial crisis because their banking
regulation before 2007 — like Hong Kong — had been vigorous.)
Austerity was not imposed on government spending by deteriorating
business conditions. On the contrary, the economy proved remarkably
robust, and GDP was 47 per cent higher in 2012 than it had been at
the start of the century. Hong Kong was ranked fifth after New York,
London, Paris and Tokyo as an international business centre by a well-
known global survey in the same year. Singapore was listed in eleventh
place, with Beijing and Shanghai even lower.42 Nevertheless, there were
constant predictions that a resurgent Shanghai would render Hong
Kong redundant, even though China’s leaders repeatedly insisted that
Hong Kong retained an ‘irreplaceable’ role in the nation’s economy.
For example, Prime Minister Li Keqiang declared that as ‘an interna-
tional free port city and a major financial, trade and shipping center,
Hong Kong is one of the world’s most open, vibrant and competitive
economies’. It was ‘China’s need,’ he acknowledged, ‘that Hong Kong
continues to bring out the unique advantages it has developed over the
years and play its irreplaceable role in the mainland’s reform, opening-
up and modernization drive.’43 Such accolades were justified by Hong
Kong’s astounding performance in providing half the total foreign
direct investment for China’s modernisation since 1978 as well as by its
achievements as an international financial centre.
With a record of unbroken annual GDP growth, which averaged 7.5
per cent from 1961 to 1997, Hong Kong seemed to have an inexhaustible

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 Ethics - Complete Guide
Spring 2025 - College

Prepared by: Professor Brown

Date: July 28, 2025

Section 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 7: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 8: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 9: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
References 2: Study tips and learning strategies
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Quiz 3: Learning outcomes and objectives
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 22: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 23: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 25: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 27: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 4: Learning outcomes and objectives
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 33: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 34: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 38: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Exercise 5: Experimental procedures and results
Example 40: Case studies and real-world applications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 41: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 45: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 6: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 56: Experimental procedures and results
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 58: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Topic 7: Learning outcomes and objectives
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 62: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 69: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 8: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 71: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 77: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Background 9: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 80: Experimental procedures and results
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 81: Best practices and recommendations
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 85: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 10: Research findings and conclusions
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 91: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 94: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 97: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Test 11: Ethical considerations and implications
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 102: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 103: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 104: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Unit 12: Learning outcomes and objectives
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 113: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 113: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 117: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 118: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 119: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 13: Learning outcomes and objectives
Practice Problem 120: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 122: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 129: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 130: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Module 14: Critical analysis and evaluation
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 136: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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