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Transport Environment and Society Introducing Social
Policy 1st Edition Michael Cahill Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Michael Cahill
ISBN(s): 9780335239276, 0335239277
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 2.75 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
Transport, Environment
and Society
INTRODUCING SOCIAL POLICY
Series Editor: David Gladstone

Published Titles
Race and Education: Policy and Politics
Sally Tomlinson
Revisiting the Welfare State
Robert Page
Drugs: Policy and Politics
Rhidian Hughes, Rachel Lart and Paul Higate (eds)
Reconceptualizing Social Policy: Sociological Perspectives on
Contemporary Social Policy
Amanda Coffey
Social Security and Welfare: Concepts and Comparisons
Robert Walker
Perspectives on Welfare
Alan Deacon
Risk, Social Policy and Welfare
Hazel Kemshall
Comparative Social Policy
Patricia Kennett
Education in a Post-Welfare Society
Sally Tomlinson
Parents, Children, Young People and the State
Sandra Shaw
Transport, Environment and Society
Michael Cahill
Transport, Environment
and Society

Michael Cahill
Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL

email: [email protected]
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA

First published 2010

Copyright © Michael Cahill

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the
purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher or a
licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited. Details of such
licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained from the
Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street,
London, EC1N 8TS.

A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN13: 978 0 335 21872 1 (pb) 978 0 335 21873 8 (hb)

ISBN10: 0 335 21872 5 (pb) 0 335 21873 3 (hb)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data has been applied for

Typeset by RefineCatch Ltd, Bungay, Suffolk

Printed in the UK by Bell and Bain Ltd, Glasgow
For Daniel and Oliver, Joe, Ben and Chloë, Thomas and Grace
Contents

List of boxes x
List of figures and tables xi
Series editor’s foreword xiii
Acknowledgements xv

1 Connections: transport, environment and social policy 1

Mobility 2
Time and motion 2
Social policy and transport 3
Environmental impacts of transport 5
Accessibility 8
From cradle to grave: structure and organization of the book 10
Further reading 14

2 Policies, politics and protests 15

Central government 16
The Treasury 18
Local authorities 19
Regional government 22
EU transport policy 22
Transport policy making 24
Protest and pressure groups 27
Conclusion 29
Further reading 30

3 From public to private transport 31

Public transport 32
viii Contents

The power of the car 35

The emergence of the car 37
Conceptualizing the car 38
Mobilities 39
Carless or car free? 42
Privatization of lifestyles 43
Cars and the city 44
The future: post car or new car? 45
Further reading 46

4 Life and death 47

Obesity 47
Obesogenic environments 49
Physical activity and government policy 51
Air quality 53
Road deaths and serious injuries 55
Road safety or road danger? 56
Who dies? 59
Walking 60
Cycling 63
Transport and health 64

5 Drivers: men, women and transport 66

Men and cars 67
Women and cars 69
Consumption and the car 70
Women with cars and women without cars 72
Women in transport 73
Women and public transport 74
Cars and caring 75
Men, women and public spaces 76
Further reading 77

6 Non-drivers 78
Social exclusion and transport 80
Time 84
Let them learn to drive 85
Walking, but where to? 85
Community: access and keeping in touch 87
Accessibility planning 88
Social exclusion and transport in rural areas 89
Community care 89
Conclusion 90
Further reading 91
 Contents ix

7 Childhood 92
Play: its importance for a child’s development 93
The lost world of the child friendly environment 94
Child health 96
The decline in physical activity 98
Risk and fear 100
Home Zones 102
Transport policy for children 102
Further reading 104

8 Disability 105
Disability and the car system 106
Public space 109
Disability created by the car system 110
Public transport 111
Mobility benefits 113
An inclusive transport system 114

9 Older people 116

Public transport 119
Community transport 120
Walking 121
Quality of life 123

10 Well connected: sustainable transport and social policy 124

Sustainable transport 125
Climate change and transport policy 126
Walking 133
Cycling 135
Public transport 137
Transport is social policy 138
Citizenship 139
Social justice 140
Further reading 143
Bibliography 144
Index 157
Boxes

Box 1.1 Nussbaum’s list of functionings 10

Box 2.1 Department for Transport strategic objectives 17
Box 2.2 Local transport plans 20
Box 2.3 UK transport policy time chart, 1998–2007 24
Box 4.1 Health benefits of regular physical activity 50
Box 4.2 Road crashes 55
Box 4.3 Walkability 62
Box 6.1 Five key barriers to accessing services 83
Box 6.2 Transport poverty 84
Box 6.3 Accessibility indicators 88
Box 9.1 ‘Bus is attacked by 30 yobs’ 121
Box 10.1 Department for Transport’s five goals 125
Box 10.2 Smarter choices/soft measures 127
Box 10.3 What is eco-driving? 130
Box 10.4 Sustainability benefits from cycling 136
Figures and tables

Figure 3.1 Passenger travel by mode, Great Britain, 1952–2006 33

Figure 3.2 Household access to a car, Great Britain, 1980–2006 35
Figure 4.1 People killed or seriously injured in road accidents,
Great Britain, 1980–2007 56
Figure 4.2 Road casualties, Great Britain, 1980–2007 57
Figure 6.1 Mobility continuum 79

Table 4.1 Health effects of air pollutants from vehicles 53

Table 4.2 Transport measures to reduce air pollutants from
vehicles 54
Table 4.3 Average chance of surviving a collision if you are
struck by a car while walking or cycling 59
Table 6.1 Use of mode by income quintile: percentage
of total trips by mode 86
Table 8.1 The 20 leading non-fatal injuries sustained as a
result of road traffic collisions, world, 2002 111
Series editor’s foreword

Welcome to the eleventh volume in the Introducing Social Policy series. The
series itself is designed to provide a range of well informed texts on a variety
of topics that fall within the ambit of social policy studies.
Although primarily designed with undergraduate social policy students in
mind, it is hoped that the series – and individual titles within it – will have a
wider appeal to students in other social science disciplines and to those
engaged on professional and post-qualifying courses in health care and
social welfare.
The aim throughout the planning of the series has been to produce a series
of texts that both reflect and contribute to contemporary thinking and
scholarship, and which present their discussion in a readable and easily
accessible format.
Reading Michael Cahill’s book reminded me of a conversation I had
about twenty years ago with a lady in a Devon village. Then aged 90, the
furthest she had travelled during her long life was to Exeter, a distance of
about 25 miles. Even then, her experience was singular, even unique: for it is
mobility that has become the defining characteristic of the past half century.
The dramatic rise in car ownership, the transportation of goods by road, as
well as the availability of cheap air travel in an increasingly competitive
market, have all created the means for the taken-for-granted movement
from place to place that has transformed the lived experience of people in
countries worldwide.
It is the growth in road transport – especially the car – which is central to
this timely and important study. In it Michael Cahill develops ideas he first
outlined in The New Social Policy published over a decade ago. Over the
past fifty years the transition from public to private transport has not only
transformed the lives of those who drive and use a car, in convenience,
accessibility and opportunity, it has also had a significant impact on our
xiv Series editor’s foreword

built environment in terms of land-use planning, urban design and com-

munity living. But there are other consequences of this transport revolution:
not least in terms of ill-health and obesity, disabling traffic accidents, the
social exclusion of non-drivers and the impact on disabled and older people
of a reduced and restricted system of public transport. The balance sheet,
of course, has also to be set within the parameters of public policy and
against the mounting environmental concern with carbon emissions, which
are generated especially by the transport sector.
In Transport, Environment and Society, Michael Cahill takes us well
beyond social policy’s traditional preoccupation with the ‘five giants’ of the
classic welfare state, and makes a stimulating contribution to a broader
understanding of welfare as well-being. In that sense, too, as well as the
subject matter of his book, it is a tract for the times.
David Gladstone
University of Bristol
Acknowledgements

I first discussed many of the issues which surround the car in the 1960s and
1970s with my father who, as an ex-cyclist, was saddened and angry at what
planners were doing to the city of Portsmouth to accommodate the car. Our
discussions enabled me to see from my teenage years the damage that cars
do to the environment and society.
Since we first met in 1986 my wife Vanessa Cahill has put up with far too
many conversations about the car and society. Without her willingness to
read successive drafts this would be a poorer text. It would also not be as
informed, as she has given me many examples from her professional practice
as a social worker with older and disabled people.
Thanks to the following who have read and commented upon various
chapters: Maria Antoniou, Derrick Coffee, Ben Fincham, Stephanie
Fleischer, Lesley Murray, Graham Sharp.
I was able to complete the book with the help of the School of Applied
Social Science, University of Brighton who awarded me a sabbatical
semester. I am also indebted to the inter-library loans staff at the University’s
Falmer library, and to Kimberley Gray and Toby Leyton for their help.
David Gladstone has been an admirable editor, patient and supportive
throughout.
In a book of this kind, drawing on many sources, there are bound to be
some errors and inaccuracies for which I apologize in advance.
Michael Cahill
Connections: transport, environment
and social policy

It has been my experience that students of social science are not attracted to
the topic of transport. Why that it is the case I am not actually sure. Perhaps
it conjures up pictures of an obsession with engines, the Highway Code and
trainspotting? To dismiss such an interest as nerdiness ignores the fact that
engineering is vital for the running of a modern society, traffic requires rules
and regulations and, yes, for many people there is a fascination in watching
railway engines. This book, however, is about the human consequences of
our transport system, with chapters on stages in the life course, from child-
hood to old age, relating to the transport system and questions of mobility.
The car is the focus of the book because it has transformed social life and
our environment and society over the past half century in a way that no other
transport technology has. Transport is interpreted broadly and includes
walking as well as movement in and by machines, be they bicycles, buses,
trains, cars or planes. Discussion of the environment in this book relates to
the local environment so that long-distance transport is not covered here.
The connections between transport and social policy are explored through
an examination of the social implications of the way in which transport is
organized and the transport implications of the way in which social policy is
organized. The book explores the social and environmental implications of
transport policy and transport choices.
Transport is an essential component of a modern economy and society
where goods have to be moved and people need to travel. Economies based
on exporting and importing goods are reliant on systems of transportation
which are an important part of the infrastructure of society. Trading has
been a feature of civilizations for millennia but there has never been so much
trade, travel and mobility as in the contemporary world. In rich world soci-
eties social life is premised on the assumption of mobility – to meet one
another, to go to work, to shop, to go on holiday. Transport technology has
2 Transport, Environment and Society

had a considerable impact over the past century on the economy and society.
The invention of the internal combustion engine at the end of the nineteenth
century was to have incalculable economic, environmental and social con-
sequences. As has the invention of the jet engine, a product of the 1930s,
which meant that by the late twentieth century air transport was a key factor
in the emergence of a global society.

Mobility

Mobility – the ability to travel, to move from place to place – is a taken-for-

granted aspect of contemporary society where it can be as commonplace as
the journey to work or as exotic as a holiday in the Seychelles.
Greatly increased personal mobility is conventionally seen as a form of
liberation, of release from the boundaries of place and an exercise of personal
freedom which adds to international understanding as well as individual
happiness. In the contemporary world, mobility is all-pervasive, it is routine
for large numbers of people to travel to other countries for business or
holidays, while economic migrants travel in search of work.
Mobility has a positive connotation: many people speak of being ‘free
to move’ and delight in the freedom that certain forms of transport – pre-
eminently cars – give them. To move is an achievement: a toddler’s first steps
are a milestone in his or her development. Similarly, in old age the inability
to walk or to get out of one’s chair unaided are signs of physical decline. But
we can also be mobile without moving our bodies – the telephone and the
computer enable communication across the globe. Technological advances
mean that mobile phones together with other aspects of information and
communication technology (ICT) give certain office workers the ability to
work away from the office – whether they are travelling on a train or staying
at a hotel or working from home. We live in an era in which ICT has
transformed daily life: ‘virtual mobility’ has arrived, as many journeys are
now redundant because of the use of computers linked to the Internet. It is
now possible for people in different countries to communicate and send
documents easily using the World Wide Web. This has the potential to
reduce travelling and to reduce the number of journeys, which are thought
necessary. As the world takes carbon reduction more seriously then we can
expect that much more extensive use will be made of this technology.

Time and motion

One of the remarkable features of the contemporary world is the way in

which time has been ‘compressed’ along with space. Distances have been
reduced because of developments in technology which have made travelling
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Learning Objective 1: Ethical considerations and implications
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 2: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Ethical considerations and implications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 6: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 9: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 11: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 12: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 13: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 14: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 17: Practical applications and examples
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Background 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Remember: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 21: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 22: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Lesson 4: Interdisciplinary approaches
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 31: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 32: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 34: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 35: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Background 5: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 41: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 42: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 43: Historical development and evolution
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 44: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 49: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Methodology 6: Ethical considerations and implications
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 51: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 53: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 55: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 56: Practical applications and examples
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 59: Key terms and definitions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Background 7: Fundamental concepts and principles
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 61: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 61: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 63: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 64: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 64: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 65: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
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